REVIEWER IN RESEARCH
phases namely:
Research- includes any gathering of data,
information and facts for the advancement of
knowledge. It relates to a process of composite
steps used to collect and analyze information to
increase understanding of a topic and
ultimately generate knowledge first by posing a
question, then collecting data to answer the
question and finally presenting an answer to
the problem
Leedy (1989)- follows a MORE PRACTICAL
APPROACH about research as a procedure done
to support a demonstrable fact in answering a
question or resolving a problem
Kerlinger (2008)- uses more TECHNICAL
LANGUAGE to define it as the systematic,
controlled, empirical and critical investigation of
hypothetical propositions about presumed
relations among natural phenomena
Thomas Kuhn(1987)- shown the MOST
IMPORTANT PRECONDITION for science is that
the researchers possess a wide range of
practical skills for carrying out a scientific work
following an inquisitive thinking
Collins Dictionary(1999)- defines research as
systematic investigation to establish facts or
collect information on the subject or based on
word derivative which means to search again
taken from the prefix “re” denoting a repetitive
action and search, meaning to seek
Etymologically , the word research is derived
from Middle French “recherché” which means
“to go about seeking”, the term itself being
derived from the Old French term “ recerchier”
a compound word from “re-“ + “cerchier” or
“searcher”, which means ‘search’ with the
earliest record to use of the term in 1577
Inquiry- can lead to another research question
based on a recommendation made in a previous
research
Research- is a cyclical process of returning again
and again to the research questions, methods
and data which can lead to new ideas, revisions
and improvements. ( it is a continuous process)
The systematic process is comprised of four
1. The design- starts with the problem
then conceptualizes into variables and
measures with theorizing as support
2. The implementation- from actual data-
gathering to analysis and interpretation,
bringing the research to its conclusion
and re-conceptualization with
recommendations as end in view
3. The presentation/ sharing –effective
presentation and sharing of results;
4. The packaging- writing of the full
research manuscripts following the APA
documentation
Note: as you can see in diagram located on
page 3, remember that problem ,
hypothesis, research design, and
measurement are included on the design
process. On the other hand, data
collection, data analysis are in the
implementation stage, while
generalization is included in the
presentation process. Amidst of those, the
packaging pertains to the whole research
itself
Importance of Research
Research – when taught well can provide
literacy and numeracy skills viewed.
Research when it is of high quality can
produce knowledge that is applicable
outside of the research setting with
implications that go beyond the group that
has participated in the research
We can see the remarkable role of research
in accomplishing the following:
1. Each research tool is appropriate in a
given situation to accomplish a specific
purpose these tools should be used
together as they supplement the work
of others.
2. Research is the systematic investigation
and study of materials and sources to
establish facts and reach new
conclusions, so it shapes people
 understanding of the world around
them.
3. The results of the research can lead to
some recommendations for changes in
practices
4. Research can give a full grasp of the
complexities of human experiences and
behaviors through a discovery process
5. Research would eventually arrive at
some conclusions or decisions to
further test or prove a phenomenon
and provide the students a more
effective and efficient education
6. It determines the success or failure of
change in any process, hence the
success of any endeavor greatly lies on
a good research as a long and enduring
process
CONTRIBUTIONS OF RESEARCH
A. To confirm certainty- firm beliefs on
particular issues which can be backed
by research with more reliable info
B. To give substance to views and
arguments- research produces hard
facts that could support your
arguments and beliefs
C. To give new information- provides
other facts which you may not have
been aware
D. To provide key information for a clearer
strategy- research provides the real life
experiences that are more convincing
than statistics organized into graphs
and tables
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
RESEARCH is SCIENCE
Systematic- organized set of rules on a
step-by step process , following the
generally accepted principles and practices
of research
Controlled- limits and scope of an inquiry
on certain variables rather that a broad and
vague topic
Inquiry- a question, the start of an inquiry
focused on the need to investigate
Empirical- gathering of data derived from
physical observation or thoughts and
experiences founded on social reality or
survey that describes a population and
relationship of variables
New Knowledge- implication of the study
and validation of the scholarly knowledge
Conclusion- to find answers to the
questions, more specifically addressing the
main and sub-problems of the study
Effective method- technique as the means
to an end of arriving at data through
specifying the design, identifying samples/
participants of the study, preparing tools /
instruments for data- gathering procedures
and analysis
Thus, research is a “systematic and
controlled inquiry based on empirical data
to arrive at new knowledge about a certain
subject or topic through a Conclusion-
bearing problem solving process by means
of an effective method
Important elements and steps in an inquiry
within the realms of SCIENCE:
1. Observation and Formation of the
Topic- a decision on subject area of
interest which can be randomly chosen
2. Hypothesis/ postulates- testable
prediction which designates the relation
between two or more variables
3. Gathering of data using a method-
identifying a population and selecting
samples by using specific research
instrument
4. Analysis of data- involves breaking
down the individual pieces of data in
order to draw conclusions about them
5. Interpretation of data- represented
through tables, figures, matrices and
pictures described in words backed-up
by literature
6. Conclusion and recommendations-
answers given to the inquiry with the
 appropriate recommendations in order
to pursue further research, take
possible actions, or policy formulation
The nature of qualitative inquiry explores
the totality of the situation by digging down
on “ hard data” based on propositions in a
scientific and empirical way throughout the
research process (Bogdan & Taylor, 1975)
The role of the qualitative researcher is
indeed crucial in gathering detailed data
through open-ended questions that provide
direct quotations (Jacob, 1988)
ETHICS OF RESEARCH
The first step is to get the approval of
participation in the research in order not to
trespass human’s privacy
Research in the pursuit of knowledge and
truth should observe ethics .
SIGNIFICANT EVENTS LEADING TO
RESEARCH ETHICS
Nuremberg Code- established in 1948
stating that” voluntary consent of the
human subject is absolutely essential”
making it clear that the subjects should give
consent and that the benefits of the
research must outweigh the risks
Helsinki Declaration- develop by the World
Medical Association, and contains all the
basic ethical elements designed to address
any possible harm on the human subjects
who participate in research
Belmont report of 1979- from the National
Commission for the protection of Human
Subjects of Biomedical and behavioral
research on the concepts of respect for
persons and in assessing the risks and
benefits (beneficence) and subject selection
(justice)
A qualitative research involving human
subjects without any permission lacks an
adequate moral basis (Gregory.2005)
Informed consent- a process of getting
permission before conducting research
according to the guidelines of research
ethics
To obtain a valid informed consent, three
requirements have to be met with human
subjects (Faden and Beauchamp, 1986)
1. Disclosure- requires the researcher to
be sincere in supplying the human
subjects with the information necessary
in a language that is clearly understood
to make a free decision
2. Capacity- pertains to the
comprehension and ability of the
human subjects to understand the
information and form a reasonable
judgment based on the potential
consequences of the decision to
participate in the study
3. Voluntariness- refers to the free will of
human subjects in decision making
without being subjected to external
pressure such as coercion, manipulation
or undue influence.
The full informed voluntary consent form
contains information as required in Belmont
Report of 1979
Information Contained in the Consent Form
( pls refer to page 9 for full info)
1. A statement that the study involves
research with explanation of the
purpose
2. A description of any reasonably
foreseeable risks to the subjects
3. A description of any benefits the
subject might expect
4. A description of how the confidentiality
of the research records will be
maintained
5. A contact info for an individual who can
answer questions about research
6. A statement that participation is
voluntary
Generally, ethics as defined by Mukherji and
Albon (2010) includes a set of principles which
relate to correct conduct and standards relate
to a moral code specifying right from wrong. It
is a branch of philosophy concerned with the
meaning of all aspects of human behavior based
on some ethical guidelines applied to research
(Albon 2007)
1. Deception- participants must know
what the study is about
2. Protection of participants from harm-
procedures protect the participants
from psychological and physical harm
3. Right to withdraw
4. Debriefing- participants should be
informed of the nature and purpose of
the research including the results of the
study
5. Confidentiality- there must be a full
guarantee on concealed identity
(anonymity) when necessary
6. Privacy- respect for participants privacy
and psychological well-being must be
obsessed.
7. Concern- Researchers who notice or
know of any unethical practice of fellow
researchers can report this in
observance of ethics in research
Ethics involves systematizing, defending,
and recommending concepts of right and
wrong behavior. There are two other
definitions of ethics from the perspectives
of a free will- one refers to the well-
founded standards of right and wrong and
another on the study and development of
one’s ethical standards; feelings, laws and
social norms
Ethics- is also inextricably linked with values
. In its totality, the ethical system describes
the critical process of how we work through
moral issues.
DIFFERENTIATING QUALITATIVE FROM
QUANTITATIVE
Scientific method- body of techniques for
investigating phenomena, acquiring new
knowledge, or correcting and integrating
previous knowledge (Goldhaber and Nieto,
2010)
The scientific nature of any method inquiry
must be based on empirical and measurable
evidence subject to principles of reasoning.
(Newton, 1687)
Since 17th century the scientific method has
been characterized in the natural science
Early beginnings of qualitative research
started with two researchers in the field of
education in the United States. In 1940,
Margaret Mead, an anthropologist studies
the rapidly changing educational system
which required smooth interaction between
teacher and student.
1n 1951, Howard Becker , a sociologist
made qualitative approaches and looked
into social- class variation In teacher-pupil
relations by conducting interviews
Qualitative research is designed to reveal
the participants range of views and
perspectives with reference to specific
topics or issues. It uses in-depth studies of
small groups of people which are more
descriptive in nature
It originated in the social and behavioral
sciences: sociology and anthropology and
psychology but today, qualitative methods
uses in-depth interviews with individuals ,
group discussions and observations
As early as the 1900’s researchers rejected
positivism which is a great influence to
quantitative research. It has been heavily
influenced by the variety of sub-disciplines
in the 1920’s and 1930’s highlighting its
central role in social sciences (Lockyer,
2008)
The formal recognition of qualitative
approach began when scholars Barney
Glaser and Anslem Strauss (1967) first used
the phrase qualitative research in the title
of their book “The Discovery of Grounded
Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research”
Followed by William Filstead (1970) with his
edited collection entitled “Qualitative
Methodology”
The peak of qualitative research rose in the
1960’s and emerged as a field.
The book on “The Human Perspective in
Sociology” published a comprehensive
theoretical and methodological explanation - formulation of hypothesis is not required
on the qualitative tradition (Bruyn, 1966) on qualitative but can be generated on
analysis
Early 1970’s- also saw courses being
offered for the first time in education - there is no one method to analyze
qualitative data, and often given a more
The Year 2000- marked qualitative comprehensive analysis using several
technique as a budding research in the field research models anchored on theories of
of education culture
Qualitative research- emphasizes - generally it is numberless
understanding through a looking glass
which scans people’s words, actions, and -may began with an assumption from which
records. In contrast, qualitative research the phenomenon can be examined as a
examines the patterns of meanings emerge starting point
from the data presented in the participants
- it is exploratory and a highly subjective
own words.
discipline
Task of a qualitative researcher is to
-it has no structural constraints in using a
interpret these words and present analysis
variety of techniques to obtain in-depth and
The goal of a qualitative research is to lengthy information
discover patterns emerging after close
observation, careful documentation, and -it goes with the saying “size does not
matter” as long as the samples are more
thought analysis of the research topic.
What can be discovered by a qualitative focused
research is not a sweeping generalization QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
but only CONTEXTUAL FINDINGS.
-clearly uses numbers, although supported with
Qualitative researcher holds that words in discussion and analysis
understanding a specific problem made into
a case study and examines in-depth - conclusive in its purpose
purposive but focused sample (yin 1989)
comparison qualitative quantitative
THUS, to better understand a phenomenon General State Test
(Racino, 1999), the gathering of thick framework postulates/ hypothesis
assumptions
description of information must be drawn
objective To describe To quantify
from these samples. Normally the way to
experiences
gather this information is through open- Question Open-ended Closed-ended
ended questions (not categorical) and not format (Expounded) (fixed)
simply answerable by yes or no, thus Sampling Purposive w/ Samples with
allowing greater participation in expressing technique maximum statistical
thoughts, feelings and sentiments into variation representation
words of population
Sample called Participants Respondents
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Design Phenomenon Survey /
/ ethnography Experiment
-focus on single case because of its / historical /
convenience unlike quantitative inquiry case study
which mostly aims to generalize findings /participatory
Data- Interview Questionnaire,
-data can be achieved through dialogues, gathering schedule / inventory
interviews, etc. tools observation /
focus group
discussion
 guides -address research questions more on remedies
Data format Textual Numerical in and efficacy of herbal medicines
narratives in tables/ graphs
matrices -Agriculture

Qualitative method has more spontaneity and

adaptability to the quality of responses by the
participants to open-ended questions with
greater freedom to respond on their own

Flexibility-makes the participants to ‘think

outside the box’ whereas in quantitative
research, the respondents answer only
categorical questions as they ‘think inside the
box’

Ideally in most situations, the researchers both

quali and quanti researches since they provide
different perspectives and usually complement
each other (Stroep and Johnson, 2010)

One real strength of qualitative research is that

it can use naturally-occurring data to find
sequences (how) in which participant meanings
(what) are deployed and thereby establish the
character of some phenomenon

Contextual sensitivity- means that qualitative

researchers can look at how an apparently
stable phenomenon put together by its
participants.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ACROSS FIELDS

Today a number of studies using qualitative

approach may range from art to science; such
as fields like humanities, business, Agriculture
and fisheries, etc

Here are some across disciplines:

-Information and Communication Technology

-Education

A qualitative study in education pertains to a

Christian school (based on Peshkin, 1986) and
by interviewing the students, parents, teachers,
etc

Another qualitative study, follows a very

different approach by simply attending class,
becoming friendly, etc. (Jefferies, 1999)

-Science and Medicine