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General
Biology II
Classification
By:
Aldren R. Beliber Jr.
Aristotle’s System of Classification Samantha P.
Aceron
Stem- Magaling
Classification- is the process of arranging objects, ideas or information into groups based
on shared characteristics or criteria.
Carolus Linnaeus- is a Swedish naturalist, who built upon the work of Aristotle and
developed the first formal and scientific system of classification.
Biologists use scientific names mainly to avoid confusion with common names.
Scientific name is the genus name and not the species name, which vividly
describes the characteristics of an organism.
Writing scientific names:
1. The first letter of the genus name is capitalized but the species name begins with
a small letter.
2. If printed to books or magazines, both names are italicized
3. If handwritten, both names should be underlined.
4. After the scientific name has been written in full, the genus name may be
abbreviated to the first letter in the succeeding citations. For example, the
scientific name of domesticated dog, which is Canisfamiliaris can be written as C.
familiaris.
Each organism has only one scientific name.
No two organisms have the same scientific name.
The scientific names are stable and unchanging
It also reflects the way the organism is classified.
Species- is the smallest and the most basic unit or category of classification.
Genus- (plural, genera) is defined as a group of species that shares a common
ancestor.
Family- consists of related genera
Order- consists of related families.
Class- consists of related orders.
Phylum- consists of related classes, and in more traditional classification is
composed of related phylum (plural, phyla) or division.
Domain- becomes the broadest taxa or taxonomic category, which contains
related kingdoms.
1. Typological species concept- This species concept traces its roots to the philosophy of Plato.
It is based on the idea that each species is a distinct group of organisms that shares certain
characteristics, which distinguish them from other species.
2. Biological species concept- This species concept came from the definition of two
evolutionary biologists, Theodosius Dobzhansky in the 1930s and Ernst Mayr in the 1940s.
According to Dobzhansky and Mayr, a species is a group of organisms that are able to
interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
3. Evolutionary species concept- A species is a single lineage of ancestor descendant sequence
of population with distinct identity and evolutionary tendencies.
4. Phylogenetic species concept- This species concept was developed from the evolutionary
species concept which defines a species as a cluster of organisms that are distinct from other
cluster organisms.
Two major factors have had a major effect on the classification system
1. Introduction of the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin
2. Advancement in technology
Modern Classification System- based on a variety of techniques that compare DNA sequences in
assessing evolutionary relationships.
Ernst Haeckel- Proposed a third kingdom, which he called protista. The kingdom include not
just bacteria but all unicellular organisms.
Edouard Chatton- a French marine biologist, introduced the terms prokaryotes and
eukaryotes in 1937. He defined prokaryotes as organisms without a distinct nucleus (plural
nuclei) inside their cells ad eukaryotes as organisms with a distinct nucleus inside their cells.
Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes were then placed under Kingdom Protista.
Herbert Copeland-
Two empires or superkingdoms, namely, Prokaryota, which includes Monerans, and , and
Eukaryota, which includes Protista, Plantae and Animalia.
Robert Whittaker- proposed a fifth kingdom called Fungi. Kingdom Fungi included mushrooms,
yeasts, and molds.
Carl Woose- proposed the division of Prokaryota into Eubacteria and Archaebacteria.
1. Domain Bacteria- This group includes all prokaryotic, single-celled bacteria whose cell
walls are composed of a polysaccharide called peptidoglycan. The kingdom under this domain
is the Eubacteria, which is also known as the true bacteria. Members of this group are so diverse
that they can survive different environmental conditions.
Archaea- are said to be extreme thermopiles because of their ability to survive in extreme
environmental conditions. The kingdom under this domain is the Archaebacteria.
3. Domain Eukarya- The main characteristics of the members of this group is the presence of
membrane- bound nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. All members of this group
are called eukaryotes. This domain includes K ingdom Protista, Kingdom Fungi, Kingdom Plantae,
and Kingdom Animalia.
Basis of Classification- Scientists are able to infer phylogenies based on the heritable characters
of organisms, which include morphological and molecular data.
Morphological and Biochemical traits- organisms are compared based on similar characters.
Characters are inherited features that vary among species.
Homologous structures- are body parts that are similar in structure but may have different
functions.
Morphological divergence- different forms of body parts that emerged from the ancestral form
resulted in an evolutionary pattern.
Analogous structure- may have similar functions but are of different morphological construction.
Morphological convergence- structure that eventually take similar form because of comparable
environmental stresses result in an evolutionary pattern.
Phlyogenetic Tree- illustrate how related organisms evolved from a common descent based on
the best reliable evidences.
Ancestral characters- found within the entire lineage of descent of a group of organisms.
Derived characters- found in members of one group but not in the common ancestor.
Clade- branch of cladogram with a common ancestor and all the descendants.
Evolution - change to the genetic composition; gradual process of change over a period of time.
FOSSIL STUDIES
Radiometric dating – used to estimate the age of specimen through the fixed decay rate of
radioactive isotopes.
Concepts of Evolution
Principle of Uniformitarianism
Charles Darwin “On the origin of Species” – described the process of evolution as descent
with modification
Mechanisms of evolution
The genetic makeup consisting of every type of allele in all the members of a population
over time due to chance
Beetle
Natural Selection
Survival of the fittest
Strongest force of evolution
Happens when the relative fitness of interacting species in an ecosystem significantly
differs
Fitness - is the measure of the genetic contribution of a particular species to the next
generation; the rate of survival of a species and its fertility index
Sickle anemia – where a mutation causes RBC to appear sickle-shaped
Artificial Selection- driven by propagation
Evidence of Evolution
Fossil records – useful sources; show that many extinct organisms were different from chose that
exists today
Comparative anatomy – similarity in the bones, wings and arm suggests a common evolutionary
origin
Genetic Data - provide insight into the evolution of organism as they are used to present gene
trees
Geographical distribution - organisms that have similar characteristic may be found in different
continents