Waveguide Electromagnetism

• In electromagnetics, the term waveguide may refer to any linear structure

that conveys electromagnetic waves between its endpoints.

• The Optical Fiber is a dielectric waveguide designed to work at optical

frequencies.

• Propagation in a dielectric waveguide (optical fiber) may be viewed in the

same way as a rectangular waveguide, with the waves confined to the
dielectric by total internal reflection at its surface.

• Electromagnetic waveguides are analyzed by solving Maxwell's equations,

with boundary conditions.

• These equations have multiple solutions known as Modes (EM field

patterns of radiation).
 Fiber Modes
• “Multimode” indicates that light can travel in many ways in such
fiber.
• The easiest way to visualize these multiple paths is by drawing
light rays that are reflected back and forth from the core-cladding
interface but actually the things are much more complicated.
• If core diameter is reduced to the magnitude of the wavelength of
light, we have to apply a more sophisticated analysis (wave
equations for electrons in atoms)
• Only a limited number of solutions (propagation modes) for the
light exist
• A mode is a stable propagation state in an optical fiber and it is an
effect caused by the wave nature of light.
• If light travels through an optical fiber along certain paths, the
electromagnetic field in the light waves reinforce each other to
form a field distribution that is stable as it travels down the fiber.
These stable operating points (standing waves) are modes.
• If the light tries to travel other paths, a stable wave will not
propagate down the fiber- thus no mode.
• Mode may be taken as bundles of light rays entering the
fiber at the same angle.
• Light actually penetrates slightly into the fiber cladding
layer. Some modes may propagate partly in the cladding
where loses tend to be high because light can leak out of
the fiber and absorption in the fiber.
• Each mode has characteristics number N. A mode N is
associated with all rays traveling at an angle θN with
respect to fiber axis
θN ≈ λ((N+1)/2Dn) radians
Where N is mode number(0,1,2,3….), λ is the wavelength,
D is the core diameter and n is refractive index of the core.
• An optical mode refers to a specific solution of the wave
equation that satisfies the appropriate boundary conditions
and has the property that its spatial (field) distribution
doesn’t change with propagation.
• The boundary conditions imposed by the fiber is the
prescribed variation of permittivity, ε r ( r ) or refractive
index n(r)= ε r ( r.)
• The solutions are also subject to the requirements that the
fields be finite on the axis and zero at infinity. i.e

(0, ) and ( , ) 0
• Waveguide propagation modes depend on the operating
wavelength and polarization and the shape and size of the guide.
These discrete, propagating, electromagnetic field patterns are
referred as modes. Each mode has unique β value and so each
propagates with its own phase and group velocities. The transverse
modes are classified into different types:
– TE modes (Transverse Electric) have no electric field in the direction of
propagation (Ez = 0).
– TM modes (Transverse Magnetic) have no magnetic field in the direction of
propagation (Hz = 0).
– TEM modes (Transverse Electromagnetic) the total field lies in the
transverse plane, these modes have no electric or magnetic field in the
direction of propagation(both Ez & Hz = 0).
– Hybrid modes have both electric and magnetic field components in the
direction of propagation.
• In a cylindrical waveguide TE (Transverse Electric) refers to the mode
where the electric field is perpendicular and Ez is zero i.e. the electric field
does not exist in the direction of propagation.
• Similarly the Transverse Magnetic (TM) refers to the mode where
magnetic field is perpendicular and Hz is zero i.e. the magnetic field does
not exist in the direction of propagation.
• TEM modes where both Hz and Ez is zero i.e. no electric or magnetic field
in the direction of propagation exist. TEM waves occur in twin (pair)
conductors (e.g coaxial cables) and seldom found in optical waveguides.
• Hybrid modes (HE and EH) exist where nonzero electric and magnetic
field exist in the direction of propagation.
• Similar to a rectangular waveguide, the optical WG is also bound by two
dimensions, and the integers ‘l’ and ‘m’ specify the field maxima at the
circumference and radius of the core respectively. Thus the modes for an
optical WG are referred as TElm , TMlm
• TE and TM modes refer to the meridional rays whereas Hybrid modes are a
result of skew ray propagation and are designated as HElm or EHlm
depending on whether component of H or E makes greater contribution to
the transverse field
• An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide,
consisting of a dielectric material surrounded by another
dielectric material with a lower refractive index.
• Optical fiber modes are classified as guided modes, leaky
modes and radiation modes.
– Signal transmission in the fiber takes place through the guided modes only.
– Leaky modes refer to rays that are partially confined to the core and gradually
leak out of the core causing attenuation.
– Radiation modes refer to refracted rays that are never confined within the core
and travel in the cladding.
• The distribution of energy among the modes evolves with
distance as energy is exchanged between them. Energy can be
coupled from guided to radiation modes by the bending or
twisting of the fiber—increasing the attenuation.
• Our discussion focuses on the guided modes only.
• Generally in optical waveguides, both Ez and Hz are non
zero (except for l = 0), therefore fiber modes are referred
as hybrid modes and are denoted by HElm or EHlm
depending on whether Hz or Ez dominates, respectively.
• In special case l = 0, HE0m or EH0m are also denoted by
TE0m and TM0m respectively, since they correspond to
TE(Ez = 0) or TM(Hz = 0) modes of propagation.
• A different notation LPlm (Linearly polarized) is also used
for weakly guiding fibers for which both Ez and Hz are
nearly zero.
• The exact modal discussion in step index fiber is very
complex, but we can simplify the analysis when considering
weakly guiding fibers i.e. fiber with very small ‘∆’ values.
• Under these conditions an approximate solution for the full set
of TE, TM, HE and EH modes is obtained by Linearly
Polarized (LP) components LPlm
• LP modes are not the exact fiber modes except for the lowest
fundamental mode LP01
• Since ∆ is very small in weakly guiding fibers, generally under
this condition HE & EH mode pairs exist which have almost
identical frequencies and propagation constants (β), such
modes where frequencies and propagation constants are nearly
the same are said to be degenerate .
• Super position of degenerate modes gives rise to particular LP
modes regardless of their HE, EH, TE or TM field
configurations
 • So there are two possible ways to designate modes in
weakly guided fibers. They are: the traditional mode
designation (HE or EH) and the LP mode designation. The
two equivalent are established as:

LPl m HEl 1 m , EH l 1 m for l 0 or 1

LPl m HE 2 m , TE 0 m , TM o m

In the LP mode designation, the dominant mode is LPo 1 mode.In the

traditional mode designation, the dominant mode is the HE11 mode.
• The following table shows the relationship between the exact
modes and the LP modes.
• The subscript ‘l’ in the LP notation corresponds to the HE and
EH modes with labels ‘l+1’ and ‘l-1’ respectively.
•The following diagram
shows the electric field
configurations for the three
lowest LP modes.

•Figure shows
•LP mode designations
•Exact mode designations
•Electric field distribution
of the constituent exact
modes.
•Intensity distribution of Ex
 Normalized Frequency
• The mode is said to reach cutoff when
n n2 or γ 0
where γ is radial damping constant and

mode index or effective index n

k0
• A parameter to determine cutoff condition is called as
“Normalized frequency” or V parameter. It is a dimensionless
quantity that combines three important parameters of the fiber
(core radius ‘a’ , ∆ & operating wavelength)
V 2 a2 ( 2 γ2 )
Putting values of and γ
2
n12 k02 2

γ2 2
n22 k02
V2 a 2 k02 (n12 n22 )
V2 k02 a 2 (n12 n22 )
1
2 2 2
V k0 a (n
1 n )
2

V k0 a (NA)
V k0 an1 2 (refer to lecture on NA)
2
V an1 2
Normalized Propagation Constant
Normalized propagatio n constant b is defined as
k0 n2 n n2
b
n1 n2 n1 n2
 Step Index Fiber
• A step index fiber (both single
and multimode) has a constant
core and cladding refractive
index denoted as n1 and n2
respectively.
• The refractive index profile for a
step index fiber is defined as:
n1 r a (Core)
n(r )
n2 r a (Cladding)

• The number of modes supported

by a step index fiber is calculated
by: 2
V
Ms
2
 Graded Index Fiber
• In this type of fiber, the core
has a refractive index that 1
gradually decreases as the n1 (1 - 2 ( r ) ) 2
r a (Core)
a
distance from the centre of the n(r ) 1
fiber increases. Graded index n1 (1- 2 ) 2
n2 r a (Cladding)
fibers are generally multi-mode
fibers .

• At the fiber centre, we have n1,

at the cladding we have n2, and
in b/w, we have n(r), where r is
the function of core radius and
‘α’ is refractive index profile
parameter.
• The number of modes supported by Mg (n1k0 a)2
a graded-index fiber is given by: 2
V2
Mg
2 2
• For a graded index fiber with a parabolic profile i.e. α =2, the number of
modes supported are: V2
Mg
4
 Single-mode fibers
• For single mode operation only the fundamental mode LP01
(HE11) can exist.
• Single mode propagation of the LP01 mode in step index fiber
is possible over the range:

0 V 2.405
• The cutoff normalized frequency to support single mode
operation in a graded index fiber is:

Vc 2.405 (1 2 / )
• Single-mode condition in a fiber can be achieved by
reducing core diameter as for single-mode operation:
2.4
Core Diameter
NA

• So the diameter of the fiber can be reduced such that only

one mode can exist within the fiber. (Single Mode fiber)
• Example
For n = 1.5, D = 100 um, the angle θ0 (for the
lowest order mode - N = 0) is approximately 0.50
for a wavelength of 0.85 um.
• Number of modes that can propagate through a fiber
depends upon the diameter of the fiber. For step index
fiber 2
Core diameter NA π
Wavelengt h
No of Modes
2
2
D NA
or N m
2
 Evanescent field
• The EM field does not suddenly drop to zero at the core-
cladding boundary but instead it decays as a negative
exponential within the cladding.
• This decaying field is called as an evanescent field
• This field also transports energy in the direction of propagation.
• The penetration of energy into the cladding demands that the
cladding must be:
– Transparent at the operating wavelengths
– Solid material
– Thickness much greater than the penetration depth of the evanescent
field.
• The penetration depth of the evanescent field is given by:
1
dp 1
2 2 2
2 sin n
21

where λ1 is the wavelength of the propagating wave in the denser medium, n21
is the ratio of the refractive index of the rarer medium divided by that of the
denser medium and θ is the angle of incidence of the ray at the interface.
• Evanescent field sensors ?
 Goos – Hänchen shift
• Goos and Hänchen demonstrated that in the case of total internal
reflection there was a slight displacement of the reflected ray
• This is similar to a reflection caused not from the interface of the
two materials but from a parallel surface at a distance d within the
lower refractive index medium
• The extra optical path causes a phase shift to the reflected ray

Material B, Refractive index = n2 dp

Boundary
Material A, Refractive index = n1
Goose-Hänchen shift

Incident ray n1 > n2 Refracted ray

 Mode-field diameter
• For single-mode fibers the electromagnetic field is approximated
by the Gaussian distribution
• Mode-field diameter is the distance between opposite 1/e =0.37
field amplitude points and the power 1/e2=0.135 points w.r.t
values on the fiber axis.
 Spot Size
• Spot Size is mode-field radius represented
by ωo
• MFD = 2ωo
• MFD is slightly larger than
the core diameter; field
extends into the cladding