13 - Chapter 2

Chapter No.
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 Introduction:-
India is the largest producer of sugar in the world & sugar industry is the second
largest manufacturing industry in India & by 2010 the sugar production will reach to 350
to 380 million tones & occupy the top rank in the world.
However at present the sugar industry is facing many problems due to government
policy; over heads, lower end technical staff, high cost of modernization/replacement of
plant, unskilled & untrained workers at maintenance, assembling & operation, most of the
decision of changing machinery/process are based on experience & thumb rules. No
accountability to every section for their performance; also every failure is taken very
lightly & no diagnostic analysis or preventive measure are taken after words. This leads to
high expenditure cost on production. The institute like VSI & NSI is used for approving &
recommending the financial proposal for modernization & very less for research work.
I
Therefore it is essential to find out the problems of sugar industry to suggest the
remedial measure by way of preventive & post analysis. Presently the thumb rule,
collected data and mathematical analysis is in practice to solve the problems. In sugar
machineries many parts are of complex shapes for which the present practices are not
sufficient to evaluate, therefore it is a essential need to use FEA technique for analyzing
them. Analyzing the three dimensional model of parts gives clear idea of mechanical
working behavior & helps us to modify accordingly. As in sugar cane crushing mill, mill
housing, roller, journal bearing, crown pinion & trash plate plays an important role in
crushing of cane & juice extraction. The cost & the power consumption of crushing mill in
sugar plant is @ 40%. Hence to reduce replacement cost of parts, increase the efficiency
ofjthe unit & lower down the power consumption is of great importance.[1]
2.2 Developments in Cane crushing sugar mills:-

The juice from sugar cane was extracted by using two roller mills however; the
percentage of extraction was not satisfactory. Therefore the three roller mill having trash
plate was designed in 1754. After that successive improvement appeared & mills with4, 5
& 6 rollers were designed but all of them were based on the three roller mill concept only.
Although three roller mills has the advantages of double pressing & it is handle in the
-: 5 :-
form of trash plate. The multi roller (5R-6R) combinations are even more complex due to
unavoidable closed pressure chests.
're« Juic* #xtractee
^ - stationary ooot 01
DBHARGER ROLLER
free Juice FEED ROLLER
— Bagasse ejitrmSir*} »l
constant pressure
Fie. 2.1 Two roller mill Fig. 2.2Three roller mill with trash plate
Tr\e concept of three roller mills was born out of necessity to enhance rate of crush in old
two roller crushing systems, where increase in opening between the roller caused less juice
extraction while reduction refuse to accept high feeds (Fig. 2.1). Additional third roller
allows more feed intake because its feed opening is higher than the two roller mills. While
bagasse blanket passes through the feed opening, juice drains out leaving lesser volume
which passes through discharge roller where a much less opening accepts the feed because
it is under pressure between the trash plate & the top roller (Fig.2.2). However three roller
mills offer few drawbacks.[2]
2.3 Drawbacks of three Roller Mill:-

1) In three roller mill trash plate brings trouble in profile design, maintenance &
k
operation etc. & also consumes about 20% of the incoming power to drag the
bagasse mat under high pressure from feed nip to discharge nip.
2) The feed & discharge rollers settings are different so side thrust is exerted on the
head stock frame causing the power loss.
3) Vertical components of the force are exerted on the pinion of the roller. This pinion
reaction also wastes the power.
4) The mill setting is never satisfactory, nor does it remain steady.
5) Even though with best mill setting compression ratio may not be ideal as it
depends on soft/hard fibre of cane, fresh cane, burnt cane, stale cane etc. all have
their own effect on the ideal compression ratio for optimum performance.
6) The reabsorption factor in the conventional mill is @1.5 which is on higher side &
it lowers the mill extraction & results in higher consumption of power.
-: 6 :-
2.4 The concept of two roller mill:-
Volume theory of Mr. Murry state that, "neglecting the re-absorption &
considering the % contraction of cane material, it can be seen that the amount of juice
squeezed is the difference of actual volume of cane material pressed before & after". So
the amount of cane juice squeezed should be the same, if the final contraction percentage
of the material is equal to matter whether it is squeezed by two rollers or several times by
three, four of five rollers in a conventional mill. This theory promoted the concept of the
tdsh plate less two roller mill, on account of availability of much improved preparation
index; juice drainage system & competitive force feeding mechanisms etc. (Fig. No.2.3)
Advantages of two roller milk-

Two roller mill can drain the cane juice more freely & quickly & due to this semi
liquid zone is reduced & the neutral plane shifted towards axial plane (coincides) resulting
considerably lower re-absorption co-efficient (i.e. up to 1.1 & even less) which allows
mills to run at lower speed & at lower power consumption.
The roller lift is equal on both end due to negligible reaction of crown pinion &
offers equal fiber loading consistently across bagasse blanket, giving enhanced extraction.
Nearly 100% of applied pressure on top roller is exerted affectively to press the bagasse
mat at discharge nip i.e. higher fiber loading is achieved which lowers re-absorption factor
& lower bagasse moisture. The drive can be given to non floating bottom roller.[3]
-j : |
Fig. 2.3 Assembly of five roller mill
The CMR (Compact Mill Roller) mill comprises two cast iron grooved rollers
where bottom roller is of bigger diameter. Top roller may be of lotus type. Bottom roller
-: 7 :-
may be of lotus type having deep messchaert grooves at root at every V groove. The top
roller configured in the swing arm is free floating & loaded by the hydraulic cylinder. This
exerts proportionately higher load due to leverage effect directly to the top roller which is
utilized for effective squeezing of the bagasse mat with out loss of force.
> t
i
Further the mill rollers of the two roller mill are fed by the multi roller Toothed
Roller Feeder - TRF system, Fig. 2.4. making compact combination to work as an integral
equipment, where the bagasse mat is forced to undergo multi compressions in sequence of
low, medium & high & very high pressure zones in continuously changing orientations &
exposing bagasse fibers for ruptures. This leads to effective juice extraction & lower
bagasse moisture. Because of pre extraction of juice, bagasse mat is denser & dryer,
offering more coefficient of friction for improve grip in the self gripping angle of the mill
roller feed. These mills are easy for dismantling & maintenance. No trash plate required
which saves @20% power of the mill. Roller is force floating as mill is driven from the
non floating bottom roller. This ensures auto setting of top roller. As 100% hydraulic load
is.applied on bottom roller through top roller improves the higher mill extraction by
adding 100% moisture in bagasse also the reabsorption factor can get reduced.
Fig. 2.4. Two Roller Mill, Mill Discharge Roller Removed
Since power consumption of mill is reduced by 30%, a higher size mill can be easily
installed using the existing drive itself. This concept was further exploited by going for 5/6
roller mills where the pressure feed roller opening kept higher for accommodating more
cane & cane from discharge end of pressure feed rollers moves under a high pressure to
the feed roller of three mill which then has to accept the higher feed due to compaction.
-: 8:-
The .pressure on cane blanket thus keeps on increasing as it moves from feed to discharge
end, it is this pressure which allows higher feed to discharge end & allows higher though
puts to mill. It is therefore natural that the three roller mill can never kept high throughputs
when compared to 5/6 roller mills where opening towards feed side is increasing for
higher intake & the bagasse blanket traveling under gradually increasing pressure, is
forced through gradually diminishing opening towards the discharge end of mill.[4J
Another important misnomer with regards to Grooved Roller Pressure Feeder

(GRPF) is that it's tight setting from extraction point of view. With a high setting lot of
juice would be get extracted from GRPF but the extraction at feed roller is then very poor
& power consumption is also high. Therefore it is necessary that GRPF be also set in a
manner that it does not require high power & without affecting extraction at GRPF & mills
(Feed & discharge) is optionally distributed with lesser total power consumption. The top
& discharge roller must absorb maximum power. The feed roller, under feed roller,
pressure feeders etc are feeding devices & should be kept at proper setting.[5]
In the design of 6 roller mill the pressure chute in between mill & pressure feeder
must be as short as possible Fig. 2.5. It shall give minimum contact angle resulting in
improved feed ability to the mill & consumes less power. Having properly installed
GRPF/TRPF type pressure feeders, it was found that the mill capacity goes up by 50-70%
without affecting mill efficiencies. It is to be noted that to the rise in crushing capacity
increased by 50%, but the power requirement up by hardly 8% & not by 50%. Thus there
will be substantial power saving per tones of crushing per hour with higher crush rate.
6 ROLLER MILL
(conventional)
SIX HOLLER MtLl.
Fig. 2.5. Six Roller Mill
-: 9:-
The tightening of mill to reduced pol loss in bagasse is again a misconception;
most important is the imbibitions which can bring down the bagasse loss i.e. by increasing
imbibitions 100% the loss of pol in bagasse may be lower down from 50% to 47% but it
increases the steam consumption by 2%. With complete set of above mill we can achieve
PI - 87 to 89%, Primary extraction 75-77%. Last mill Brix - 1.2 to 1.5, bagasse % pol
varied between 1-1.2 the reduced extraction remain above 97% & varied between 97.5 -
98%, moisture in bagasse at 300% fibre imbibitions, remained at 47 to 48%, the total
mechanical mill stoppages less than 1%, the crushing rate 3500 TCD was easily achieved
by traditional mill however new mill is capable to crush 7500 TCD with a little increase
in input power.[3^53]
2.5 Identification of Problem:-

The Sugar Mill survey of Ahmednagar and near by district was conducted to know
the problems faced in the past & the problems arises during the season & maintenance
problems during the off season. There are three types of problems a) Pure Mechanical b)
Operational during season 3) Process.
2.5.1 Mechanical Problems

I., Rollers found damaged at fillet radius near to shell from pinion side and at the
' middle
II. Uneven wear of journal surface over its length. Wear is more on pinion side and
wear, corrosion and pitting observed on shell side.
III. The roller shell at the middle area found more weared, the tooth surface area found
polished & broken on the periphery of the shell. The guiding plates were damaged.
IV. Wear & corrosion observed at fillet radius & on shaft surface from shell side. The
coupling side square shaft found pressed and wear.
V. High wear of journal bearing (1 to 5 mm due to pitting, scoring, V grooving etc.)
Also the wear was not uniform over the length of the bearing.
VI. The color of the bearing was found bluish red. The sliding surface of bearing & mill
housing assembly found weared.
Vft. High wear & tear of crown pinion tooth. Pinion tooth found broken at tip of toe.
VIII. High wear & tear observed on tail bar and couplings.
IX. Trash plate was heavily weared out with groove mark on working / friction surface.
Its toe point found blunt.
X. Found slackness in assembly of hydraulic ram & mill housing.
-: 10:-
XI. The mill housing found wear at the sliding area provided for hydraulic ram &
bearing housing.
XII. The mill housing foundation bolts found damaged during the season.
XIII. There was a frequent damage of coupling pins of brake drum of loading and
I unloading motion of unloaded drive.
XIV. Damage of slats and chain of cane carrier.
XV. Fiberisers few hammer found damaged.
2.5.2 Operational Problems

I. Frequent jamming of cane at kicker & fiberisers.
II. The cane preparation after fiberisers was very fine. The fine bagassilo polluted the
mill house.
III. Flooding of juice & bagassilo at 1st and 2nd mill.
IV. Mixture of water & juice was flowing through the bearing to juice sump at bottom.
Bearing found running hot.
Y- Imbibitions water percentage was 100%.
VI. The raw cane under crush was with mud & staples & it was stale & burned.
VII. Fiberiser's power consumption was found on higher side.
VIII. The cane juice was getting leaked through apron cane carrier after fiberisation.
IX. Uneven cane feeding/ crushing during the daytime. During the period 4am to 12 am.
Short supply of cane & overfeeding of cane during rest of the hours.
X. The last mill bagasse pol. % was not between 47 to 48.
XI. Sanitation of crushing mill right from feeding of cane to last mill was not good.
XII. Purity of raw juice at laboratory & extracted juice was not same for all mills.
XIII. Slippage of prepared cane between top and under feed roller.
XIV. Non uniform lubrication oil pressure to journal bearing.
Xy. Mill speeds were not according to their diameters & expected juice extraction.
XVI. The cooling water used to bearing was from spray pond i.e. initial temperature of
water was 35 to 40 °C.
XVII. Bearing cooling water jackets were not chemically cleaned during maintenance
period.
XVIII. The machining of roller shaft for correct diameters was done on low speed lathe
which is not giving the good surface finish i.e. surface roughness was more.
XIX. Interlocking arrangement was not available from cane feeding tables to the entry of
cane to the mill.
-: 11 :-
2.5.3 Process Problem :-
I. The mill test was not conducted for all the five mills at every shift/per day to check
their performance of extraction.
II. The cane preparation index was not checked periodically to check/verify the
performance of cane preparatory devices.
III. The bricks curve was not plotted of individual mills to evaluate their performances.
IV. The hydraulic pressure for all mills was same.
Following data collected from different sugar Industries during the survey
Table 2.1 Data of Roller Shaft
Following is the data collected from sugar factories; this data gives us the
information about the shaft failures in different situations:
Sr. Shaft Purchase Scrap
Reason for scrap
No. No. year year
Shaft found deep crack at journal during

1 5 1980 1999
reshelling
2 6 1980 Shaft shear 2003
3 8 1980 Shaft deeply cracked 1999
4 9 1980 Shaft sheared at middle of shell 1999

5 11 1980 Both sides shaft journal cracked 1999
6 12 1980 Shaft damaged 1999
14 32 1982 Shaft sheared 1991
24 A-12 2002 Shaft sheared at middle of shell 2003
25 B-8 1994 Shaft sheared 2003
-: 12:-
Following is the data collected from Padmashree Dr. Vitthalrao Vikhe Patil S. S.
K. Ltd. Pravaranagar. Regarding the details of failure of roller shafts:
Sr. Purchase Scrap
Shaft No. Reason for Scrap Year
No. Year
Crack at 610 mm from pintle end
1 PSSK - 2 1976 1992
face depth 25 mm.
Found 100 mm deep crack on off
2 PSSK. - 3 1989 side & 30-40 mm deep crack on 1990
pinion side.
Roller shaft found crack at
3 PSSK-8 1997 1997
journal R.H.S. 130 mm deep
Crown side a journal damaged &
4 IT-PSSK.-4 1977 1992
undersize.
Found crack 32 mm at pintle end
5 2D-PSSK.-6 1981 1991-92
journal side.
6 3T-PSSK-22 1991 Roller shaft shear at R.H.S. 1996-97
Fig 2.6 - Photographic view of failure of mill roller shaft & journal hearing
Above survey of roll shaft failures undertaken to establish the magnitude of the
problem and to establish the most common causes of failure. The result of this survey
indicates that there is an average of one shaft failure per season. Also from the South
African sugar mill survey, the reason for the failure of shaft and shaft life is almost the
same as per the above survey and hence from the history of these shafts, we can take a
case study of possible causes and make some recommendations to reduce the frequency of
failure.
2.5.5 Data of Journal Bearing:

To gain knowledge of present practices in relation to mill bearings, a survey was
undertaken. The essential results of this survey are presented in Table 2.3. There was a
wide range in the values of top roll brass life as well as other parameters such as lubricant
feed rate, speed in rpm, material of bearing, bearing pressure, cooling water throughput
and journal surface speed. Although not indicated, factories reported that the life of a
bottom brass (feed or delivery) is one to three seasons more than that of a top brass.
-: 13 :-
Table 2.3 Summary of mill brass bearing operational practice
Name Lubricant
Capacity of Mill. Dimension of Material of Speed Life in
of sugar consumption Lubricant used
sugar mill No Bearing Bearing RPM seasons
rrkill Lit/hr
380mm x
1st G.M 4.5-5 251it/8hr SR/85 3
450mm
A 1250TCD
Last 450mm x 251it/8hr SR/85 3
G.M 4.5-5
mill 450mm
380mm x
B 2000TCD 1st G.M liner 4.5-5 301it/8hr Reductelf sm2 2
450mm
450mm X
1st G.M 4.5-5 301it/8hr J-460 engol 2
540 mm
C 2500TCD
Last 480mm X 301it/8hr J460 engol 2
G.M 4.5-5
mill 630 mm
490mm X 500
D 2500TCD jS. G.M 4.5-5 251it/8hr BPCREST80 3
mm
From the above survey & collected information we can solve operational &
process problems by regular/periodic maintenance or in off seasons when there is no
crushing. But the mechanical problems like failure of mill roller, damaging & high wear
of bearing, high wear of trash plate, crown pinion, tail bar & coupling needs through
investigation because these are the main parts of sugar cane crushing mill & also they are
costlier. The replacement during working seasons need many hours which cost in many
lakhs of rupees.
Therefore the author wants to devote his entire work on studying & analyzing the
mechanical behaviors of sugar cane crushing mills main components (i.e. mill housing
mill roller, journal bearing, crown pinion & trash plate etc.) mathematically & by FEA
analysis as all they are of complex shapes. After validation remedial measures been taken
i.e. lower cost parts can be replaced but higher cost parts life can be extended by good
processing, good maintenance, changing mechanical properties of materials or by
replacing the mating materials etc. From the data collected during survey taking into
consideration the comments offered by different working personals of concerned
manufacturer, users of the machinery & also the work done in this fields by different
researcher, it is needed that the above parts to be analyzed & modify for their best
performance & longer life by experimenting as listed below
1. The roller journal surface to be improved so that its surface hardness & surface
finish should withstand to the fatigue loading & to reduce the wear & corrosion by
burnishing methods.
2. The alternate material like PTFE, PTFE with different percentage of glass fiber
reinforcement material, LubronGold and delrin etc against traditional materials like
-: 14:-
Brass, bronze, Gunmetal, etc. for journal bearing under dry & wet condition; to
check the wear of journal surface against bearing material.
3. To avoid the oil lubrication problems & to reduce the cost of oil lubricant the
grease is to be used and experimented against the oil for good lubrication, film
thickness & less wear.
4. The mill housing to be checked for deflection & vibrations by FFT Analyzer.
5. Fiberiser to be checked for balancing & vibration by FFT Analyzer
6. Other causes of failure & break downs can be recovered on site by different test
measure & experience.
2.5.6 Earlier Work in the area
Many researchers experimented to improve the mechanical performance of sugar
mill, like mode of failure of shaft by M. J. Reid[6], effect of load on roll, diameter & speed
for milling by R. X. Cullon & J. R. Allen™. S. I. Aderson & J G Loughran[8] did the three
dimensional finite elements evaluation of three roller mill for notch sensitivity & failure
of roll at fillet radius, E. R. Murry & J. E. Halt experimented the different pressure on
shaft in working condition.191 The effect of shrunk fit shell on shaft with respect to
corrosion was studied by J. G. Laughran, W. H. Ritchie & B. Refelo[10]. They modeled the
shrunk fit top roller using FEM to find out the weakest section of roll. The total power
consumption of different roller was experimented by G. A. Kent & N. J. McKenize1"1,
Mnor & Liwinski[12] (1996), A. L. Gomez, J. J. Orfiz, M. Reyts[13]. The different drives
used for energy saving & reducing of loads of roll using turbine drives, hydrostatic
transmission, D. C. Motors & planetary gear with D. C. Motors etc, to reduce the stress &
strain on old three roller mill the new concepts of two roller mill was experimented by R.
K. Padalkat & S. D. Chavan[4].
Similarly the grease lubrication is experimented by T. S. Ingle & M. A.
Lokannavar & C. G. More to reduce the friction in brass/bronze hydrostatic bearings.[14]
M. J. Reid conducted the survey of possible causes of Roll failure & concluded that it
could have been avoided by correct specification, manufacture, maintenance & care during
operation. Also survey reveled the failure of shaft
a) When the rollers used as top roll in service the failure is 68.5% of the total.
b) The most likely position of breakage to occur is at the inner fillet radius on drive
• • side of the roll & the frequency of occurrence was 43.6%. The next position of
break was near the drive side end of the shell. The combined frequency of failure
was 27.6%
c) The average age of shaft is 5.5 season.
-: 15:-
tux mv
pati'ton kwy<-
Fig.2.7 Frequency of failure at each location Fig. 2.8 SFD & BMD Diagrams of roll
on roll shaft shaft
The common features of the shaft failures are

1) The fractures appearance of fatigue failure characteristics by clamshell lines from the
point of initial crack followed by parallel failure lines.
2) Initial crack usually follows lines at 90° to the shaft axis. It indicates that primary
stress is bending of shaft & not the torsion.
3) Initial stress riser is seldom evident because of subsequent damage in the vicinity of
the fracture & for that following stress risers are responsible, fretting & pitting
corrosion, surface defects such as welding inclusions, deep machining marks or
scratches, poor blending of fillet radius near journal, wear grooves at or close to fillet
radius.
The finite element results reveled that,
1) The largest fillet radius which can be accommodated by the roll geometry be used
for the fillet on the drive side of the roll.
2) The surface finish of the fillet & the adjacent journal is of greater importance to
i stress concentration than the size of the radius.
3) Shrinkage stress is also increases stress concentration factor by the shrinkage of the
shell to the shaft.
4) Fretting corrosion is responsible for a large number of fatigue failures which make
the defects associated with the fillet radius. The failure occurs at the edge of the
shell would indicated the fretting & corrosion.
5) The surface defect - The original casting of the ingot from which the shaft forging
-: 16:-
is manufactured could contain inclusions & centre line shrinking would be the
cause of fatigue failure.[6]
Similar kind of work i.e. an experimental investigation to determine the levels of

stress in a mill roller shaft under operating condition was carried out by R. X. Cullen & J.
R. Allen.[10] While calculating the stress at fillet of the shaft there are number of unknown
upon which the bending moment, shear force & torque depends. There is no reliable
measure of the friction in the guides of the bearing, the distribution of load in the bearing
& also position of resultant forces act are unknown. The twisting moment certainly
varying with the position of the muff coupling as well as the position & state of the
gearing.
, % There were large number of shaft faults found in the shell landing & it was evident
that some penetration of juice with consequent pitting had occurred. Investigation were
carried out using various viscous liquids & paste which are required to set & give a good
bonding yet remain which are required to set & yet remain flexible.
The roll was calibrated for bending & shear stresses by applying hydraulic load at
fixed lever arm from the fillet & from reading, graphs were plotted. It was found that the
stress concentration factor at the fillet was 1.30 compared to theoretical 1.39 obtained.
a) The pintle shear stress is independent of drive load arm pressure x ram area (Fig.
2.9)
b) The pintle bending stress seen to be approximately 20% higher than the theoretical
value calculated from the applied pintle load assuming that the load acts at the
' centre of the bearing.
c) The magnitude of the drive shear stress is higher than the theoretical value is
dependent on pintle load & drive load. It is higher for the greater difference
between drive & pintle loads. This is because of the greater downward force
exerted by the tail bar. The relation between applied load & difference in life is
shown by fig. 2.10.
d) The value of drive bending stress are shown in fig. 2.11 The stress are less than
theoretical values depends upon the difference between drive load & pintle load.
-: 17:-
It was found that the torque on the top roll for set load conditions showed periodic
fluctuations of + 1 5 % of the mean value. The frequency of these fluctuations was 18%
roll revolution, corresponding to the number of teeth on the pinion. This is evidence of
uneven load shearing on gear teeth due to imperfections in gear geometry.
Fig. 2.9 Pintle shear stress Vs drive load Fig. 2.10 Applied load Vs Life
Fig.2.11 Bending stress Vs roll torque Fig. 2.12 Effect of top roll load on roll torque
The result for average value of top roll torque is shown in fig. no.2.12. It can be
seen that the scatter is appreciable. The magnitude of the observed stresses is very close to
the endurance limit of the usual shaft material, it is essential that this lever arm at all times
kept to minimum. This can be done by limiting the value of lift of both ends minimum or
by providing the self aligning bearing.[7]
Fig. 2.13 Shows schematically critically stress region in roller & shell shaft cited
from a survey of failed rollers. It is evident that 89% of the documented roller failure
occurs either at the inside journal fillets or the regions just near the shell ends fig. 2.14. S.
I. Anderson & J. G. Loughran 19] did the three dimensional Finite element analysis of mill
roller under complex loading. (Interference fit, bending, torque, and pinion loads &
misalignment due to roller lift) The contact modeling in association with finite element
procedure has allowed the brass shaft interaction. The shaft initially was considered with
-: 18:-
no roller lift. Some simplifications were realized by suppressing the non-critical regions.
(Tail bar fillet, pinion keyway & shell grooves). Bending loads were applied uniformly in
the base region of the roller as a pressure distribution to simulate the effect of feed, trash
plate & delivery nips. In addition torsional & pinion reactions forces were applied to their
respective regions.
; ' The alternative design includes roller with (E-170 GPa) & flexible (E-90 GPa)
shells with recesses machined at the end faces, shaft attached to the shell with adhesive,
shell shrunk onto shaft with large journal fillet radii & a roller with a raised shell landing.
(Fig. 2.15) The majority of these alternatives were aimed at reducing the stress
concentration points associated with the current mill roller design.
Fig. 2.13 Stress region of roller & shell shaft
Fig. 2.14 Failure of shaft at inside journal fillet
Fig.2.15 Largefilletradius of shaft Fig.2.16Predicted critical path for afilletcrank
This design reduced the stress level under the shell ends by almost a factor of two
as compared to the original design. However the predicted critical path for a fillet crack
shown in fig. 2.16 is approximately 125 mm which compares favorably with the fillet
fracture surface shown in fig. 2.13 In the investigation a) Misalignment loads (roller lift)
-: 19:-
are detrimental & b) Large fillet radius & raised landing geometry should be considered in
roller design as they will be effective by reducing stress levels.[8]
Experimental determination of pressure at a point on a roll surface was done by C
R Murry & J. E. Halt. Many have used the result of pressure volume or compression test
on cane sample. There are mainly two reasons for this 1) Re-absorption phenomenon has
not been taken into account & 2) The flow pattern of juice in the mill is basically
different from that in compression test, Experimental investigations of volume of
bagasse leaving the mill have shown that the volume is nearly always in excess of
volume escribed by the rolls & this has to the belief that the pressure maximum must
occur in the mill some where on the feed side of the axial plane of the rolls.
During the test, roll load, roll torque, mill speed & extraction were measured.
Experiments were carried out with work opening change to give a range of compression
ratiqs from about 1.5 to 3.5. The roll loads were calculated from the pressure pin traces. A
graphical comparison of the loads from the pin and the measured loads is shown in Fig.
2.17
7
-\TP
./w1—•
y.
raster*! paths 5 J L . L , -Mrojt Prtissrc
(Of jiKC So* ( 5 . _^_ * •iMoj.Ptnsjrt
Yit,. .1 H'.potix'tica! Ifistribution of Bagasse between Rolls, and ftcssure Distribution o( Tooth
Hj 30 40 50 SC •;
!<OLL LOAO(;S.' I O O O ;
Flank.
: < w t n Load iron Fii • . «
i
Fig. 2.17 Correlation between load from pintle Fig.2.18 Hypothetical Distribution ofbaggase
& actual load rolls & pressure distribution of Tooth flank
| » S. COMPHESSiON PATIO 3.5
¥ H
5 iO 15 20
Fig. 4. Typical Trace.
Fig. 2.19 Typical trace ofpressure at a point on roll shaft
-: 20 :-
It seems unlikely that there were any marked side effects in the experimental mill
when working with 8mm pitch, 35° grooving and fairly small work openings. The only
assumption is that there was a pressure distribution along the flank of the tooth as sketched
in Fig. 2.18. However, Fig. 2.19 serves to illustrate the sequence of events during
crushing. The pressure begins to rise as soon as the cane contacts the pin but, in this low
compression region, flow of juice relate to the bagasse is easy and only small pressures are
required. As the bagasse is compacted the air is excluded and the permeability is decreased
until at about compression ratio 1.0 all the air is excluded and the pressure begins to rise
more rapidly, since flow of juice relative to the bagasse has become more difficult. This
rapid rise in pressure continues until at some point (the neutral plane) the juice flow has
become very difficult and the friction on the roll surfaces or the internal friction forces in
the cane is insufficient to sustain the pressure required for juice flow. The bagasse
extrudes forward through the mill opening at approximately constant pressure.
At the axial plane the volume available for the bagasse begins to increase and the
pressure is released. The pressure drops rapid at first and then more slowly. The bagasse
has very little tendency to expand as evidenced by the initial rapid pressure drop.
However, the wedging action of the grooves maintains a grip on the bagasse near the roll
surface. This grip dies away slowly as the distance between the rolls increases and the
bagasse is pulled away from the surface.
i
The experiment described has serve to indicate at least qualitatively, the form of
pressure distribution as well as shows the maximum point pressure. The distribution is
essentially flat topped (rather than sharply peaked) with a sharp drop on pressure occurring
at the axial plane. The flattering trends are beginning at the neutral plane where re-
absorption may be thought to commence.
Most of the rollers consist of a grey cast iron shell shrunk on to forged steel shaft.
There length to diameter ratio is two. The shaft contains a series of slopes & landings to
accommodate roller & brass bearings arrangement.
Rollers are subjected to a complicated stress state due to shrink-fit loads, reverse
bending loads, unsteady torsion and operating conditions- Although failure in mill rollers
occur mainly due to fatigue effects associated with stress risers Crawford's analysis
considers the effect of the shrink fit and roll load on bending stress. However,
-: 21 :-
simplifications were required to solve this problem and Crawford's analysis assumes that
the roller shell and shaft is in plane strain. Clearly high shaft stress concentrations occur at
the fillet radius, particularly on the gear side, and at the edge of the shell landing. In fact
most rolls fail in either of these regions and this is often attributed to corrosion fatigue
(Tyzak and Gatley, 1980).[9]
i
The author J. G. Laughran, W.H. Ritchie & B. Refelo modeled the top roller
schematically using FEM. The shrunk fit roll was modeled as a temperature difference
between the shell & the shaft. The applied torque was balanced by the pinion reaction
torque & the roller shell tractive torque. The tractive torque on the roller shell of the model
was assumed to be constant & was applied to the bottom of the roll with an angle of 100
degrees over the included area.
To allow the applied torques to be transmitted through the models the bearing
landing, were restrained in the radial direction over a 180°& over @ half the axial length
of,th,e bearings.
Von MiJM Sires* (MftU 2tj -
no-
II*
[
Fig. 2.20-Von Mises stress plot of the gear end of a roller shell under
shrink fit, bending and torsion loading.
Table - 2.4: Life estimates for different surface finishes

Life Estimate (Crushing Days)
SURFACE FINISH
No treatment Shot Peening Cold rolled Nitrided
Polished 1169 3191 Beyond-cutoff Beyond-cutoff
Ground 671 2200 671 Beyond-cutoff
Good Machined 449 2312 Beyond-cutoff Beyond-cutoff
Av. Machined 300 1310 7116 Beyond-cutoff
Poor Machined 222 865 6324 Beyond-cutoff
Hot rolled 189 1091 189 Beyond-cutoff
Forged 69 1954 69 1954
Cast 64 227 64 1650
Water corroded 90 90 90 90
Seawater corroded 31 31 31 31
-: 22 :-
Fig. 2.20 shows a von mises stress plot of the gear end in board fillet radius & shell
landing region.
Fig.2.21crack initiation for SAE 1006_ 85 A_ HR material Fig.2.22crack initiation for SAE 1030_128A_
HR Material
The fatigue analysis procedure used here trends to itself a surface finish &
mechanical treatment design sensitivity. The improving to surface finish in the crack
initiation zone from average machined to good machine. No Mechanical treatment
increases the life of the shaft by @ 50%. The effect of corrosion on life, water & sugar
juice corrosion would reduce the life of the roller by @70 to 80%. Mechanical treatment
have a significant influence on crack initiation & on life.
In three dimensional stress & preliminary fatigue analysis of sugar mill roller shaft
& shell, the stress component is predicted for an interference factor of 0.006. The stress
concentration factor at the edge of the shaft/shell landing is predicted to be about 2.5.
Fig.2.20 shows a Von-Mises stresses are predicted for a shell/shaft composite under shrink
fit for bending & torsion loads. The maximum von-mises stress under normal loadings is
approximated & this occurs at the edge of the shell landing on the gear side. It also
identifies the region at the edge of the shell landing as being subjected to fatigue.[10]
The top roll has been found to consume about half of the total mill torque. The
feed and delivery rolls consume about equal amounts of the remainder. G.A. KENT and
N.J. McKENZIE[6] summarizes measurements of the effect of a change in the speed of
one roll on the torque distribution in a three-roll mill. When the speed of a roll
increases, top roll consumes a greater proportion of the torque and the other roll in a
roll pair consumes a lesser proportion of the torque. Abon (1986) measured the
distribution of power in a three-roll second mill at Panchito Gomez Toro Mill in Cuba.
The mill was fitted with independent hydraulic drives on each roll. Measurements were
made during normal operation of the milling train. The mill torque was measured from
the hydraulic motor oil pressure. Sugar Research Institute collected torque data from
I
-: 23 :-
five units in 1996. All of these milling units were fitted with independent hydraulic
drives on each roll.
Gomez, et al. (1996) measured the distribution of torque in a three-roll. The mill
was driven by a conventional tail bar and pinions. The total tail bar torque was
measured using strain gauges on the tail bar shaft. The torque on the feed and
delivery rolls was measured using strain gauges on pinion teeth.
' ' Munoz. and Lewinski (1996) measured the distribution in torque in a three-roll
mill fitted with an underfeed roll. The mill was driven by an independent hydraulic
drive on each roll. The torque measurements were made using load cells measuring the
force on the hydraulic motor torque arms.
Figure 2.23 shows considerable variation, the top roll appears to consume
approximately half of the total (Feed and the delivery consume similar amounts each.)
The effect of feed roll speed on torque distribution(Fig. 2.24)
&yi Jose do .Aoajo {1996!

• I'^'Kls 5 ( ! » * ! » , iiSK
i PictBOhiJiitovf 199$
VOoriaB2(!996j
Vic!0MaSti!996)
Irwicla B2 (1996!
Invtls BM1996)
Mutgif« I <1996.>
InvMaBirraK!
Parcftto SOCK Tore 2 {19661

P a r t e Gone Tore i (1966)
Fafleigti 1 (1963)
to in
F*Mtd teB *p**<i chvnga!%)
« 60 B !00
Feed torque (%)
Fig.2.23summary of measurements of Fig.2.24 Effect of feed roll speed on

Torque distribution in three roller mill distribution of torque
-: 24 :-
i r
• **. 2
-r-^
y /y V
«... »•..
\V * • -
<" .--"
>•:••
j-''
0
j .,6 -10 5 C £ 50 IS K
-18 -!Q •5 3 IS !S 20
Top roll spew otonye {%)
i Dsli er.'ff s:«Sc «ige i l )
PaiKftfO Qomtl Tare!

•• PsrKitiiC Qocvi "c ;. |
Ppncmio Gor*z ic
irvittti V.'
SarJasdeAbas
•-
t trv'ica?;
33!iJts*«JeAU;0
r*3. J-E^SC; ut icprcf <r«-J * i « s w « i el w i ? *
-*-
h ^ i - F f e l n( dsswrf rcl j(»«i OP cfoirJHisn ci toiyy).
Fig. 2.25 Effect of top roll speed on distribution of torque Fig. 2.26 Effect of delivery roll speed on
distribution of torque
Figure 2.24 shows the effect of a change in feed roll speed on the distribution of
torque in a three-roll mill. The results show that, as feed roll speed increases, the
proportion of torque consumed by the feed roll increases and the proportion of torque
consumed by the top roll decreases. The proportion of torque consumed by the
delivery rolls remains about the same.
i
Figure 2.25 shows the effect that, as top roll speed increases, the proportion of
torque consumed by the top roll increases and the proportion of torque consumed by
the feed and delivery rolls decreases.
Figure 2.26 shows that, as delivery roll speed increases, the proportion of torque
consumed by the delivery roll increases and the proportion of torque consumed by the
-: 25 :-
top joll decreases. The proportion of torque consumed by the feed roll remains
about the same J1'^
Experimental stress analysis approach, supported by Finite Elements Analysis

(FEA) for measuring the share of power between the feed and delivery rollers and the
relationship with the total consumed power of the mill measured by the torque in the tailbar
was experimented by A. L. Gomez, J. J. Orfiz & M. Reyts.
Several variables of relative importance in the milling process have been

considered, but their effect on the behavior of a milling unit has been difficult to model
and predict. Among them are the diameter of the rollers, the milling ratio and the relative
peripheral speed between the rollers.
Yitvrw I. \,\i »M.n>e>r)c »k« o! *m*rd Wort and (R) tro** »«» W*rt BUMH (*,. j*tt »1
iMi.en roller jurrt.
Fig.2.27 Isometric views of stressed tooth

Fig.2.28 Isometric views of stressed
& crown gear tooth stressed at feed roller mesh tooth & crown gear tooth stresses at delivery
roller mesh
Three-roller mill, furnished with a light underfeed roller, was used in the experiments.
One> tooth of the top roller crown gear was used as a transducer and at the same time the
tailbar was used to measure the total milling torque.
Table 2.5 Predicted and measured Stresses and Torque
Loading *T T, TrTr T„ Vrr T,:tl„- '•VTr

conditions <V %
24.40 JS.40 Z09920 34716 O.i- ' 6o.179 0,3: 0,49 1.90
Predicted
(3536} 15571 OMTJOl) (30711 SI (589190)
FEA model
medium
load
19.36 911140 16553 0.18 3358: 0.37 0.55 2.05

Measured 11,62
<2«I0. (912745) (146483. (297186)
Low
load
24.33 M.70 209920 34951 0 17 67164 0.32 0,49 l 'XI

Measured
{Sim (1857702) (309299) (594372)
medium
load
46.47 77.44 66210 134328 2.03

Measured
(6744) (11240) (585932) 11SS744
stalling
<V %: feruling stress at gjjje Iijcation (Feed nixl delivery roller mesb, MP* (P*i)-
TT; Torque m Tiilbar N-m (Lb-in)
T r ,T» : Torque * Feed, Delivery roller shift, N-m (Lb in)-
-: 26 :-
The results in Table 2.5 agree with the general expected behavior, given that the FEA
model predicted stress values are very precise.
Delivery Feed Top Delivery/
Roller Roller roller Feed
Crawford 1970 40 00 m.nn 50.00 4 00
Hueot 1972 22.00 22.00 56.00 1.00
(measured) 25.00-35.00 10.00-20.00 55.00 1.75-2.50
McGinn. Mason 28.70 16.30 55.00 1.76
1982 (assumed) 22.00 26.00 52.00 0.85
Ahon 1989 21 00 3s.nn 41 00 0 55
Gomez. Ortiz. 37.00 iR.nn 45 7 05
i Reyes 1995 32.00 17.00 51 1.88
Table 2.6 Different approaches to power sharing in three roller mills (%).
Table 2.6 summarizes these values for comparison purposes. For the instrumented
crown gear, no stresses due to gear mesh acceleration were detected. Torque recordings
showed some periodic fluctuations that correspond roughly to the crown gear meshing
frequency.[13]
The Author Ho Jee Lenuk deals with the performance characteristics of the self
setting mill from the point of view of mechanics. The results of static analysis differ from
practical results. This error is small in the conventional mill but should not be neglected in
the self-setting mill which is more sensitive to the direction of force.
' We may obtain the forward dip of the resultant reaction & relative size of the load on
the three rollers corresponding to a certain load ratio of the back roller. Fig. 2.29, F= load on
top roller is the resultant of F3, F2 & Fl. The angle included between F & perpendicular by
sector Moi, is called the forward dip. Fig. 2.29
Fig. 2 Tlic forward dip of the resultant

reaction and the relative sizes of the
toads on three rollers
Fig.2.29 The forward dip resultant reaction of three roller
-: 27 :-
It is seen that the reactive torque of the cane layer acting on the top roller is also
considered. As a result of this the forward dip of the resultant angle is more than 25°
instead of 15°, the forward dip is very important to the self setting mill. After considering
mechanisms of both mills the specific hydraulic pressure should be 1/1.4 times that of
conventional mill & this is proved by mill practice.
The main advantages of self setting mill are keeping the crushing efficiency at a
high level, increasing the capacity and extraction. With an under-feed roller, Meishan sugar
factory has reached a fiber rate of up to 14.8 kg/m2 and extraction of 96.55%. Milling
power consumption per tonne of cane is 6.5 kW/h.15]
Traditionally the factories have extracted sugarcane juice by using three-roll mills
activated by mechanical gearbox transmissions. The San Jose de Abajo Sugar Mill was the
first to install a direct hydrostatic transmission; the rolls are independently driven by
hydraulic motors. In addition to analyzing the mechanical parameters, a mathematical model
w&s'developed that takes into account the forces present in the mill, including friction in the
plain roll bearings.
The experimental & analytical analysis to check the mechanical performance of

sugar cane mill was carried away by G. Mufioz & J. Lewinski.[5] .Calculation of the
working parameters was carried out in two stages. The first involved taking a direct reading
of the torque, angular speed and power signals; while the second stage involved force
calculations using the equilibrium equations and three empirical formulas:
r» if A T '
l'i(ur*.!• SW-fecJi diagram In lupputt A of lop red.
Figure 2. Free-body diagram of the top roll.
Fig. 2.30 Free body diagram of the top roll Fig. 2.31 Free body diagram in support A of the
top roll
-: 28 :-
Figure.2.30 shows the forces acting upon the top roll. Similar diagrams of the forces
i
have been prepared with respect to the cane and bagasse rolls, the friction forces in the
supports of the three rolls are taken into consideration
D*lc»n( ten, | m j *BCVJ
tsT^pto!
SCaneioB
15 j
<68agasse fos
pice 10 i
TOP! U7IW!
5
y ;[ STOBIIOJS
— CAftfMOLWt
i
5» K-*^:
0***=c
4 *
20.'
^AuXiWi4 lli|lllS|lll s l
0
Figure 7. Percent power consumption due to friction with
TIME l i ! T0TAIAVEBA5EPOWER;!S6kW respect to the total power fed by the hydraulic
motors.
Fig 2.32Power consumption in mill Fig. 2.33 Power consumption due to friction
Power consumption under normal milling conditions, yielding an average total

power consumption distribution of 65% in the case of the top roll, 20% for the cane roll and
15% for the bagasse roll. Fig. 2.32 shows the maximum recorded value of power
consumption against time. In case of the normal speed condition option, if we compare the
power consumption of the cane and bagasse roll, it can be observed that there is a higher
average power consumption in the cane roll than in the bagasse roll.
• > Fig.2.33 shows the percentage power consumption lost due to friction in the roll
shaft as well as the total loss with respect to the total power feed to the mill.[I2]
C. R. Murry and J. E. Holt did the experimentation to find out the effect of roll
diameter on the mechanics of crushing by taking three different roll diameter in the two
roll mill.
Theoretical investigations of the mechanics of milling suggested two

dimensionless numbers which specify the milling conditions. The first is the
compression ratio of the mill. This indicates the severity of the crushing.
The second is Bullock's capacity number which indicates the comparative

rate at which the mill is being fed.If we assume that mills should be compared at
thj? same compression ratio and capacity number and that the fineness of
-: 29 :-
preparation in both is the same then we arrive at the result that work opening
should be set proportional to diameter.
Then for comparing mills of different diameters, mill setting work opening
to diameter should be constant. For all mills having the ratio of man rate of cane
per meter width of mill to roll surface speed & roller diameter same may be
compared.
The results are shown graphically in Fig. 2.34 that at the same surface speed, roll diameter
hafcs no effect on extraction for 6 -18 m
The roll load will increase as diameter increases. The most likely rate of increase of
roll load is proportional to diameter.
B _ _
u
ft
0 20 40 60 80 DO
Boa sarfWtSfXtiJ (it.straw)
Fig.2.34 Extraction as a function of speed Fig.2.35 Roll load as a function of speed at

at different diameters different diameters
ft
*s
ii0%«w/-
J« pSsj
<0 20 30 40
fta-x«.-(ir,)
Fig. 2.36 Roll load as a function of speed at different diameters

( other conditions constant)
The results of roll load are shown graphically in Fig. 2.35. Since the torque may be
reduced immediately from the torque-load number. Statistical analysis of the results of
iMg. 2.35 shows that the lines are not significantly different in slope. If these lines of
common slope are compared, the ratio of the roll loads varies from 1.51 at zero speed to
1.60 at 30 m/min The roll-diameter ratio is 1.44 and on this evidence one would suspect
that the roll load would be proportional to the roll diameter. This proportionality is
further shown in fig. 2.36 which includes a point from the diameter roll[9]
-: 30 :-
The importance of described volume figures as an aid to the setting of mills is well
known. Douwes-Dekker placed particular emphasis on the calculation of volumetric
efficiency, the effect of the magnitude of this figure on reabsorption, and its importance as a
guide to the setting of mills. Crawford discussed reabsorption from a theoretical and
experimental point of view and its relationship to other variables in the milling/process,
notably compression ratio. The factors considered for volume calculations are
(1) volumetric efficiency(&g of fibre per cubic meter of escribed volume),

(2)reabsorption factor (no-void volume of bagasse leaving the mill per unit of escribed
volume),
(3)Compression ratio (no-void volume of feed per unit of escribed volume)
D. J. Muir & P G Adherton presented the graph to facilitate these calculations

bv pVoviding a quick and reasonably accurate method of obtaining escribed volumes and
the volume of material in process.[161
Life & reliability of mill rollers in transmitting the power for cane crushing
depends on wide range of design of shell & shaft. Selection of material & application
considerations. While emphasis is given on versatile shaft & shell design, tolerances
material specifications as also the practical aspects for the users. In general case, the roller
is of shell & shaft construction, the two components have different properties and are held
together by an interface pressure. The shrink-fit stresses and reversal stresses responsible
for shell and shaft failure are analyzed by applying Lames Equation, Guest Theory and
Principle or Combined Stress Theory. Mr. K. R. Patil did this analysis based on
observations, design checks & hints from different experiences.[17]
To reduce the load on each roller & bearings & to have a high extraction & ease of
maintenance the author M. K. Biswas described the salient features of Six roller mills
shown in fig. No.2.37. Its construction & advantages are top, discharge & Feed Roller, can
be easily removed without dismantling the pressure chute or pressure feeder unit.
Extremely short pressure chute due to use of same headstock for all six rollers, (i.e. no
separate headstocks for pressure feeders). Least possible contact angle for efficient mill
feeding due to compact design., Lowest power consumption for given crushing due to
short pressure chute. Compact, simple but robust design (All Six Rollers mounted on same
-: 31 :-
headstock), Less maintenance due to simplicity in design. Very high crushing rates due to
pressure feeding and inbuilt capacity design. Juice sealing ring arrangement for roller
bearings so that juice does not enter into bearing journals, Central Lubrication
arrangement from both sides of bearings, Free floating of top roller, Uniform pressure on
bagasse blanket. Uniform preset feeding with uniform preset load. Least apex angle of
mill, Feed roller movement - for changes in setting - does not disturb trash plate due to
vertical movement of bottom rollers. Wide variation in roller, Fibrizer is swing hammer
type with pocketed anvil and Domite tips for hammers, All Donnelly chutes are designed
to give constant blanket thickness to mill there by keeping load on mills constant, Auto
cane feed system is working perfectly, All preparatory drive loads are protected , Mills
overbidding are protected and loads maintained constant, Imbibitions quantity is
maintained proportionate to fibre percentage.
- -1 - t=- -i-?
Fig.2.37 Six Roller Mill
Many formulae for calculating the setting of rollers and trash plates have
been developed, but none of these guarantees maximum extraction. The main
reason that a general formula does not exist as there are too many variants that
influence the performance of a milling tandem. Many of these variants are local
and/or temporary, for which reason most countries or even factories have adopted
their own system to calculate optimum setting and operation of mills.[3^
A.R.Patil, E.R.Van Slooten and K.V.Pate- collected the data of individual

mill to control some parameter so as to improve the mill performance. The setting of
Individual Mills is an important means to achieve maximum extraction. Usually the
brix curves of the juices are used as an indication of the performance of the individual
-: 32 :-
mills. However, by means of a regular analysis and calculation of % dry bagasse, %
brix and % pol of the prepared cane and the bagasse before and after each mill. It is
possible to calculate the extraction of each individual mill. This "Individual Mill
Control" (IMC) is a powerful tool to collect reliable data on the performance of all mills
in a milling tandem and to reach maximum extraction of the whole tandem by a proper
setting and operation of individual mills.[18]
, v A. L. Vivas experimented to overcome the problems of enclosed gear box with a
adoption of a combined drive (turbine & hydraulic motors) to four roller mill by using
different drive to each roll it is possible to reach for better performance in individual
extraction, final bagasse moisture, also power split & total energy consumption. The speed
ratios between rolls have strong effects on the power consumption & its distribution
among the rolls. Power requirement are inverses as the speed have been obtained with
rolls running at different RPM i.e. at peripheral speeds [19]
The machinery/equipments can operate with 100% efficiency by good maintenance

& proper overhauling. Also selection of mill roller grooving & trash plate profile play an
important role in milling extraction. It has been deeply studied by Dr. Mohan Rao t27] that
i) Mjll Head Stock side cap & hydraulic cap pin hole ovality clearance to be checked due
to'more clearance mill performance will affect & there is chance of frequent break down.
This clearance to be maintained to a level of 0.02 to 0.05 mm. ii) Bearing clearance
(Radial & thrust) must be maintained at 0.5mm iii) after assembly bottom side rollers
(feed & discharge) bearing housing must be properly seated on wedge & side cap. The
wedge taper angle & bearing seating must be 15° & 75° respectively, iv) The top roller
bearing housing & its wedge plate clearance should be 0.25 to 0.5 mm v) Mill hydraulic
ram with ball clearance should maintained to 1 mm. vi) Pitch of groove decreases from
first to last mill. For the feed roller angle difference will be 20° & for discharge & top
roller it should be 5 to 10 ° respectively, vii) Messchaert chart groove to improve the juice
extraction, viii) Trash plate profile slop towards tail end should be up to 5% to 7%.[20)
The author P. Singh, J.P. Shrivastav & G.K. Shukla optimize the primary
extraction by setting of the feed opening, discharge opening and trash plate is being done
for a particular crush rate by taking into consideration the fibre percentage cane in sugar
industry. The primary extraction is measured on pol basis or juice basis, but it may not be
its optimum value in prevailing conditions.
-: 33 :-
The optimum value of primary extraction can only be achieved by matching the
values of the parameters affecting the juice extraction. These parameters can only be
matGhed by knowing their qualitative or quantitative effect on juice extraction. Matching
of these parameters may be called as tuning of mill for optimum value of primary juice
extraction is carried away with design matrix & factorial design analysis (FDA).
Preparatory Index (PI), Fibre Loading (FL), Compression Ratio (CR). Hydraulic
Load (N) is the main governing factors of juice extraction for a mill. The factorial Design
Analysis (FDA) states that 16 sets of observations are required for deciding the qualitative
effect of these parameters on juice extraction from Mill. By using this method, one can set
first mill in the tandem for optimum value of maximum primary extraction without
considering imbition to mill.
In "Black Box Technique" Method to improve the extraction first of all, P.I. is to
be, adjusted keeping other parameters unnoticed. P.I. may be raised or lowered and
extraction is being calculated every time. Where the extraction tries to go to a lower value,
P.I. should be left there. Secondly, Fibre loading may be adjusted by adjustment of speed
of the roller or feed opening. The value of mill extraction is being measured
simultaneously. The value of fibre loading is left where the primary extraction tries to
recede.
The hydraulic load is the third factor, which is to be adjusted. The value of
extraction is being measured this time also with change of hydraulic load. The hydraulic
load may be left where extraction begins to recede after achieving its maximum value. The
compression ratio is to be adjusted in the last and in the same manner as has been
described for the other parameters.[21]
K.B. Kale, M.B. Londhe, V.P. Sidanaje, P.S. Durwas and D.K. Pendse did the case
study of sugar work to improve the mill extraction is a very complex process and has
number of factors to govern. The mills are assembled during off-season at rest position,
which become more vulnerable during operation with floating of top roller under action of
hydraulic load and buoyancy force of bagasse. Therefore to achieve optimum performance
of milling tandem, each unit in the tandem should perform its best and to get assessment of
each unit for individual extraction and close monitoring of working factors affecting
individual mill extraction are essential.
-: 34 :-
To obtain improved mill performance emphasis should be made for through
maintenance, essence of assessment of performance of every unit in the milling tandem
during crushing season and requisite corrective action. This will help to point out low
performing unit in totality and make easy for taking corrective action to improve the mill
performance.[22]
A.V.R. Reddy & Oyyaram suggested the improvement in mill performance based
on the mill test. Normally working performance of the individual mill is evaluated by
plotting Brix curve & then mill setting adjusted for better performance. But even though
the curves are parallel & closed to each other, the extraction is not as per requirement then
it may not be possible to find the faulty mill for rectification. Then instead of Brix curve
al{me the setting may be adjusted on following parameter obtained by conducting the mill
test. Individual mill pol. extraction mill efficiency, feed side & discharge side pol.
Extraction, feed side & discharge side juice extraction, moisture % bagasse, individual
mill pol % bagasse, etc. The author experimented above parameter with mill having four,
five & six roller mill tandem & found improved performance.[23]
T.M. Karne & Dr. G. M. Jenekar pointed out that to maintained good milling
efficiency the foreign materials such as ferrous iron & other ferric metals passes through
cane fiberizer, mill rollers & trash plates are to be stopped by providing electromagnet to
the cane carrier before leveler, shredder & roll mill to avoid serious damages.
The cane preparation devices such as levelers rotary knives, shredder/fiberizer

have two basic functions to perform 1) To rupture the sugar bearing cells of cane & there
by achieving higher extraction at the first mill & 2) To improve the feed ability & to
ensure continuity of feed to the mills which the resultant gain in the cane crushing capacity
of a given milling tandem. There is also a complementary function ensuring a transfer of
free pol. in a highly disintegrated state of first mill bagasse to the successive mills which
permits easy & rapid absorption of imbibitions juice with resulting increase in its
efficiency of dilution of residual juice in bagasse. It is necessary to keep a constant watch
on the quality prepared cane feed to mills, condition of cane knives & shredder/fiberizer
hammers & need to alter the clearance of knives, shredder setting & their speed.[24J
The author T. M. Kirne & Dr. G. M. Jenekar developed the C.S.D.E. for better
cane preparation The over feed cane at the kicker is either chocked seriously or passes to
the leveler from the top side. The cane passes below cane kicker is very irregular & has
-: 35 :-
poor density @130 to 50 kg/m because of uneven feeding of cane. To avoid chocking,
irregular feeding, irregular density of cane & tripping of cane carrier, cane leveler &
fiberizer/shredder are totally eliminated by using CSDE. The cane density achieved with
CSDE was about 200 to 250 kg/m3 the preparation index (PI) of cane was higher about 85
to 90%, the mill extraction is improved by about 0.25 to 0.50%.[25]
K. R. Das & R. Bhaskara Rao did the experiment for the determination of pol
ruptured cells, pol in all the juice cells in cane & bulk density of prepared cane by using
levelers followed by two sets of knives & a shredder to improve the cane preparation. The
latching apparatus & wet disintegrator used in the investigation for extracting the free pol
in prepared cane & total pol in cane respectively are similar to those described by Aldrich
& Raynor, Harris & Hanks. The experimental values of percent ruptured cells 'Y' to the
bulk density x of prepared cane were taken for regression analysis & following are the
results.
Preparation of Ruptured cane Correction co- Standard
cane efficient derivation
Knifed cane Y = 2.13 x-8.53 0.9178 3.29
Shredded cane Y = 2.16x1.69 0.878 3.726
Table 2.7 Values of percent Ruptured cane to the bulk density
• Factors influencing high bagasse moisture are groove's pitch and angle, crush rate
i
and fiber, preparatory index, rollers work openings and applied total load, added water
(imbibitions), & no. of mills. '26]
A. V. Narayan Rao described the importance of roller grooving in the performance
of milling. The differential angle grooves of 30° to 45° gained prominence in extraction &
improved crushing rate.
Less the moisture in Bagasse leaving a mill the more is the absorption rate of
imbibition. The Pol% and moisture % bagasse leaving first mill has got a bearing on final
bagasse to boilers.
:•• l> * i* I> " —*•'
35°
\ MJ
\ / Sketch A Sketch B
Fig. 2.38 Mill Roller Groove
The addition of underfeed roller, Lotus rollers, Donnelly chutes & rake elevators cropped
up with increased crushing rates but the pol% & moisture % bagasse inserted in
-: 36 :-
proportion of crush rate. Fig.2.38. A inferred that bagasse fill take place with less
compaction of bagasse blanket in lesser angle groove. Fig.2.38 B inferred that bagasse fill
take.place with more compaction of bagasse blanket in wider angle groove. Forward flow
or juice is restricted. Juice re-absorption get reduced in wider angle groove & hence less
moisture %.
Equal angle 45° & equal depth of grooves for all the three rollers really help in
reducing moisture % bagasse, thereby loss of sugar in bagasse.
Grooved roller pressure feeder (GRPF) consists of top roller, bottom roller having
the dimension equivalent to the mill roller & grooved under feeder roller or toothed
underfeed roller having 80 to 100% roller diameter.(27]
N. Dharmalingam did a case study of Grooved Roller Pressure Feeder (GRPF).

The (JRPF roller extracts the high proportion of thin juice & reducing the excess moisture
in'sloppy feed. The action of GRPF is continuous & uniform unlike the intermittent action
of pusher. It is much more force full then the slight compression exerted by ordinary
feeding roller. Thus it gives a definite improvement in crushing rate & lower moisture
content of bagasse or both. Mr. Hugot suggested that the speed of GRPF roller variation
may be 1.3 to 1.5 times than the feed roller. Also he suggested the setting of GRPF, three
times of delivery work opening of the mill.
By using GRPF 1) Crushing rate is increased by 28%. There is a substantial speed

reduction in last mill 2) Cost of expansion is less due to installation of GRPF instead of
new mill.[5]
In majority of the existing factories the mill tandem are sufficiently old. Therefore
it is obvious that the mills have been subjected to higher fatigue. For higher strain
normally mills crushing more than rated capacity with higher imbibitions deliver bagasse
with higher moisture. To overcome this difficulty two roller mill is added to the existing
three roller mill for maximum extraction & low moisture. The authors R. K. Padalkar & S.
D. Chavan[35] studied the performance of such mill compared it with three roller mill, also
they used the volume theory of Murry of trash plate less two roller mill & described it for
its performance. Neglecting the re-absorption and considering the percentage contraction
of cane material. It can be seen that the amount of juice squeezed is the difference of
actual volume of the cane material, before pressing and after. So the amount of cane juice
-: 37 :-
squeezed should be the same, if the final contraction percentage of the material is equal,
no matter whether it is squeezed once by two rollers; or several times by three, four or five
rollers as in conventional mill.
The volume theory of Mr. Murry has promoted the concept of trash plate-less two-
roller mill, also on account of availability of much improved P.I., juice drainage systems
and competitive force feeding mechanisms etc.
Two-roller mill can drain the cane juice more freely and quickly, due to excellent
drpinage semi liquid zone is reduced and the neutral plane is shifted towards axial plane
(coincides), resulting considerably lower re-absorption coefficients.. In a well-designed
two-roller mill, re-absorption factor is minimized up to 1.1, or even less. Therefore two-
roller mill exit opening may be less than that of conventional mill. Lower re-absorption
allows mills to run at lower speed and leads to lower power consumption.
Top roller lift is equal on both ends due to negligible reaction at crown pinion and
offers equal fibre loading consistently across bagasse blanket, giving enhanced extraction.
Nearly 100% of applied pressure on the top roller is exerted effectively to press the cane /
bagasse mat at discharge nip therefore higher fibre loading is achieved and due to
appreciable lower re-absorption factor lower bagasse moisture is obtained. Drive can be
given to non floating bottom roller.^
i i
vy?Qkj
V, Ik \ t ' 4 \ zsrs
Fig 2.39 Two roller mill Fig. 2.40 Two roller mill with removed discharge roller
Two roll mill is an industry alternative at least for intermediate units in a milling
train provided that an adequate extraction.
-: 38 :-
Experience gained in Finite Element Analysis (FEA) modeling of checks for
failure analysis & improvement has been used for prediction of structural performance of a
conventional three roll mill simplified to operate as a two roll mill by E. Oliveros.
In two roll mill the delivery roll of three roll mill was suppressed & the remaining
rolls were set in order to keep crushing rate, extraction & bagasse moisture. Fig.2.41
shows drawing of a complete mill & details of the discharge scrapers. A conventional
criisher was fitted with an underfeed roll. Two different check design have been analyzed
using FEA. In both mill same roller one of cast steel design. In other of welded
construction design B are used. A comparison using strength criteria was done & the
weakest one was chosen for experimental stress Analysis & the strong one for modeling
the simplified mill. The power consumption under feed roller was measured using strain
gauges & approximate traction of total muling power was defined.
Fig.2.41 Two roller mill with scraper
*•» « * tfaa » * • « «*>m K * .
Results of cruskcr without and w«l delivery roller
Fig.2.42 Results of mill without delivery roller Fig. 2.4 3 Results of crusher without &
with delivery roller
-: 39 :-
In order to increase the share of the two roll crusher in total extraction the unit was fitted
with'underfeed roller. The unit average extraction before the upgrade was 40%. Compared
to a current average of 65%. Energy consumed was increased from 60 to 66%.[28]
Need of automation in sugar industry is described by Pratap Deshmukh by

collecting information of different variable required for auto media. Sugar industry is
going through a crisis period, the reason being less rain; drop in sugar prizes, high
conveyance cost, and more number of plants than required, excess old stacks of sugar &
very old sugar mill machinery with very low capacity of crushing per day. To overcome
above the automation can play a major role in improving the present situation faster.
In automation different controls are required for example Pneumatic, Analogy

control, Digital & field bus control etc. Particularly for mill sections following controls are
suggested - Auto cane carrier control, Mill imbibition water flow & temperature control
system, Mill parameters monitoring & alarm system (Mainly bearing temperature
monitoring, Mass flow meter for juice & waterlines, Juice flow stabilization & raw juice
brix monitoring & control.
To control the operating & design parameter two method are used factorial design
analysis & mathematical modeling can be used. Factorial design analysis has certain
limitations that it is applicable when data are controlled in a particular set of order & it
gives only qualitative effect of process parameters is set of equations namely
fundamentally based, semi empirical or empirical. The regression analysis was used to
make mathematical model of milling to optimise the capacity of milling tandem by
collecting experimental data of various industries. Using above modeling the effect of
length of roller was found higher than other parameter like speed, feed etc. Regression
analysis is more useful than factorial design analysis.[29]
In three roller mill the required load distributed between top feed & discharge
rollers is achieved by setting the work opening at feed & discharge. The value & ratio of
these work openings are worked out from factors such as expected cane quality, crushing
rates & cane preparation level. During operation the above assumed conditions keep
fluctuating & mill performance is affected accordingly & particularly the extraction. S. S.
Gagavati, R. R. Towari, P. K. Gunje & D. C. Patil conducted trial on the new auto setting
-: 40 :-
mill designed by Walchandnagar Industries Ltd. An auto setting mill incorporating
floating & hydraulically loaded feed & discharge rollers thus maintaining the required
hydraulic load on the bottom rollers independent of fluctuating cane quality & crush rate.
The mills shown significant improvement in extraction, reduced energy consumption &
other operational & maintenance advantages.
The improved results of the mill over conventional mill are the energy required
per hr of cane is less by 10 to 15%, the extraction increases in the range of 0.5 to 1.0 unit,
the crushing rate increased by 20 to 25% & reduction in wear & tear of components
observed during maintenance.130'
1
Several top roll shafts failed in service in different sugar mills. After analysis, it
was determined that the failures happened due to a fatigue process, where the cracks
started at surface-located micro defects, caused by abrasive wear, machining marks or
defects in the repair welds when applied. Failure locations and frequencies were
documented, together with materials, torques and crushing loads. A shaft journal on the
drive side was chosen for detailed analysis because of the higher frequency of failures
found there. Two options were considered to obtain a shaft free o/cracks: the reduction of
the journal diameter and the recovery of the original dimensions using arc welding
procedures and consumables. A fracture mechanics approach was used to predict the
maximum defect size tolerated in a repaired shaft and the time between non-destructive
testing inspections. It was found that the reliability of a welded shaft can be impaired if a
stiess relieving process is not used, and service life can be reduced by an estimated 63%
because of residual stresses.
The high rate of wear on top roller shaft journal is an important problem in sugar
cane mill & it has shown a marked influence in the shaft reliability. The presence of
mineral extraneous matter (MEM) added to low hardness ratio between the shaft &
bronze causes high abrasive wear, which reduces the shaft service life & obligate to
apply Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) to result in shaft journal. Welding of the shaft
steel require very careful procedures in order to diminish the probability of shaft reliability
reduction. A research About this was done by J. S. Rivas & the research was based on
identification of wear mechanism present on tribological pair & the analysis of mechanical
&itribological properties of the pair elements.
-: 41 :-
Mill operation using spilt bearing make possible that extraneous matter in juice
enters in the bearing when the top roll moves up & down during milling transients. The
EM usually contains bagasse & mineral extraneous Matter (MEM). In this condition the
lubricant properties are degraded & its performance affected, additionally MEM causes a
high abrasive wear because it contains silicate & other hard particles. Both high abrasive
wear, and deep grooves are present on the journal zone closer to the shell.
The journal wear generates two conditions in the mill, The first consists of zone of
contact administers so that the specific pressure increases & the temperature of the pair
rises facilitating the degradation of the lubricant & the increase in the adhesion between
journal & bearing which end up producing burns in the bronze making possible formation
of oxides that remain in the system, acting as abrasive. Secondly wear & grooves
generated by abrasive particles diminish the shaft service life. Therefore it necessary to
develop sealing system to diminishes EM entering in the bearing gap. Also it is needed to
find out different materials & lubricants to obtain a better performance of the pair.
Fig.2.44,2.45,2.46 and 2.47 illustrates the magnitude of wear problem in cane sugar mills.
JOURNAL AMD BEARJNQ WEAK PROBLEM
-: 42 :-
Fig. 2.48 shows the grooves on the journal surface & fig.2.49 presents a zoomed view
where is indicated a oxide participates trapped by the journal material flopped over itself.
Fig.2.50 composition analysis by the tapped particles. This phenomena appears when a
abrasive particle pass many times over a zone forming ripples on the surface. Fig. 2.51 &
2.52 shows laminated material near abrasion groove in bronze & deep groove on the
journal surface.
Additionally wear problem is intensified by a low hardness ratio between the shaft
& bearing material. Hardness ratio ranges between 1.27-4.29 (Fig 2.53). The new shafts
have the lowest hardness values & arc welding rebuilds shafts the highest hardness
figures. The most common hardness ratio is around 2. The minimum recommended
hardness to operate with lead bronze bearing is 250 BHN & the typically used bronze
hardness (SAE 67) must be 65 HRC the hardness ratio in this condition should be over
3.85.
Fig 2.52 Deep groove and laminated material Fig. 2.53 Reduction of safety factor in the
On the journal surface drive journal inner shoulder by wear of journal surface
-: 43 :-
When the shaft journal is worn out the effective contact area in bearing get reduced,
this process generates the temperature rise, lubrication degradation & more accelerated
wear because of increase in specific pressure & following things happens -
I. Stress on inner journal shoulder drive side, rise because wear reduces journal
contact surface & because of journal zone, nearest to shell is more worn, the
theoretical application point of hydraulic force moves far from the shell therefore
rising the bending moment ( & bending stress) Fig.2.53 shows how safety factor in
this zone may be reduced, Rivas et. Al. 2003. A reduction of 60% is possible.
II. SAW process is used to rebuilt journal when high level of wear has been reached
i but welding processes often increases presence of flows in the shaft in zones under
going high stresses also it generate heat affected zone with low fracture toughness.
III. Deep grooves generated in the journal surfaces promote both nucleation & growth
of fatigue cracks, reducing the shaft service life. To avoid above abrasive wear
some kind of effective seating system need to be used in the bearing gap.
In sugar cane mills the use of high lead bronze are the SAE 67 (78Cu75nl5p6) &
SAE 64 (80 Cu 10 Sn 10 Pb) because they have high load carrying capacity high fatigue
strength & high temperature capability. Additionally the increase lead contents confor
embeddability. High lead contents reduce fatigue resistance & make these alloys
susceptible to corrosion Kingsbury (1988) Bhushan (1999)
i •
Fig
SAE 67 Bronze 100 X unetched fig 2.55 SAE 64 Bronze 100 X unetched
-: 44 :-
Fig. 13 Segregation in failed bearing sample Fig. 14 Segregation in failed bearing sample
10Ox - Unetched 10Ox - Unetched
Fig 2.56 Segregation in failed bearing sample fig 2.57 Segregation in failed bearing sample
100 X unetched 100 X unetched
Experiment was conducted using block & ring tribometer,

1) Test shows that a asphalfic oil might reduce coefficient of friction & power
consumption provided there is no leakage.
2) Use of SAE 67 bronze might reduce power consumption but loss of material is
more. Use of SAE 64 bronze might reduce material weight but increase the power
consumption.
The process used to extract the sugar bearing juice from sugar cane involves squeezing
the shredded sugar cane between gray cast iron mill roll shells. The surface of the cast iron
is roughened by an arc hard-facing process known as roller arcing, which produces
discrete globules of hard metal on the surface. This is necessary in order to have a surface
sufficiently rough to prevent slippage of the shredded sugar cane as it is pulled into the nip
region between the counter rotating rolls. The metallographic analysis of arced sugar cane
roller was carried by Gossett D. Oliver & Rebert Bulpett.
Fig. 2.58 Arc hard facing of roller shell groove Fig. 2.59 Surface of arced shell roll
after one season of mill
-: 45 :-
The mill roll shells are expected to perform under different operating conditions
and must withstand mechanical shock and have excellent wear and corrosion resistance.
The premature failure of arced sugar mill roll shells increases the cost of producing sugar.
Fig.2.60Typical voids and cracks are revealed on the fracture

surface of an arced globule from a mill roll. Fig. 2.61 Metallographic cross-sections of the hard arced
surface.
To understand the influence of metallurgical factors resulting from arcing the mill roll
shells the study was undertaken to examine metallurgical parameters responsible for
premature failures of the mill roll shells. In Jamaica, arcing of sugar cane mill roll shells is
carried out either in situ [whilst crushing the prepared sugar cane (wet)] or during the
maintenance period (dry).
i
-4
— A
Fig. 2.62 SEM image and ED line-scan Fig. 2.63 Arc globule and cast iron substrate
Test discs arced under simulated sugar cane factory conditions exhibited a similar
mode of failure to arced sugar cane rollers. EDX analysis of the test discs showed a
depletion of alloying elements within the arced globules and high levels of porosity within
both the globules and the HAZ due to the arcing process. Porosity was generally higher in
those samples produced under 'wet' welding conditions.1321
The HEM Tyzak investigate & provided the preventions measure to corrosion
fatigue in mill roller shaft . The corrosion found at circumferentially corrugated surface of
a blackish scale up to @ 1 mm thick that had formed on the shaft from the shell to the
bearing assembly. The density was greatest near the run out and faded out @ 20 mm from
-: 46 :-
the outer edge. Therefore some cracks at a relatively low density between the fillet & the
end of the seal sleeve where a badly eroded groove & a deep crack had formed. The shaft
surface between the shell end & the seal sleeve showed regular, hemispherical corrosion
pits. These were smallest near the outer rim of the fillet & largest near the run out where
those from which cracks had propagated had become elongated.
Corrosion fatigue has been defined as the type of failure which occurs when a
component is subjected to cyclic stressing in a medium which is able to attack the material
continuously if it remains chemically exposed.
Steel is not homogenous & therefore corrosive attack is differential which makes
pitting unavoidable in any corroded steel surface. Every pit is a stress riser & corrosive
activity is stimulated by stress. Hence once started the process is self accelerating. It is
well established fact that the surface finish of a component is a major factor determining
its fatigue life.
* Protection of all stresses surface covering the shaft with a thick (3 mm or more)
protective coating. Materials considered were urethane, synthetic rubber, glass reinforced
plastic etc. & by installation of a metal sleeve sealed by 'o' ring or equivalent soft seal
onto the ends of the shell & the seal sleeve. Another approach is to control the stress
region.
The more practical option for improving the fatigue resistance of the shaft would
be surface rolling or shot penning. There processes induce compressive stresses in the
surface of the shaft so that under a reversed bending regime the compressive stresses are
increased & the tensile stresses are reduced. The rolling process produces a finally
finished & work hardened surface, free of serious residual stress gradients & thus having
high resistance to corrosion.[33]
I
John A. Williams studied common glassy polymers, such as poly-
methylmethacrylate, poly-carbonate and poly-styrene, are not often used as bearing
materials PMMA has demonstrated that damage evolves through a range of severity as the
imposed strain is increased: visco-elastic smoothing or ironing is followed by plastic or
visco-plastic grooving, then extensive plastic flow and tearing, pronounced fracture or
tearing and finally micro-cutting or chip formation. As with metallic materials each
mechanism of material removal leaves its signature in the morphology of the drives which
its operation generates.[34]
-: 47:-
N. K. Myshkin, M. I. Pitrokovates, A. V. Kovalcu studied behavior of polymers
has distinguishing features. It consists of three basic elements involved in friction : 1)
Interfacial bonds, their type and strength 2) Shearing and rapture of rubbing materials
inside and around the contact region 3) real contact area. When two surfaces are brought
into contact, the surface forces of attraction and repulsion act between the atoms and
molecules of two approaching surfaces. These forces neutralize each other at some
equilibrium separations Zo. When the distance between the surfaces is Z<Zo they will be
repulsed from each other, when Z>Zo they will be attracted.
a017
Q054a115 a2a34e0.483a634
Nominal strain
Fig. 2.64. Scratching mode map for PMMA (Normal load Vs. . Nominal strain )
For majority of polymers the vander walls and hydrogen bond are typical.
P/P0 /
-1 yS 2/
-1 0
• „•*'
HJJ. 1. The load <m sphere .is a fKiiriKW of approach: (I) Htiiiian;{2) witli
consiiic-rmtoii for adhesion fJKL'-
iotflfF-*.
Fig. 6. Effect of surface forces on physical contact area: (I) low-density
polyethylene; (2) high-density polyethylene; (3) nylon; solid l i n e s -
calculation with consideration for surface forces; dotted lints—without
consideration for surface forces.
Fig. 2.65 The load on sphere as a function of Fig 2.66 Effect of surface forces on physical
Approach 1. hertzian 2. with consideration for contact area l.low density poly ethylene
Adhesion(JKL) 2. High density polyethylene
3. nylon:solid lines calculation with consideration
for Surface forces: dotted lines- without consideration
for surface forces
-: 48 :-
Numerical experiment shows that for polymers the physical contact area increases
several times due to the surface forces. This rise is 1.5 times for high density polyethylene,
3 times for low density polyethylene and 2 times for nylon. Fig.2.65. Under the same
conditions, a rise in the real contact area is substantially less. For example for high density
polyethylene the RCA increases by 10% when the root-mean-square roughness 8 is 0.5 urn
and by 30% when 8=0.08um.
\ Thus friction of polymers as function of load varies in the manner, which was
described by Kragelskii, that is the friction co-efficient passes a minimum, which
corresponds to transition from elastic contact (left descending branch of the curve) to
plastic one (right ascending branch of the curve.)
Effect of sliding velocity on friction:-

In the range of low velocity, the viscous resistance in the contact zone increases
with increasing velocity, when the contact pressure is high, the abnormally viscous flow is
observed which leads to a sharp rise of viscosity due to velocity increase.
The friction force sliding velocity relationship depends essentially on the test
temperature. When the tests are conducted near the glass-transmission temperature (high
mobility of polymer signets) the sliding velocity has pronounced affect on friction,
whereas at lower temperature (segments of the main chain are frozen) friction hardly
depends on the sliding velocity. Fig 2.66
The basic mechanism of friction of polymers in the highly elastic state over smooth
surfaces is adhesion. Also it appears when a polymer transforms from the highly elastic
into glassy state.
Wear of polymers:
The changes in surfaces layer arise from mechanical stresses, temperature and chemical
reactions. Polymers due to their specific structure and mechanical behaviour are more
sensitive to these factors.
The local temperature at the interface may be substantially higher than that of the
environment, and may also be enhanced at the asperity contacts by transient 'flashes' or
'hot-spots'. The temperature exerts an influence on wear of polymers.
-: 49 :-
It is generally recognized that the most common types of wear of polymers are
abrasion, adhesion and fatigue.
I
There are two distinct modes of deformation when an abrasive particle acts on the
plastic material. The first mode is plastic grooving, often referring to as ploughing, in
which a prow is pushed ahead of the particle, and material is continually displaced
sideway to form ridges adjacent to the developing groove. No material is removed from
the surface. The second mode is named cutting because, it is similar to micromachining
and all the material displaced by the particle is removed as chip.
The abrasive wear rate is in proportion to 1/SuEu where 8u is the ultimate tensile
stress and Eu is the corresponding strain. The Fig. 2.67 shows the correlation was found
by Lancaster and Ratner
n* S The ihickr,*" »f ihr inuaferttd t»y« of PTFR i s * tui^non of

(ntiion lime (lwid^O.05 MPn. sliding velocity-IU5 <n/s).
F.f. T The Rsitiwt-I-
wr correlation for abraiios
c!o!,
\ Brtitiw BJ, I'nbol l;it; Mgu-,\
diiiffli;!: ;;nstic .•»»<.•*•* «rt;t l'
l»i:i5!-0).
F/g2.67 y?g2.6S
F/g 2.67 The Ratner- Lancaster correlation for abrasion mi €u are the ultimate tensile stress and elongation
Fig 2.68 The thickness of the transferred layer ofPTFE as a function of friction time (load =0.05 MPa
.sliding velocity = 0.35 m/s)
Polymers are most susceptible to friction transfer when rubbing both against metals and
polymers Fig. 2.68. A friction contact underwent the cyclic stressing at rolling and
reciprocal sliding. In addition, each asperity of friction surface experience sequential
loading from the asperities of counter surface. As a consequence, two varying stress fields
are brought about in surface and sub-surface regions with different scales from the
diameter of apparent contact area in the first case to that of local contact spot in the
second. These fields are responsible for material fatigue in these regions that leads to the
generation and propagation of cracks and the formation of wear particles. This process is
named friction fatigue. Unlike the bulk fatigue, it spans only surface and sub-surface
-: 50 :-
regions. The loss of material from solid surfaces owing to friction fatigue cracks are
initiated at the points where the maximum tangential stress of the tensile strain takes place.
The theoretical & experimental studies show that under contact loading the maximum
tangential stress position is dependent on friction coefficient.
Fij. V. PMiguc damage of solid >urf«* of epoxy roan al Frir.tic

/™0.17 (from Bogdatiovicti PN. Sov J Fricl Wear l9Vtft(3).
Fig 2.69 Fatigue damage of solid surface of epoxy resin at friction coefficient f=0.17
With low friction coefficient, the point where the shear stress is maximum is
located below the surface (f<0.3). When the friction coefficient increase (f>0.3), the point
emerges on surface. On the other hand, if a solid is subjected to combine normal and
tangential loading, the surface and sub-surface regions appear where the tensile strain and
thereby frictional heating occur. Therefore cracks may be nucleated in surface and/or
below it. (fig.2.69)
The incitation of the fatigue cracks is assisted by defects, which are responsible for
stjess concentration. These are scratches, dents, marks and pits on the surface, and
impurities, voids, cavities in sub-surface region.
Both surface and sub-surface cracks which open due to repeated stressing will
gradually grow, join, cross each other and meet the surface until wear debris, including
spalls, are detached after a certain number of stressing.1351
T. S. Ingle studied for the effect of grease lubrication for mill roller journal. The
present system of oil lubrication is a one-through process and slippage of lubricant (oil)
mixing with washed water is very serious problem, which cannot be controlled easily
under the present Pollution Control Board (P.C.B.) norms. The bituminous base lubricant
isjvery difficult to treat and makes the whole surrounding black.
-: 51 :-
The alternative for oil lubrication to meet the sanitary food grade requirement, zero
water pollution and reduction in cost of lubricants apart from effective lubrication of mill
roller journal is the development of modern, excellent quality grease. It is possible to
adopt grease lubrication system, for mill roller journals through centralized system.
Greases are made generally by specification of a metal base with a fatty substance.
The base used includes Calcium, Sodium, Lithium, Aluminum and Lead. The greases are
fortified with additives viz. oxidation inhibitors, extreme pressure additives, depending on
their application.
The greases are usually identified as to consistency by NLGI (National Lubricating
Grease Institute) classification system as shown in Table 2.8 (The NLGI grade is defined
as range of penetration by 60 strokes at 25°C as per the ASTM method D217).
Table. 2.8 The NLGI grade classification
A S T M I'pnetraUon ui ?.5<'
000 44S 475

oo 100 430
355 - 3815
310 • 310
265 295
220 250
175 - 205
130- 160
84 - 115
• * For lubrication of mill roller journal grease should have following properties- High
affinity to Brass, Copper resistance to extreme pressure can operate at high load & high
temperature superior film thickness & load bearing capability, good visco-elastic
behavior, low co-efficient of friction & good pumping property, Resistance to extreme
pressure.
In sugar industry, for roller journal application NLGI # 2 is better. It should with
stand extreme pressure and temperature up to 200°C. This is available with lithium base
with additives such as Molybdenum Disulfide (MOS2) etc.
With grease lubrication, it is possible to adopt high hydraulic load on bearing.

Also with proper PVC sealing device the consumption of grease will be minimized
drastically. There is a nature scope for grease lubricated polypropylene liner as better
option.[14]
M. A. Lokannavar & C. G. Mane experimented the duel line lubrication suitable

for grease & oil. Mills under trial shown that the consumption of lubricant has come down
-: 52 :-
to 50% than the conventional system, virtually this means saving of lubricant and most
important is easy control of effluent i.e pollution was nil, Also roller journal & G. M.
Liner, white metal bearing at transmission side condition was very good.136]
j N. Gunasekaran & M Rajan Babu studied the different drive for sugar mill energy
efficiency & conservation point of view. Providing individual drive to each roller also the
different input power i.e. turbine, hydraulic planetary gear & new D. C. drive are the new
trends in sugar industry. Hydraulic drives require overhauling & reconditioning of
working parts on reaching 1500 Hrs. Also it is working with high maintenance cost. The
D. C. drives are better over hydraulic drive as they are simple in layout & no piping
required, lower maintenance cost, Need less attention, Wide variation of speed range from
2.5 to 5 RPM, Low power consumption, & no lubrication. Scope for future improvement
by modifying the DC Drive to D.C.S.[37]
Table 2.9 The Comparisons of different drives for mills
Parameter Turbine D.C. Hydraulic Planetary gear unit

Drive Electric Drive with D. C. Motor
1. Relative Steam Consumption 100 60 60 51
2. System Losses - Prime Mover to 22% 21% 20% 6%

Input of Top Roller Shaft
3. Relative Space Required 100% 95% 100% 50%
4. Relative Foundation Cost 100% 80% 60% 60%
5. Speed Range Limited Wide Limited High Reliability
6. Maintenance Extensive Normal Extensive -
-: 53 :-

13 - Chapter 2

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Chapter No.

2.2 Developments in Cane crushing sugar mills:-

're« Juic* #xtractee

2.3 Drawbacks of three Roller Mill:-

Advantages of two roller milk-

Fig. 2.4. Two Roller Mill, Mill Discharge Roller Removed

Another important misnomer with regards to Grooved Roller Pressure Feeder

Fig. 2.5. Six Roller Mill

2.5 Identification of Problem:-

2.5.1 Mechanical Problems

2.5.2 Operational Problems

Shaft found deep crack at journal during

2 6 1980 Shaft shear 2003

3 8 1980 Shaft deeply cracked 1999

4 9 1980 Shaft sheared at middle of shell 1999

6 3T-PSSK-22 1991 Roller shaft shear at R.H.S. 1996-97

2.5.5 Data of Journal Bearing:

The common features of the shaft failures are

Similar kind of work i.e. an experimental investigation to determine the levels of

Fig. 2.13 Stress region of roller & shell shaft

Fig. 2.14 Failure of shaft at inside journal fillet

Fig.2.15 Largefilletradius of shaft Fig.2.16Predicted critical path for afilletcrank

| » S. COMPHESSiON PATIO 3.5

Fig. 4. Typical Trace.

Fig. 2.19 Typical trace ofpressure at a point on roll shaft

Table - 2.4: Life estimates for different surface finishes

&yi Jose do .Aoajo {1996!

Parcftto SOCK Tore 2 {19661

Feed torque (%)

Fig.2.23summary of measurements of Fig.2.24 Effect of feed roll speed on

PaiKftfO Qomtl Tare!

Experimental stress analysis approach, supported by Finite Elements Analysis

Several variables of relative importance in the milling process have been

Fig.2.27 Isometric views of stressed tooth

Loading *T T, TrTr T„ Vrr T,:tl„- '•VTr

19.36 911140 16553 0.18 3358: 0.37 0.55 2.05

24.33 M.70 209920 34951 0 17 67164 0.32 0,49 l 'XI

46.47 77.44 66210 134328 2.03

Fig. 2 Tlic forward dip of the resultant

Fig.2.29 The forward dip resultant reaction of three roller

The experimental & analytical analysis to check the mechanical performance of

l'i(ur*.!• SW-fecJi diagram In lupputt A of lop red.

Figure 2. Free-body diagram of the top roll.

D*lc»n( ten, | m j *BCVJ

Power consumption under normal milling conditions, yielding an average total

Theoretical investigations of the mechanics of milling suggested two

The second is Bullock's capacity number which indicates the comparative

Fig.2.34 Extraction as a function of speed Fig.2.35 Roll load as a function of speed at

Fig. 2.36 Roll load as a function of speed at different diameters

(1) volumetric efficiency(&g of fibre per cubic meter of escribed volume),

D. J. Muir & P G Adherton presented the graph to facilitate these calculations

A.R.Patil, E.R.Van Slooten and K.V.Pate- collected the data of individual

The machinery/equipments can operate with 100% efficiency by good maintenance

The cane preparation devices such as levelers rotary knives, shredder/fiberizer

:•• l> * i* I> " —*•'

Fig. 2.38 Mill Roller Groove

N. Dharmalingam did a case study of Grooved Roller Pressure Feeder (GRPF).

By using GRPF 1) Crushing rate is increased by 28%. There is a substantial speed

Fig.2.41 Two roller mill with scraper

*•» « * tfaa » * • « «*>m K * .

Results of cruskcr without and w«l delivery roller

Need of automation in sugar industry is described by Pratap Deshmukh by

In automation different controls are required for example Pneumatic, Analogy

Dlc»n( ten, | m j BCVJ

•» « tfaa » * • « «>m K .

n* S The ihickr," »f ihr inuaferttd t»y« of PTFR i s tui^non of