The distinction between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is considered to be the most important distinction

among groups of organisms. Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles, such as the nucleus,
while prokaryotic cells do not. In eukaryotes, the mitochondria and chloroplasts perform various
metabolic processes and are believed to have been derived from endosymbiotic bacteria. In prokaryotes
similar processes occur across the cell membrane; endosymboints are extremely rare.

Cell wall provides support, help maintain the shape of the cell, and prevent the cell from taking too
much fresh water and bursting. Plasma membrane is made mainly of phospholipids and proteins, which
functions as a barrier, regulating the movement of materials between the inside and the outside of the
cell. Flagella are longer than cilia, aid in cell movement. Cilia which are able to beat together in a
coordinated manner can also help direct materials around the outside of the cell.

Cells regulate their division by communicating with each other using chemical signals from special
protein called cyclins. These signals act like switches to tell cells when to start dividing and later when to
stop dividing. It is important for cells to divide so you can grow and so your cuts heal. It is also important
for cells to stop dividing at the right time.

In prophase, the cell starts to break down some structures and build others up, setting the stage for
division of the chromosomes. In prometaphase, the mitotic spindle begins to capture and organize the
chromosomes. In metaphase, the spindle has captured all the chromosomes and lined them up at the
middle of the cell, ready to divide. In anaphase, the sister chromatids separate from each other and are
pulled towards opposite ends of the cell. In telophase, the cell is nearly done dividing and it starts to re-
establish its normal structures as cytokinesis takes place.

Mitosis is a process of cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells developing
from a single parent cell. Meiosis, on the other hand, is the division of a germ cell involving two fissions
of the nucleus and giving rise to four gametes, or sex cells, each possessing half the number of
chromosomes of the original cell. In meiosis, mixing of chromosomes can occur while in mitosis cannot.
The number of daughter cells produced in meiosis is 4 haploid cells while in mitosis is 2 diploid cells.
Meiosis is discovered by Oscar Hertwig while mitosis is discovered by Walther Flemming.

Osmosis is a vital process in biological systems, as biological membranes are semipermeable. In general,
these membranes are impermeable to large and polar molecules, such as ions, proteins, and
polysaccharides, while being permeable to non-polar and hydrophobic molecules like lipids as well as to
small molecules like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and nitric oxide. Permeability depends on
solubility, charge, or chemistry, as well as solute size. Water molecules travel through the plasma
membrane, tonoplast membrane or protoplast by diffusing across the phospholipid bilayer via
aquaporins. Osmosis provides the primary means by which water is transported into and out of cells.
The turgor pressure of a cell is largely maintained by osmosis across the cell membrane between the cell
interior and its relatively hypotonic environment.

Lipid solubility is the most important factor in determining a molecule`s permeability. Hydrophobic
molecules, such as hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, and oxygen, can dissolve in the lipid bilayer and cross
it with ease.
An action potential is momentary change in the membrane potential caused by a transient change in the
membrane`s permeability to sodium and potassium. The upstroke, or depolarization phase, is caused by
the flow of sodium ions into the cell. The downstroke, or repolarization phase, is caused by the flow of
potassium ions out of the cell. During the action potential, the inside of the cell becomes positively
charged with respect to the outside. At the end of the action potential, the membrane becomes more
negatively than when it was in the resting state. This portion of the action potential is called the
undershoot or hyperpolarization phase.

Cells often need to create concentration gradients across membranes. The concentration of a molecule
is much higher on one side of the membrane than the other when a concentration gradient exists. In
order to create or maintain a concentration gradient, individual molecules must be moved from an area
of low concentration to an area of high concentration. This cannot occur through passive diffusion, in
fact diffusion will cause the gradient to break down. Only active transport, which requires both
specialized transport molecules and the expenditure of energy can drive molecules up a concentration
gradient.

Almost all homeostatic control mechanisms are negative feedback mechanisms. These mechanisms
change the variable back to its original state. The control of blood sugar (glucose) by insulin is another
good example of a negative feedback mechanism. When blood sugar rises, receptors in the body sense a
change. In turn, the control center (pancreas) secretes insulin into the blood effectively lowering blood
sugar levels. Once blood sugar levels reach homeostatis, the pancreas stops releasing insulin.