DELHI METRO RAILWAY CORPORATION

BHARANI SHANKAR (1011162)

BHASKAR DAS (1011163)
BHUPESH VERMA (1011164)
BITANGSHU BARAL (1011165)
DEBASMITA PANJA (1011166)
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................. 3

OVERVIEW ...................................................................................................................................................... 4
INNOVATION & SOCIAL IMPACT ............................................................................................................... 5
INNOVATION IN OVERCOMING THE BARRIERS .................................................................................... 6
ASSESSMENT................................................................................................................................................... 9
CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................................ 11
APPENDIX 1 ................................................................................................................................................. 13
APPENDIX 2 ................................................................................................................................................. 14
APPENDIX 3 ................................................................................................................................................ 15
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................ 16
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 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The Delhi Metro Railway Corporation (DMRC) was setup in 1995, by the Government of India and state
government of Delhi to provide the city with a reliable transportation system which could reduce the
vehicular congestion and also cater to the rapidly growing population. The major funding for the
project was provided by the Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA), with the Central and
Delhi State Governments proving a substantial portion. The rest was financed by loans and property
development.
The metro network has been planned to spread across 413 kilometers by the year 2021 and was
divided into four phases for construction. The construction of Phase I began on October 1, 1998 and
was successfully commissioned by 11th November 2006 with an estimated cost of completion of
`10,571 crore. Presently construction is in-progress for 121 kilometers in Phase – II. Phase – III and
Phase – IV are estimated to be completed by 2015 and 2021.

Even though infrastructure projects in India have been plagued with delays, cost overruns and
inefficiency, the Delhi Metro project has managed to avoid all these issues by excellent project
management, focus on technology, cost control and effective management of the various
stakeholders. The success of the project can be gauged based on the output on the following fronts -
 Improved public transit and a long-term scalable solution to the traffic solution problem
 The environmental benefits due to reduced growth of vehicular population, annual fuel savings
and substantial reduction in air pollution
 A renewed focus on improving urban transport by replicating the MRTS system in other cities
 Adoption and indigenization of state-of-the-art civil engineering and construction technologies
 Transformation of the urban social landscape of Delhi

The project has its share of detractors too; who have pointed out that the project has not taken into
consideration the social and economic inequities that afflict the Indian society. Public transport has
served as a leveler and the high fares may affect the mobility of the lower strata. Cheaper mass
transport options like Bus Rapid Transit Systems (BRTS) have not been explored completely due to the
focus on the metro rail system. In addition a large portion of Delhi Metro’s revenue comes from its real
estate portfolio, which may not be a viable model for other cities to emulate.

On an overall basis, Delhi Metro represents an iconic image for a new India that symbolizes growth,
pride, ownership and respect for the values being instilled by the new system. As an emblem of public
infrastructure in India, it represents the hope that such projects can transform the lives of the citizens
and serve as a template of future implementations.
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 OVERVIEW

Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Ltd was setup in equal partnership by the Government of India (GoI) and
the Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi (GNCTD) in 1995, with E. Sreedharan as the
managing director. This development came about due to the following concerns –
 Delhi saw a rapid growth in population from 57 lakhs in 1981 to 162 lakhs in 2006. This has
been accompanied by vehicular congestion, due to increase in number of vehicles from 5.4
lakhs in 1981 to 51 lakhs in 2007.i
 Traffic on roads of Delhi had become a chaotic heterogeneous mix of cycles, scooters, buses,
cars and rickshaws which has resulted in an increase in road accidents. The average number of
people killed per day has increased to 5 and of those injured to 13. The position was expected
to deteriorate further in the years to come. i
 The private bus transport which was encouraged in 1992 to supplement the public bus service
in Delhi, failed completely due to unreliability of service, extreme overcrowding, unqualified
drivers, speeding and reckless driving, and often ran down passengers waiting at bus stops.ii

This called for a policy shift to encourage public mode of transport over private form. The Central Road
Research Institute (CRRI) had carried out an extensive analysis on the traffic characteristics of Delhi in
1969-1970 and recommended for Mass Rapid Transit Network in the city. The first concrete step in this
direction was, however, taken when a feasibility study for developing such a multi-modal Mass Rapid
Transit System (MRTS) system was commissioned by GNCTD (with support from GoI) in 1989 and
completed by Rail India Technical and Economic Services (RITES) in 1991. The initial plan for Delhi
metro was thus conceptualized.iii Also Delhi was well staged for an excellent MRTS to be brought in. It
has wide roads (roads cover 23% of the city area) and possession for construction is not difficult
(except in the old city area). Implementation would also not involve large scale demolition of private
properties. In addition most of the land required was under government control and hence could be
easily acquired. i

The metro network was planned to spread across 413 kilometers by the year 2021. The construction
for the 65.1 km route of Phase I began on October 1, 1998 v and Delhi Metro Railway Corporation
(DMRC) has already successfully commissioned by 11th November 2006 with an estimated cost of
completion of `10,571 crore. Presently DMRC is working on extension of Phase II of the project (121
kilometers) that started on September 2006 and has a demanding target of September 2010 because it
has to be completed before the Commonwealth Games in October 2010. This means that while Phase
– I was completed in seven years and nine months, Phase – II has to be constructed in three and half
years. Phase – III and Phase – IV are planned to be completed by 2015 and 2021.
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 INNOVATION & SOCIAL IMPACT

The Delhi Metro Rail Corporation created a world-class mass rapid transit system, by successfully
managing the various stakeholders like the central and state governments, the contractors, and the
citizens of Delhi and ensured that the project was implemented smoothly by dividing it into different
phases. The first phase of the network comprised of 65.1 km of route length with 13 km of
underground tracks called Metro corridor and 52.1 km surface or elevated tracks called Rail Corridor. vi

A unique feature of the project was that when Phase I was sanctioned by DMRC in 1996, the Union
Cabinet had directed that about 7% of the initial project cost should be generated through property
development on lands which had been given to DMRC and recurring income should be generated
through property development for paying back subordinate debts. Most of the land was made
available to DMRC on 99 years lease at nominal rent at interdepartmental transfer rates. vii However
the project has been made possible due to soft loans extended by the Japan International Cooperation
Agencyviii. The capital cost of Phases I and II had been estimated at approximately `14,430 crore in
2004. ix

The project brought in a lot of new technologies into the country. A number of innovative practices like
driving of tunnels with earth pressure balanced mechanical shields, ballast less track technology,
automatic ticketing and signaling, high end communication systems between the trains and the
operation control centers, light weight and air conditioned metro coaches and station buildings. The
project adopted the usage of precast concrete technology which though costly ensured high quality
and aesthetics. High-tech coaches were designed by a consortium of Mitsubishi, Japan and Rotem,
Korea. The lines comprise both underground and surface or elevated corridors.

Delhi Metro also has high end security features and has taken up several measures to ensure
passenger safety. Delhi Metro strongly follows the guidelines laid down by the National Fire Prevention
Association. It has an automatic mechanism to detect obstructions within 15 mm between doors. The
doors remain closed during running and if open all of a sudden during movement, brakes are applied
automatically to bring the train to a halt. The train starts moving only when all the doors are closed.
Emergency measures are also provided. Security on the Delhi Metro is handled by the Central
Industrial Security Force. Closed-circuit cameras, metal detectors and X-ray baggage inspection
systems are some of the security features that have been used in the Delhi Metro. Escalators, elevators
and tactile tiles to help the visually impaired persons are present in all the stations. v

The trains use centralized automatic train control (CATC) comprising of automatic train operation
(ATO), automatic train protection (ATP) and automatic train signaling (ATS) systems. Intercoms are
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 available for Emergency communication between passengers and drivers. Route maps and LCD display
systems are present in every coach. Contactless, stored-value smartcards are used for fare collection.
DMRC has joined hands with Google India recently to provide train schedules to mobile devices
through Google maps.vi

Though the first metro of India was opened by Kolkata, it could not boost the confidence of the
Government to go forward further with similar schemes in other cities. Delhi Metro has been a trend
setter for several projects involving mass transit system in our country. The implementation period has
taken less time than what was expected. Many cities like Mumbai, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad,
Kochi and Chandigarh are expected to get metro systems over the next few years, being encouraged by
the system in Delhi. xi

Delhi Metro has also been appreciated for its environment friendly practices. It has got awards for
environment consideration aspect from the United Nations. Extensive measures for environment
protection like conducting rainwater harvesting have been taken. Delhi Metro has also implemented
efficient technologies like regenerative braking systems to reduce the overall power requirement.x
DMRC is one of the two metros all over the world to be ISO 14001 certified for environment
friendliness.xi

The Metro has provided employment benefits to unskilled labor especially during the construction
phase. Delhi Metro has resulted in a hike in house property prices which has benefitted land and house
property owners. Since there has been a diversion of a portion of the city traffic to Metro, savings in
fuel consumption have taken place resulting in foreign exchange savings. It reduced the need for
parking spaces, expansion of roads, flyovers, construction of new roads etc. in areas which are being
served by it. Petrol and CNG have been substituted by electricity thereby reducing air pollution.xxv

INNOVATION IN OVERCOMING THE BARRIERS

Infrastructure projects in India have been plagued with rampant corruption, cost overruns, political
inertia and interference, bureaucratic inefficiency. The MRTS project for Delhi which was first
conceived in 1969, did not make much headway until the late 1990s due to issues with project funding,
bureaucratic hassles and lack of clarity between central, state governments on who was responsible
for urban mass rapid transit. It was in 1995 that DMRC was finally incorporated as a separate entity
and the initial financing was obtained through a combination of international and local funding
sources. 64% of the project cost was funded by the Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA);
28% was funded equally by the Central and Delhi State Governments; both governments financed a
Page 6
 further 5% through loans to cover land acquisition costs and the last 3% of the costs were to be funded
through property development.vii The Delhi project also had to overcome many barriers, some of which
are discussed below -

Technology
Technology exchange was a salient feature in the development of the Delhi Metro. A main
requirement in the global bidding process for contracts was that there should be at least one Indian
partner, which led to technology absorption by Indian firms, localization, re-engineering and
indigenization of technology. Special construction technologies like trench‐less digging, use of
ballast‐less tracks and precast concrete were used which reduced the project duration. Some of the
major technology challenges include -
 Tunneling in the Old Delhi area where buildings had weak foundations. The tunnels were
therefore constructed at a depth of more than 20 meters.
 Metro viaducts were built over railway bridges without disturbing the traffic
 A continuous pre-stressed box girder of length 553 meters was built across the river Yamuna
using a special technique called ‘incremental launching’ without traffic disruption. The bridge
was completed in a period of just 30 months and there are no joints which enables a smoother
journey.xii
Delhi Metro’s success has ensured that Indian companies are now almost self sufficient in technology
to take up similar projects in other cities. xiii

Project Execution
The DMRC project was headed by E. Sreedharan who had vast experience in the implementation of the
Kolkata Metro and the Konkan Railway (which was the first big project to be completed under the
Build-Operate-Transfer basis). He was given full autonomy on all matters and was the last authority on
tenders. He implemented the following processes which enabled completion of the project within the
stipulated deadlines -
 The DMRC had a lean organizational structure comprising of only 2 departments - project
organization and operation & maintenance. The organization culture was based on punctuality,
honesty and strict adherence to timelines.
 A team of people received training at Hong Kong’s Mass Rapid Transit Railway to get a first
hand understanding of the nuances of the project.
 The contract awarding and procurement processes were simple, transparent without any
subjective elements. This prevented corruption and ensured a level playing field.
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  Thorough planning and effective project design were the focus areas. Adherence to the
schedule was stressed and the project progress was reviewed every week. Employees had
schedules with reverse clocks to indicate the number of days left before important deadlines.
 Primavera Project Planner, special software was used for project planning and monitoring. The
resource management module alerted managers in case of shortage or excess of resources. The
software also tracked the various project activities completed at different levels vs. the actual
schedule. Managers were also alerted of critical / upcoming activities so that they can be
tracked / rescheduled if necessary. All these were required as a day’s work lost resulted in a
loss of `50 lakhs.xii

Cost Control
The main reason for cost over-runs in big projects is non-adherence to the project schedule due to
delays in land acquisition, legal hurdles, etc. Some of the cost control measures which were
implemented in DMRC include -
 The Delhi Metro Railway (Operation & Maintenance) Act, 2002 provided special powers to
DMRC to acquire land for the metro / other utilities or property development in order to
recover costs. This law superseded Delhi’s local municipal laws and stay orders could not be
issued by lower courts. It has not provided for resettlement and rehabilitation and deals with
the cash component only. However many were displaced without any say and litigations are
still in process.
 DMRC entered into a special agreement with Delhi Transco Ltd power supply at low rates. It
also negotiated with the central government for exemption of import duty and excise tax and
with the state government for exemption of sales tax and work contract tax, resulting in cost
savings of about `1800 crore.
 Pacific Consultants International (PCI) provided overall consultancy for the project. A major part
of the project was supervised by consultants and construction was delegated to a consortium of
contractors. This reduced the in-house governance cost drastically. xii

Managing the stakeholders

The main stakeholders of the project included the central and state governments, funding agencies,
contractors and the public.
 DMRC’s autonomy was ensured in recruitments, promotions, land acquisition and awarding of
contracts. No decision was reviewed / changed unless there was a need for it from a
professional or technical perspective.
 JICA which was the lead financier and was engaged throughout the project.
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  DMRC organized community interaction programs to elicit solutions from the public on various
issues.
 IIT Delhi was involved in planning alternate traffic arrangements to that inconvenience to the
general public due to the construction work was minimum. In addition care was taken so that
other utilities (like water pipes, sewers, etc) were diverted before the work commenced on a
particular section.xii

By virtue of the above, the number of persons employed per kilometer of track was only 45, which is a
third of that employed for the Kolkata Metro Rail project. The first phase of the project which was
estimated to cost about `6000 crore (at 1996 prices), was completed at a cost of `10571 crore.xiv

ASSESSMENT

India has a very unenviable track record for unimplemented urban plans, and the biggest achievement
of the Delhi Metro rail project has been efficient construction and running a technically advanced
operation in a challenging environment.
The effectiveness of the project can be assessed in five themes –
 Improved public transit has ensured that the project has 2
Cars
Wheelers
provided a long lasting solution for commuters in a traffic 320000
90000

congested city like Delhi. Approximately 1.05 million passengers

3
use the metro system of normal weekdays.xv Buses
Wheelers
1800
 The environmental benefits are assumed to be in range of 1,800 Phase 19000
I + II
fewer buses on the roads, annual fuel savings of `1712 million
Estd REDUCTION IN VEHICLES (2011)2
and substantial reduction in air pollution. xvi
 Political consensus on the project has resulted in its
endorsement by most of the political and social constituents, Diesel 15.75
Million liters
Petrol 87.5
which has in turn has resulted in encouraging other cities to Million liters

opt for such metro systems. DMRC which was able to CNG
82.91Million
Kg
implement the metro network ahead of schedule and on
budget, is the consultant on many such projects.
 New technologies were introduced into the country via this
REDUCTION IN FUEL CONSUMPTION
project, including advanced tunneling techniques, ballast-less DUE TO PHASE –I & II

track technology, sophisticated signaling system with

automatic train protection, ticketing system etc. The project management expertise which was
developed during the course of the project will serve as a trendsetter for future mega public and
private projects. xi
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  The metro has also enabled transformation of the urban social landscape of Delhi, by inculcating a
culture of discipline, order, routine and cleanliness in the community. The technology and scale of
the project has attracted attention of the global community on the city thereby allowing it to stake
a claim as a ‘world-class’ city.xvii

However studiesxviii have suggested that the project has not been able to avoid the inequities which
result from the economic disorientation caused by the land appropriations along the route (whose final
alignment is guided by property development considerations).
Most of the affected are slum dwellers and lower income category families, who have been
marginalized further by relatively high metro fares. In a city with such visible disparity between the rich
and the poor, low cost (and sometimes subsidized) transport mechanism had been serving as one of
the levelers. Also the lack of dissenting opinion on the project has meant that cheaper options like Bus
Rapid Transit Systems (BRTS) have not been explored completely. In addition Delhi Metro has used the
large tracts of land it got from the government for develop real estate and now 33 per cent of its total
revenue is coming from the same (in comparison to 54 per cent from traffic). xix Delhi Metro’s profit is
boosted by what it earns from real estate, which may not be a viable model for other cities to emulate.

The accelerated rate of construction due to the completion of phase II before the Commonwealth
games resulted in few accidents as listed below -
 Aug 28, 2007: A crane driver died after a concrete block fell on him due to a "technical failure"
at a Delhi Metro construction site in Mayur Vihar in east Delhi.
 Oct 19, 2008: An under construction flyover collapsed in east Delhi due to mechanical failure
leading to the death of at least two people. Nearly 30 people were injured.
 Jan 21, 2008: A laborer was killed at a Delhi Metro construction site in east Delhi due to the
collapse of one side of the construction site.
 July 12, 2009: An under construction bridge collapsed during erection process near central
secretariat causing five casualties and injuring the other five.
These incidents questions the safety norms followed during the construction phase by DMRC and its
contractors.xx

The DMRC is also not able to manage the increasing passenger traffic. The increased frequency of
services has sometimes led to technical snags. xxi,xxii In addition to that the feeder bus service has not
able to achieve the desired result.xxiii
Some of the allegations leveled by CAG (Comptroller and Auditor General of India) audit against DMRC
include -
 Neither the central nor the state government is involved in the management of the company
and the company’s board does not have any independent directors. In some cases, changes
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 were made to the contracts after they were awarded and there were some discrepancies in
evaluating the contracts. In phase II of the project with the 2010 Commonwealth Games as
target, some tests pertaining to the construction were conducted in non-accredited
laboratories and DMRC has not maintained proper records of the testing reports. xxiv
 The loan of nearly `6600 crores to DMRC has been subsidized by the central government and
no dividend has been paid for the government’s equity component. Together they constitute a
loss of nearly `1000 crores. xxii
 DMRC acquired more land than what was legitimately required, nearly 32.5 lakh square feet of
land was acquired for phase I. No record has been maintained for the acquired land. In
addition, DMRC is not paying property tax for the land under development. xxii

DMRC also does not have a visible second rung leadership and Sreedharan has been blamed for not
nurturing one who can take over from him. DMRC was setup in 1996 and there is no public face other
for the organization other than Sreedharan. This could lead to a leadership void when he retires. xxv

CONCLUSION

Best Practices in the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC)

The Delhi Metro Rail Corporation has incorporated state-of-art technology which represents the
commitment of the organization towards the adherence of the one of the best practices in the world.
It has continually and proactively introduced innovative ideas like the automatic ticketing and signaling,
air-conditioned coaches and station buildings, integrated smart card with Citibank credit card etc. in
the process.xxvi

The safety features implemented in the project is also one of the best among the worldwide metro
services. DMRC has now found a place in Nova (an elite and exclusive club for medium-sized urban
railway systems), which is an exclusive international forum for world's urban railways, that helps others
with technology transfer and also sets the best practices standards for the industry as a whole. xxvii

Implementation in other cities

DMRC is also transferring the technology to metro systems of other cities. For overcoming the traffic
problems in our major cities Metros are the ideal solution. The implementation can be done in a phase
wise manner and so the initial planning has to be done for major cities having population more than 3
million and then in second phase the concentration should be on cities with population more than 1
million.xxviii
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 The major challenge in the implementation is viability and connectivity with the existing system. This is
quite evident from the example of Kolkata Metro system which is not able to attract the estimated
traffic. So before implementation of the system in other cities the Government or the Metro system
has to meet the need of the commuters which basically revolves around parameters like accessibility,
travel time, frequency and safety.xxix

PPP (Public Private Partnership)

In Mumbai, Metro Phase-I will be implemented on a Build-Own-Operate-Transfer basis for the period
of 35 years. High fund requirement is also a factor to promote the PPP in this sector. An estimate
suggests that over half a dozen cities in India will require $12.5 billion to get metro systems. Various
models like viability gap funding (VGF) has been proposed. The central government has agreed to fund
some of the projects by a mechanism called viability gap funding (VGF). Non-operational revenues
constitute 30% of the total and it also signals the high possibility of PPP in the non-operational
revenue. Economic internal return ratio of the project works out to 21.4% and the financial return ratio
of 3% also make PPP justified in this sector. xxx

Social Benefits
Delhi Metro is the first railway project to be registered under Clean Development Mechanism of United
Nations to earn carbon credits. It is slated to earn Net Benefit of Metro viii
400,000 carbon credits for the period of 10 years Passenger
starting from December 2007. This will generate a 33%
Govt
revenue of `1.2 crore in the future. xxxi Metro also 46%
creates an incomparable experience of short trips Unskilled
that represents the efficiency, modernity and sense labour
0%
of progress the new system. A substitution for the Public
existing road transportation system is also needed 21%

because of the increase in the frequency of road accidents which added to the sense of insecurity for
this mode of transportation. The Metro has also transformed the social culture giving us a sense of
discipline, cleanliness and enhanced multifold development of the place.
At the same time it also presents an iconic image that could generate a sense of public pride,
ownership and respect for the values being instilled by the new system.xxxii
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 APPENDIX 1

Phase I of Delhi Metro Rail project consisted of the following three lines xxxiii

Line Length (Kms) No. of Stations

Shahdara-Tri Nagar-Rithala 22.06 18
Vishwa Vidyalaya-Central Secretariat 10.84 10
Indraprastha-Barakhamba Road-Dwarka Sub City 32.10 31

xxiv
Phase II of the Delhi Metro Project consist of the following lines

Line Length (Kms) No. of Stations

Shahdara – Dilshad Garden 3.09 3
Indraprastha – Noida Sector 32 City Centre 15.07 11
Yamuna Bank – Anand Vihar ISBT 6.17 5
Vishwavidyalaya – Jahangir Puri 6.36 5
Inderlok – Kirti Nagar –Mundka 18.46 15
Central Secretariat – Sushant Lok 27.45 19
Dwarka Sector 9 to Dwarka Sector 21 2.76 2
New Delhi – Airport 19.20 4
Anand Vihar – KB Vaishali 2.57 2
Central Secretariat – Badarpur 20.04 15

Phase III (planned) with a total length of 112 kilometres, has a 2015 deadline, and tentatively includes
extensions to Badli, Mukundpur, Bahadurgarh, Shiv Vihar, Barwala, Ghaziabad, Gurgaon and Faridabad.xxxiv

Phase IV (planned) has a 2020 deadline, and tentatively includes further extensions to Sarai Kale Khan
ISBT, Sonia Vihar, Reola Khanpur, Mukundpur, Palam, Najafgarh, Ghazipur, Noida Sector 62, Gurgaon and
Faridabad, having a total length of 108.5 km.xxv
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 APPENDIX 2

Delhi Metro Rail Network xxxv

Page 14
 APPENDIX 3 xxxvi
Page 15
 REFERENCES
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ii The Crisis of Public Transport in India, Journal of Public Transportation
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vi http://www.delhimetrorail.com/corporates/history.html
vii http://www.delhimetrorail.com/corporates/propertydvp/background.html
viii http://web.iitd.ac.in/~tripp/delhibrts/metro/Metro/message%20in%20a%20metro%20-%20Matti.pdf
ix http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/1658/1/MPRA_paper_1658.pdf
x http://www.delhimetrorail.com/commuters/whats_new.html
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xii http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/Delhi%20Metro.pdf
xiii http://www.icjonline.com/interviews/Interview_Sreedharan_Nov_2002.pdf - Interview with E. Sreedharan
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Metro%20Project.pdf
xv http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/5973562.cms
xvi http://www.delhimetrorail.com/corporates/ecofriendly/Chapter%205.pdf
xvii Message in a Metro: Building Urban Rail Infrastructure and Image in Delhi, India International Journal of Urban and
Regional Research
xviii Socio-Economic Impact Assessment (SEIA) Methodology for Urban Transport Projects Provide more details
xix DMRC Annual report 2008-2009
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xxii http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/newdelhi/Crowded-stations-slow-trains/Article1-477845.aspx
xxiii http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/newdelhi/Feeder-service-or-the-lack-of-it/Article1-484059.aspx
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xxv http://news.in.msn.com/business/article.aspx?cp-documentid=3077976
xxvi The Indian Concrete Journal, November 2002, Delhi Metro : a trend setter project
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November 2002
xxviii International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, June 2006, 277-92
xxix Social cost benefit analysis of Delhi metro (October 2006) by Institute of Economic Growth
xxx www.ibef.org/download/TRANSPORT.pdf
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project-to-earn-carbon- credits/articleshow/2676012.cms
xxxii Evaluation of public transport system systems : case study of Delhi metro by Mukti Advani & Geetam Tiwari
xxxiii http://www.delhimetrorail.com/corporates/projectupdate/phase1_network.html
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xxxv http://mapsof.net/delhi/static-maps/png/delhi-metro-rail-map
xxxvi Mythologies, Metro Rail Systems and Future Urban Transport – Dinesh Mohan (Economic & Political Weekly)
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