Chapter 6B.ppt (Compatibility Mode)

Chapter (6) B
Axial Pile Capacity
Piles in multi-layered soil
Qult = Σ Qs + Qt
• The Ultimate load for piles in Clay:
Qult = α Cu . As + Nc Cu At
• The Ultimate load for piles in Sand:
Qult = K σ′ v tan δ As + σ′ v Nq At
• The Ultimate load for piles in silt :
Qult = K σ′v tan δ As + α Cu As + σ′v Nq At
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6.2 Negative skin friction (NSF)
Pile installed through compressive soils can experience

“downdrag” forces or negative resistance along the shaft,
which results from downward movement (settlement) of
adjacent soil. Negative resistance results primarily from
consolidation of soft deposits caused by dewatering or fill
placement.
Negative skin friction (NSF) is in fact a downward friction
imposed on foundation piles as a result of subsoil settlement.
It needs only few millimeters of relative displacement
between the settling subsoil and the pile shaft surface, which
is not uncommon to have relative displacement at the pile-
soil interface more than these values in normal subsoil
settlement problem, to fully mobilize the shaft resistance in
either upward or downward directions.
When a pile is installed through a stratum which undergoes

consolidation after the pile is in place, the downward
movement of the consolidating soil and of any overlying soils
will cause a drag on the shaft of the pile. This is termed
“negative skin friction” (NSF).
The consolidation of the soil may be caused by the self-
weight of the deposit, the imposition of a surcharge such as a
loaded floor or fill, disturbance due to vibration or as a
result of remoulding during the installation of the pile.

6.2 Negative skin friction
Negative skin friction (NSF):

• If the soil surrounding the pile undergoes settlement
larger than that of the pile it self, this soil will induce an
additional downward stress forcing the pile to move
downward though increasing the stresses at the pile base.
In this case, designers should take these stress into
account so that when they are added to the applied load,
the sum must not exceed the axial load capacity.
• In order to take NSF into account, the additional force
acting on the pile shaft is calculated in the same way as
mentioned before in normal cases, but it is then
subtracted from the ultimate bearing capacity rather than
adding it.
Known Facts about Negative Skin Friction

1.QNSF develops when the soil
settles more than the pile.
2.QPSF develops when the pile
settles more than the soil.
3.There exists a neutral point which
divides QNSF and QPSF.
4.It only takes a few mm of relative
movement to fully mobilise QNSF
and QPSF.
Negative Skin Friction : Shear stress on pile due to downward
soil movement relative to pile
Drag Load : Force on pile caused by NSF
Downdrag : Settlement of pile due to drag load

‫ﺗﺘﻮﻟﺪ ھﺬه اﻟﻈﺎھﺮة ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﯾﺪق أو ﯾﻨﻔﺬ ﺧﺎزوق ﻓﻰ ﺗﺮﺑﺔ ﻛﻤﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺸﻜﻞ ﺣﯿﺚ ﯾﺘﻢ‬
‫( ﺗﺤﺖ ﺗﺄﺛﯿﺮ وزن‬consolidate) ‫ﺗﻀﺎﻏﻂ اﻟﺮدم ﺗﺤﺖ ﺗﺄﺛﯿﺮ وزﻧﮫ أو ﯾﺘﻢ ﺗﻀﺎﻏﻂ‬
‫اﻟﺮدم أﻋﻠﮭﺎ ﻓﻰ ھﺬه اﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﺗﺘﻮﻟﺪ ﻗﻮة اﺣﺘﻜﺎك رأﺳﻰ ﻷﺳﻔﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﺴﻢ اﻟﺨﺎزوق ﺑﻜﻞ‬
‫( وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﺗﺘﻢ‬down ward drag) ‫ﻣﻦ ﻃﺒﻘﺔ اﻟﺮدم واﻟﻄﺒﻘﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﻀﺎﻏﻄﺔ أﺳﻔﻠﮭﺎ‬
.‫زﯾﺎدة اﻟﺘﺤﻤﯿﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺨﺎزوق‬

There are five probable, but not limited to, reasons of
existence of NSF, namely,
a. Self-weight of unconsolidated recent fill,
b. Surcharge-induced consolidation settlement,
c. Consolidation settlement after dissipation of excess
pore pressure induced by pile driving,
d. Lowering of groundwater level,
e. Collapse settlements due to wetting of unsaturated
fill, and
f. Crushing of crushable subsoil under sustained
loading, causing subsoil settlement.

Original
Ground Q
settlement Surface
Granular
Recent fill or Fill
L1
Consolidating Fg
soil
Soft
Stable Soil Clay
L2
Fc
Rock
Piles with NSF
Examples of cases where downdrag could occur

u u

u u
Bridge
Downdrag load on pile is the
sum of the negative shaft
resistance along the length of
the pile where the soil is moving New fill
downward relative to the pile.
Piles inside
pile sleeves
Consolidating
Negative shaft resistance
soil
Positive shaft resistance

Tip resistance Bearing stratum



Negative Skin Friction Due to Groundwater Drawdown
Effective stress at point A (Case 1 - prior to drawdown)

= γ x 1 + ( γ - γw ) y 1
Effective stress at point A ( Case 2 - after drawdown)
= γ x 2 + ( γ - γw ) y 2
γ = density of soil , γw = 62.4 lb/ft3 = 1 tone/m3
As can be seen, effective stress at point A is larger in case 2
since x2 is greater than x1.
Higher effective stress would cause the clay to consolidate

Schematic Diagram of Pile with NSF
(a) Single pile subjected to Negative Skin Friction. (b) Pile axial
load distribution. (c) Distribution of positive and negative unit
shaft resistance, rs and qn respectively on pile shaft.
١٠

Schematic Diagram of Pile with NSF
The neutral point is located near the pile toe in case of end
bearing piles, whereas it is usually located in the above half
of the pile in case of friction piles.
In fact, the location of neutral

point varies with time.
Therefore, location of neutral
point versus time curve can be
determined by using
consolidation theory.
If the settlement at the neutral plane is small, there is no

downdrag.
The larger the dragload, the stiffer, stronger, and better the
foundation, while, in contrast, the larger the downdrag, the
worse the foundation.
١١

a) Negative skin friction is a downward shear drag acting on

piles due to downward movement of surrounding soil strata
relative to the piles. For such movement of the soils to occur,
a segment of the pile must penetrate a compressible soil
stratum that consolidates. The downward drag may be
caused by the placement of fill on compressible soils,
lowering of the groundwater table, or under consolidated
natural or compacted soils. The effect of these occurrences is
to cause the compressible soils surrounding the piles to
consolidate. If the pile tip is in a relatively stiff soil, the
upper compressible stratum will move down relative to the
pile, inducing a drag load. This load can be quite large and
must be added to the structural load for purposes of
assessing stresses in the pile.
Vesic (1977) stated that a relative downward movement of

as little as 0.6 inch of the soil with respect to the pile may be
sufficient to mobilize full negative skin friction.
The geotechnical capacity of the pile is unaffected by
downdrag, however downdrag does serve to increase
settlement and increase the stresses in the pile and pile cap.
b) For a pile group, it can be assumed that there is no relative
movement between the piles and the soil between the piles.
Therefore, the total force acting down is equal to the weight
of the block of soil held between the piles, plus the shear
along the pile group perimeter due to negative skin friction.
The average downward load transferred to a pile in a pile
group Qnf can be estimated by
Qnf = (1/n) [AγL + τ LP]
١٢

A = horizontal area bounded by the pile group (cross-

sectional area of piles and enclosed soil)
N = number of piles in pile group
Γ = unit weight of fill or compressible soil layers
L = length of embedment above the bottom of the
compressible soil layers
τ = shear resistance of the soil
P = perimeter of the area A
(c) For a single pile, the downward load transferred to the
pile is equal to the shearing resistance along the pile as
shown in Equation
Qnf = τ LP’
where P’ = perimeter of pile.
The total applied load (QT) on a pile group or single pile is

the live load, dead load, and the drag load due to negative
skin friction.
QT = Q + AγL + τ LP (pile group)
QT = Q + τ LP’ (single pile)
where Q = live load plus dead load.
• If NSF is taken into account, the ultimate bearing
capacity is then:
Qult = Qs + Qt - Qnsf
= fs . As + qt . At - fnsf .As
Where:
fnsf is calculated in the same way as fs
١٣

Traditional Method
(Allowable Stress Design)
Calculate negative shaft resistance using the same methods

to calculate positive shaft resistance.
Calculate ultimate pile capacity provided by positive shaft
resistance and tip resistance.
Determine net ultimate pile capacity by subtracting
negative shaft resistance from ultimate pile capacity.
Qnet = Qult – Qnsf ≥ FS (DL+LL)

A square pile group similar to the one shown in Fig. passes
through a recently constructed fill. The depth of fill Ln = 3 m.
The diameter of the pile is 30 cm and the piles are spaced 90
cm center to center. If the soil is cohesive with qu = 60 kN/m2 ,
and γ = 15 kN/m3 , compute the negative frictional load on
the pile group.
The negative frictional load on the group is the maximum of

(a) Fng = nFn , and (b) Fng = s Ln Pg + γ Ln Ag
where Pg = 4 x 3 = 12 m, Ag = 3 x 3 = 9 m2,
cu = 60/2 = 30 kN/ m2
(a) Fn = 9 x 3 . 1 4 x 0 . 3 x 3 x 3 0 = 7 63 kN
(b) Fng = 3 0 x 3 x 12 + 1 5 x 3 x 9 =1485 kN
The negative frictional load on the group = 1485 kN.
١٤

Finally, in an actual design case, when the site and

the pile conditions have been determined, the
design proceeds in three steps:
1. The allowable load (dead load plus live load) is equal to

the pile capacity, Qu (ultimate resistance Ru) divided by the
factor of safety.
2. The load — dead load plus dragload — at the neutral
plane must be smaller than the axial structural strength of
the pile divided by a factor of safety (or by similar approach
to the allowable structural load)
3. The settlement calculated for an equivalent footing placed
at the pile toe level or at the neutral plane must be smaller
than the maximum tolerable value.
١٥

١٦

Batter piles should be avoided in situations where negative

skin frictional forces can be present. Settling soil could
induce large bending moments in batter piles.
Batter piles in a settling soil
١٧

Reduction of Negative Skin Friction:

Several methods have been developed to reduce the
expected negative skin friction on deep foundations. These
include:
(a) Use of slender piles, such as H-sections, to reduce shaft
area subject to drag.
(b) Predrilled oversized hole through compressible
material prior to insertion of pile (resulting annular space
filled with bentonite slurry or vermiculite)
(c) Provide casing or sleeve around pile to prevent direct
contact with settling soil.
(d) Coat pile shaft with bitumen to allow slippage.

If this potential problem is anticipated, numerous steps can
be taken to avoid it.
a) The piles (if used) can be coated with a lubricating agent
to reduce friction with the soil. (This would not work with
pier or caisson foundations).
b) Piles can be driven in large diameter predrilled shafts,
but this assumes that the soil will not cave in.
c) Large diameter low displacement pipe piles can be driven
through the weak/ compressible soils. The interior soil plug
can then be removed and smaller diameter end bearing
piles driven inside of the open pipe piles into the lower
strata. This isolates the interior piles from the settling soil.
d) Wait until soils have consolidated before constructing the
deep foundations.
١٨

Protection piles for reduction of negative skin friction
١٩

6.3 Pile Spacing
Piles are usually constructed in groups and tied together by

a concrete cap at the ground surface. Piles in closely spaced
groups behave differently than single isolated piles because
of pile-soil-pile interactions that take place in the group.
Pile Spacing ( s )
Center to center pile spacing is the dominant factor
affecting pile group efficiency.
• For friction piles the spacing centre to centre should be
not less than the perimeter of the pile or, for circular piles,
three times the diameter.
• The spacing of piles deriving their resistance mainly from
end-bearing may be reduced but the distance between the
surfaces of the shafts of adjacent piles should be not less
than the least width of the piles.
٢٠

6.3 Pile Spacing
Pile Spacing (Center-to-Center Distance):

International Building Code Guidelines
• In no case should minimum distance be less than 24 in.
• For circular piles: minimum distance (center-to-center) -
twice the average diameter of the butt.
• Rectangular piles (minimum center-to-center distance) -
3/4 times the diagonal for rectangular piles.
• Tapered piles (minimum center-to-center distance) -
Twice the diameter at 1/3 of the distance of the pile
measured from top of pile.
6.3 Pile Spacing

Determining the size of the pile cap is a part of the design.
The size is decided by the pile diameter, of course, and the
number of piles in the pile group.
The decisive parameter, however, is the spacing between

the piles. Pile caps are not cheap, therefore, piles are often
placed close together at center-to center spacing of only 2 to
3 pile diameters.
A (S) spacing of 2 diameters can be considered for short

toe-bearing piles, but it is too close for long shaft-bearing
piles. The longer the pile, the larger the risk for physical
interference between the piles during the installation, be
the piles driven or bored.
٢١

6.3 Pile Spacing
Therefore, the criterion for minimum pile spacing must be
a function of the pile length as indicated in Eq.
S = 2.5b + 0.02D
Where
S = minimum center-to-center pile spacing
b = pile diameter (face to face for non circular pile section)
D = pile embedment length
The pile spacing for a group of long piles can become large
and result in expensive pile caps. For example, the above
Eq. requires a spacing of 1.75 m (3.5 diameter) for a group
of nine 0.5 m diameter, 25 m long piles.
6.3 Pile Spacing
-: ‫اﻟﻤﺴﺎﻓﺎت اﻟﺒﯿﻨﯿﺔ ﻟﺨﻮازﯾﻖ اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ‬

‫ﯾﺘﻮﻗﻒ اﺧﺘﯿﺎر اﻟﻤﺴﺎﻓﺎت اﻟﺒﯿﻨﯿﺔ ﻟﺨﻮازﯾﻖ اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺪة ﻋﻮاﻣﻞ أھﻤﮭﺎ‬
‫اﻟﺘﻜﻠﻔﺔ اﻹﺟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻟﻸﺳﺎس وﻃﺒﯿﻌﺔ ﺗﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻊ وﺳﻠﻮك اﻟﺨﻮازﯾﻖ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ‬
‫وأﺳﻠﻮب ﺗﻨﻔﯿﺬ اﻟﺨﻮازﯾﻖ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺜﻘﯿﺐ أو ﺑﺎﻟﺪق أو ﺑﺎﻟﻀﻐﻂ أو ﺑﺎﻟﺒﺮم وﯾﺠﺐ أن ﺗﻜﻮن‬
‫اﻟﻤﺴﺎﻓﺎت اﻟﺒﯿﻨﯿﺔ ﻛﺎﻓﯿﺔ ﻟﻌﺪم ﺣﺪوث إزاﺣﺔ ﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻊ وأن ﺗﺴﻤﺢ ﺑﺘﻨﻔﯿﺬ ﺧﻮازﯾﻖ‬
.‫اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻄﺒﻘﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ دون إﺿﺮار ﺑﺒﻌﻀﮭﺎ اﻟﺒﻌﺾ أو ﺑﺄى ﻣﻨﺸﺄ ﻣﺠﺎور‬
٢٢

6.3 Pile Spacing
6.3 Pile Spacing
٢٣

6.3 Pile Spacing
As a thumb rule, if spacing is more than 2 - 3 pile diameter,

then block failure is most unlikely.
It is vital importance that pile group in friction and cohesive
soil
. arranged that even distribution of load in greater area
is achieved.
Large concentration of piles under the centre of the pile cap
should be avoided. This could lead to load concentration
resulting in local settlement and failure in the pile cap.
Varying length of piles in the same pile group may have
similar effect.
For pile load up to 300 kN, the minimum distance to the pile
cap should be 100 cm.
For load higher than 300 kN, this distance should be more
than 150 cm.
6.3 Pile Spacing
‫وﻋﺎدة ﻻ ﯾﻘﻞ اﻟﺒﻌﺪ ﺑﯿﻦ ﻣﺮﻛﺰى أى ﺧﺎزوﻗﯿﻦ ﻣﺘﺠﺎورﯾﻦ ﻋﻦ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻣﺮات ﻗﻄﺮ‬
‫اﻟﺨﺎزوق وذﻟﻚ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺧﻮازﯾﻖ اﻻﺣﺘﻜﺎك أﻣﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﺨﻮازﯾﻖ اﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ‬
‫أﺳﺎﺳﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﮭﺪ اﻻرﺗﻜﺎز ﻓﻼ ﯾﻘﻞ ھﺬا اﻟﺒﻌﺪ ﻋﻦ ﻣﺮﺗﯿﻦ وﻧﺼﻒ اﻟﻘﻄﺮ اﻟﻤﻜﺎﻓﺊ‬
‫وﯾﺴﻤﺢ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺤﺎﻻت اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ أن ﯾﺼﻞ ھﺬا اﻟﺒﻌﺪ إﻟﻰ ﺿﻌﻒ اﻟﻘﻄﺮ اﻟﻤﻜﺎﻓﺊ ﻟﻤﻘﻄﻊ‬
screw ‫اﻟﺨﺎزوق ﻣﻊ ﻣﺮاﻋﺎة إﻣﻜﺎﻧﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻨﻔﯿﺬ وﻋﻨﺪ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﺧﻮازﯾﻖ ﺣﻠﺰوﻧﯿﺔ‬
.‫ ﻓﯿﺒﻠﻎ اﻟﺒﻌﺪ اﻷدﻧﻰ ﺑﯿﻦ ﻣﺤﺎورھﺎ ﻣﺮة وﻧﺼﻒ اﻟﻘﻄﺮ اﻟﺨﺎرﺟﻲ ﻟﻠﺤﻠﺰون‬piles
٢٤

‫‪6.3 Pile Spacing‬‬
‫ﻭﻓﻲ ﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﺇﺴﺘﺨﺩﺍﻡ ﺨﻭﺍﺯﻴﻕ ﺫﺍﺕ ﻨﻬﺎﻴﺎﺕ ﻤﺘﺴﻌﺔ ) ‪ ( Enlarged bases‬ﻓﻴﺠﺏ‬

‫ﺃﻥ ﻴﺭﺍﻋﻰ ﻓﻲ ﺇﺨﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﺃﺒﻌﺎﺩ ﻤﺤﺎﻭﺭﻫﺎ ﺇﺤﺘﻤﺎل ﺤﺩﻭﺙ ﺘﺄﺜﻴﺭ ﻤﺘﺒﺎﺩل ﻟﻠﺠﻬﻭﺩ ﻜﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ‬
‫ﻟﺘﻘﺎﺭﺏ ﻨﻬﺎﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺨﻭﺍﺯﻴﻕ ﻤﻊ ﻤﺤﺩﺩ ﻓﻲ ﻨﻁﺎﻕ ﻤﺴﺎﺤﺔ ﻤﺤﺩﺩﺓ – ﻓﺄﻥ ﺍﺴﺘﻌﻤﺎل ﻋﺩﺩ‬
‫ﻗﻠﻴل ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﺨﻭﺍﺯﻴﻕ ﺍﻟﻁﻭﻴﻠﺔ ﻴﻜﻭﻥ ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺃﻜﺜﺭ ﻓﺎﻋﻠﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻨﻘل ﺍﻟﺤﻤل ﺤﻴﺙ ﺴﻴﻜﻭﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻬﺒﻭﻁ ﺃﻗل‪.‬‬
‫‪6.3 Pile Spacing‬‬

‫ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺭﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺭﻤﻠﻴﺔ‪:‬‬
‫ﺒﺎﻟﻤﻨﺤﻨﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻭﻀﺢ ﻨﻼﺤﻅ ﺃﻥ ﻜﻠﻤﺎ ﺯﺍﺩﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﻓﺔ ﺒﻴﻥ ﻤﺤﺎﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﺨﻭﺍﺯﻴﻕ ﻜﻠﻤﺎ ﻗل‬
‫ﺍﻟﺤﻤل ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻘﻭل ﺒﻭﺍﺴﻁﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺯﻭﻕ ﺤﻴﺙ ﺃﻥ ﺘﻘﻠﻴل ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﻓﺎﺕ ﻴﺅﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﻰ ﺘﻜﺜﻴﻑ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﺭﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺭﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺇﺒﺎﻥ ﺩﻕ ﺍﻟﺨﻭﺍﺯﻴﻕ ﻭﺒﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻰ ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻗﺩﺭﺓ ﺘﺤﻤل ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺯﻭﻕ‪.‬‬
‫‪٢٥‬‬
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6.3 Pile Spacing
The following considerations might necessitate an increase
in the normal pile spacing:
A. For piles deriving their principal support from friction;
B. For extremely long piles, especially if they are flexible,
minimize tip interference;
C. For CIS concrete piles where pile installation could
damage adjacent unset concrete shafts;
D. For piles carrying very high loads;
E. For piles that are driven in obstructed ground;
F. Where group capacity governs;
G. Where passive soil pressures are considered a major
factor in developing pile lateral load capacity;
H. Where excessive ground heave occurs;
I. Where there is a mixture of vertical and batter piles; and
J. Where densification of granular soils can occur.
6.4 Pile Groups
‫ ھﺎﻣﺎت اﻟﺨﻮازﯾﻖ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ أن ﺗﻜﻮن ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﮫ اﻟﺨﻮازﯾﻖ‬pile caps

single monolithic unit ‫ﻛﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﮫ واﺣﺪة‬
.‫وﯾﺰﯾﺪ ھﺬا اﻻﺗﺠﺎه ﻛﻠﻤﺎ ﻗﻠﺖ اﻟﻤﺴﺎﻓﺔ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺨﻮازﯾﻖ‬
٢٦

6.4 Pile Groups
Comparison of stressed zone beneath

single pile and pile group
6.4 Pile Groups
Single Pile
Load Test Foundation
Ground
Prestressed
by Pile Driving
Zone of
Settlement
Comparison of stressed zone beneath

single pile and pile group
٢٧

6.4 Pile Groups
Basic formation of pile groups
6.4 Pile Groups
Group Efficiency
ultimate load capacity of a pile group
ξ = ----------------------------------------------------------------------
sum of ultimate load capacities of individual piles in the group
Load Capacity of Pile Group (Qult. (group) )

= ξ x n x Capacity of single pile (Qult)
The Group Efficiency (ξ) depends on:

n soil type (sands or clays)
n pile diameter/pile spacing ratio
n construction procedures (pre-drilling, jetting etc.)
n elapsed time since pile driving
n mode of failure
٢٨

6.4 Pile Groups
Individual Pile Failures

Pu
Ground Surface
Qu
Failure Zone
Pu = n Qu E n = Number of Piles
Single Pile E = Group Efficiency
Failure
6.4 Pile Groups
Block Failure PU
B Failure
Zone
٢٩

6.4.1 Pile Groups in Clay
(Block Failure)

Efficiency of the pile group ( ζ ) =
Qult.group
ζ=
Ultimate Group Load ζ =
n∗ Ultimate Individual Load n ∗ Qult
Pile Groups in Clay : (Block Failure)
ζ
Qult. (group) = Nc Cu Bg Lg + Cu 2D (Bg +Lg)

where:
Nc = skempton’s value
Cu = undrained shear strength at depth D
Bg = breath of group”block”
Lg = length of group “block”
D = depth to base of group
ˉC = average undarined shear strength along pile
u
٣٠

Nc = 5( 1 + )( 1 + )≤ 9
D B
5 Bg 5Lg
Use the lower of capacity calculated by using :
1- Qult. (group) = ξ n Qult
2- Qult. (group) = Nc Cu Bg Lg + Cu 2D (Bg +Lg)
If ξ ≥ 1, then Qgroup = n · Q single

If ξ < 1, then Qgroup = Q block
: ‫ﻃﺒﻘﺎً ﻟﻠﻜﻮد اﻟﻤﺼﺮى‬

( Pile Groups in Clay ) ‫أ( ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎت اﻟﺨﻮازﯾﻖ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﻄﯿﻨﯿﺔ‬
-:‫ ﻜﻤﺎ ﻴﻠﻲ‬Q ult.group ‫ﺘﻘﺩﺭ ﺍﻟﻘﺩﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻘﺼﻭﻯ ﻟﺘﺤﻤل ﺍﻟﺨﻭﺍﺯﻴﻕ‬
Qult.group = n. QG = n. ξ. Qult
:‫ﺤﻴﺙ‬
.‫ﻋﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺨﻭﺍﺯﻴﻕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ‬ n
.‫ ﺍﻟﺤﻤل ﺍﻷﻗﺼﻰ ﺍﻟﺫﻱ ﻴﺘﺤﻤﻠﻪ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺯﻭﻕ ﺍﻟﻭﺍﺤﺩ ﻋﻨﺩﻤﺎ ﻴﻌﻤل ﺩﺍﺨل ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ‬QG
.(١-4-٦) ‫ ﻭﺘﺴﺘﻨﺘﺞ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﻜل ﺭﻗﻡ‬QG / Qult = ‫ﻜﻔﺎﺀﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ‬ ξ
.‫ ﺍﻟﺤﻤل ﺍﻷﻗﺼﻰ ﻟﻠﺨﺎﺯﻭﻕ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺭﺩ‬Qult
٣١

(١-4-٦) ‫ﺸﻜل ﺭﻗﻡ‬
Group Efficiency Vs. Pile Spacing in Clay
0.8
0.6
9 × 9 Group
Length = 48 dia.
0.4 - Individual
- Block Failure
0.2
1 2 3 4
Pile Spacing (Diameters)
٣٢

٣٣

Overlap of stress zones for group of friction piles

(after Bowels 1988)
٣٤

‫‪6.4.1 Pile Groups in Clay‬‬
‫أﻣﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺗﻌﺮض ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ اﻟﺨﻮازﯾﻖ ﻷﺣﻤﺎل اﻟﺸﺪ )‪ (Tension‬ﯾﺆﺧﺬ اﻟﺤﻤﻞ‬

‫اﻟﻤﺴﻤﻮح ﺑﮫ ﻟﻠﺸﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﺴﺎوﯾﺎً ﻷﻗﻞ اﻟﻘﯿﻤﺘﯿﻦ اﻟﺘﺎﻟﯿﺘﯿﻦ )‪:(٢) ، (١‬‬
‫‪ -١‬ﻣﺠﻤﻮع ﻗﻮى اﻟﺘﻼﺻﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﺬوع ﺧﻮازﯾﻖ اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻘﺴﻮﻣﺎً ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻞ‬
‫اﻷﻣﺎن ‪.F.S‬‬
‫ﻗﯿﻤﺔ ‪ Tall‬اﻟﻤﺒﯿﻨﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻌﺎدﻟﺔ اﻟﺘﺎﻟﯿﺔ‪:‬‬ ‫‪-٢‬‬
‫‪2L (B + A)C‬‬
‫= ‪Tall‬‬ ‫‪+ Wp‬‬
‫‪F .S .‬‬ ‫ﺣﯿﺚ ‪:‬‬
‫ﻃﻮل اﻟﻤﺴﻘﻂ اﻷﻓﻘﻰ ﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ اﻟﺨﻮازﯾﻖ‪.‬‬ ‫‪A‬‬
‫ﻋﺮض اﻟﻤﺴﻘﻂ اﻷﻓﻘﻲ ﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ اﻟﺨﻮازﯾﻖ‪.‬‬ ‫‪B‬‬
‫ﻋﻤﻖ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﻤﻼﺻﻘﺔ ﻟﻠﺨﻮازﯾﻖ أﺳﻔﻞ ھﺎﻣﺔ اﻟﺨﻮازﯾﻖ ‪.pile cap‬‬ ‫‪L‬‬
‫‪6.4.1 Pile Groups in Clay‬‬
‫‪ C‬اﻟﻘﯿﻤﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻄﺔ ﻟﺘﻤﺎﺳﻚ اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﻮاﻗﻌﺔ ﺣﻮل اﻟﺨﻮازﯾﻖ ﻣﻘﺪراً ﻣﻦ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﺔ‬

‫ﺗﻌﯿﯿﻦ ﻣﻘﺎوﻣﺔ اﻟﻘﺺ ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﺼﺮﻓﺔ ‪.undrained strength‬‬
‫‪ Wp‬وزن اﻟﺨﻮازﯾﻖ ‪ +‬اﻟﮭﺎﻣﺔ ‪ + pile cap‬وزن ﻛﺘﻠﺔ اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﻤﺤﺼﻮرة ﺑﯿﻦ‬
‫ﺧﻮازﯾﻖ اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ F.S‬ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻞ اﻷﻣﺎن ﯾﺴﺎوى ‪ ٢.٠‬ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻷﺣﻤﺎل اﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﺆﺛﺮ ﻟﺤﻈﯿﺎ وﯾﺴﺎوى ‪٣.٠‬‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻷﺣﻤﺎل اﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﺆﺛﺮ ﻟﻔﺘﺮات ﻃﻮﯾﻠﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪٣٥‬‬

What is “block failure” in a group of piles?
Block failure in a group of piles means that the soil moves with
the piles as a unit, thus failing as a large single unit. Block failure
is a contrast to individual failure, where the soil between the piles
remains stationary and the individual piles punch through it.
What is a typical group efficiency factor for piles driven into

loose sand without predrilling or jetting? How does
predrilling and jetting affect this factor? Why?
A typical group efficiency factor for piles driven into loose sand
without predrilling or jetting is greater than 1.0 and reaches a peak
at s/B ≈ 2. Predrilling and jetting tend to lower the group efficiency
factor, as low as about 0.7, since these actions tend to disturb the
soil. Although these actions may help to increase the individual
load capacity of each pile, the group efficiency factor only
addresses the benefit of pile group compared to individual piles.

The group efficiency factor for piles in saturated clay is low
soon after driving, and increases with time. Why does this
occur?
The group efficiency for piles in saturated clay is low soon
after driving because of the excess pore water pressures
induced by the driving action. As the pore water pressure
dissipates, the group efficiency factor gradually increases.
Although the excess pore water pressure for individual
piles may dissipate within a few days, it may take several
months to a year for the excess pore water pressures
associated with a group of piles to dissipate
٣٦

Guidelines for Practice of Piles in Clay:
n Install piles at center-to-center spacing (S) of at least 3 x average
pile diameter (D) and not less than 1m.
n The lesser of the ultimate pile group capacity, calculated from
steps 1 to 4, should be used:
1- For clays with Cu < 95 kPa (2000 psf) and pile cap not in firm
contact with ground:
n Use ξ = 0.7 when S/D = 3
n Use ξ = 1.0 when S/D ≥ 6
n Linearly interpolate between 0.7 and 1.0 for intermediate
center-to-center pile spacing.
2- For clays with Cu < 95 kPa (2000 psf) and pile cap is in firm
contact with ground, use ξ =1.0
3- For clays with Cu > 95 kPa (2000 psf), use ξ =1.0 regardless of
the pile cap – ground contact.
4- Calculate the ultimate pile group capacity against block failure
using the procedure described in section 6.4.1.
6.4.2 Pile Groups in Sand
: ‫ﻃﺒﻘﺎً ﻟﻠﻜﻮد اﻟﻤﺼﺮى‬

-:‫ب( ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎت اﻟﺨﻮازﯾﻖ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﺘﻤﺎﺳﻜﺔ اﻟﺤﺒﯿﺒﺎت‬
( Pile Groups in Sand )
‫ ﺘﻌﻤل ﺨﻭﺍﺯﻴﻕ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﻜﻭﺤﺩﺍﺕ ﻤﺴﺘﻘﻠﺔ ﻁﺎﻟﻤﺎ ﻜﺎﻨﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﻓﺎﺕ ﺒﻴﻥ ﻤﺤﺎﻭﺭ‬.١
‫ﺍﻟﺨﻭﺍﺯﻴﻕ ﺘﺯﻴﺩ ﻋﻥ ﺴﺒﻌﺔ ﺃﻤﺜﺎل ﺍﻟﻘﻁﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻭﺴﻁ ﻟﻠﺨﻭﺍﺯﻴﻕ ﻭﺘﻌﻤل ﻜﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ‬
‫ﻤﺸﺘﺭﻜﺔ ﻋﻨﺩﻤﺎ ﺘﻘل ﻋﻥ ﺫﻟﻙ ﻭﻁﺎﻟﻤﺎ ﻜﺎﻨﺕ ﺍﻟﻁﺒﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻤﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺨﻭﺍﺯﻴﻕ ﻻ‬
‫ﺘﺘﻠﻭﻫﺎ ﻤﻥ ﺃﺴﻔل ﻁﺒﻘﺎﺕ ﺃﻀﻌﻑ ﻤﻨﻬﺎ ﻭﻜﺎﻨﺕ ﺃﺤﻤﺎل ﺨﻭﺍﺯﻴﻕ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ‬
‫ﻜﻭﺤﺩﺍﺕ ﻤﺴﺘﻘﻠﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﻤﻌﺎﻤل ﺃﻤﺎﻥ ﻤﻨﺎﺴﺏ ﻀﺩ ﺍﻻﻨﻬﻴﺎﺭ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﺤﺘﻤﺎل ﺍﻨﻬﻴﺎﺭ‬
.‫ ﺃﻤﺭ ﻏﻴﺭ ﻭﺍﺭﺩ‬block failure ‫ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﻜﻭﺤﺩﺓ ﻭﺍﺤﺩﺓ‬
loose deposits ‫ ﻭﻓﻲ ﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻭﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺭﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺭﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺯﻟﻁﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺌﺒﺔ‬.٢
‫ﻗﺩ ﺘﺯﻴﺩ ﻗﺩﺭﺓ ﺘﺤﻤل ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺯﻭﻕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﻋﻨﻪ ﻜﺨﺎﺯﻭﻕ ﻤﻔﺭﺩ ﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ‬
‫ﻟﺘﻜﺜﻴﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﺭﺒﺔ ﺇﺒﺎﻥ ﺩﻕ ﺍﻟﺨﻭﺍﺯﻴﻕ ﻭﻟﻜﻥ ﻴﺘﺤﺘﻡ ﻋﺩﻡ ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﻅﺎﻫﺭﺓ ﻋﻨﺩ‬
.‫ﺍﻟﺘﺼﻤﻴﻡ‬
٣٧

‫‪6.4.2 Pile Groups in Sand‬‬
‫‪ .3‬ﻭﻓﻲ ﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﺘﺄﺴﻴﺱ ﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﺨﻭﺍﺯﻴﻕ ﺩﺍﺨل ﻁﺒﻘﺔ ﻜﺜﻴﻔﺔ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺭﺒﺔ‬
‫ﻏﻴﺭ ﻤﺘﻤﺎﺴﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺒﻴﺒﺎﺕ ﻤﺤﺩﻭﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﻙ ﻴﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻕ ﻁﺒﻘﺔ ﻤﻥ ﺘﻜﻭﻴﻨﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻀﻌﻴﻔﺔ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻗﺩﺭﺓ ﺘﺤﻤل ﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﻭﺍﺯﻴﻕ ﺘﺅﺨﺫ ﻤﺴﺎﻭﻴﺔ ﻷﻗل ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺘﻴﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺘﻴﻥ‪-:‬‬
‫‪ -١‬ﻤﺠﻤﻭﻉ ﻗﺩﺭﺍﺕ ﺘﺤﻤل ﺨﻭﺍﺯﻴﻕ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﻜﻭﺤﺩﺍﺕ ﻤﺴﺘﻘﻠﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -٢‬ﻗﺩﺭﺓ ﺘﺤﻤل ﺩﻋﺎﻤﺔ ‪ pier‬ﻤﺴﺎﺤﺘﻬﺎ ﺘﻭﺍﺯﻱ ﻤﺴﺎﺤﺔ ﻤﻘﻁﻊ ﺨﻭﺍﺯﻴﻕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺭﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﻭﺍﻗﻌﺔ ﺒﻴﻨﻬﺎ ﻭﻴﻘﻊ ﻤﻨﺴﻭﺏ ﺘﺄﺴﻴﺴﻬﺎ ﻤﻊ ﻤﻨﺴﻭﺏ‬
‫ﺍﻷﻁﺭﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﺨﻭﺍﺯﻴﻕ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﺃﺨﺫﻴﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻻﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻬﺒﻭﻁ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺘﻤل ﻟﻤﺠﻤﻭﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﻭﺍﺯﻴﻕ‬
‫‪6.4.2 Pile Groups in Sand‬‬

‫ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺗﻌﺮض ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ اﻟﺨﻮازﯾﻖ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﺘﻤﺎﺳﻜﺔ اﻟﺤﺒﯿﺒﺎت ﻷﺣﻤﺎل اﻟﺸﺪ‬
‫ﯾﺆﺧﺬ ﺣﻤﻞ اﻟﺸﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﺴﺎوﯾﺎً ﻷﻗﻞ اﻟﻘﯿﻤﺘﯿﻦ اﻟﺘﺎﻟﯿﺘﯿﻦ‪-:‬‬
‫‪ -١‬ﻣﺠﻤﻮع ﺟﮭﻮد اﻹﺣﺘﻜﺎك ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﺬوع ﺧﻮازﯾﻖ اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻊ ﻋﺪم ﺗﺨﻔﯿﺾ‬
‫ﻗﯿﻤﺘﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﺨﻮازﯾﻖ اﻟﻤﺴﻠﻮﺑﺔ وﻣﻊ أﺧﺬ ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻞ أﻣﺎن = ‪.٣.٠‬‬
‫‪ -٢‬اﻟﻮزن اﻟﻔﻌﺎل ‪ effective weight‬ﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﻮاﻗﻌﺔ داﺧﻠﮭﺎ ﺧﻮازﯾﻖ‬
‫اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻊ إﺿﺎﻓﺔ وزن ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ ﺗﻤﺘﺪ ﻣﻦ أﺳﻔﻞ ﻧﮭﺎﯾﺎت اﻟﺨﻮازﯾﻖ إﻟﻰ‬
‫ﺳﻄﺢ اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ وﯾﻤﯿﻞ ﺳﻄﺤﮭﺎ اﻟﺨﺎرﺟﻲ ﺑﻤﯿﻞ ‪) ٤‬ر أﺳﻲ( ‪) ١ :‬أﻓﻘﻲ( ﻣﻊ إﻋﺘﺒﺎر‬
‫اﻟﻮزن اﻟﺬاﺗﻲ ﻟﻠﺨﻮازﯾﻖ ﻣﺴﺎوﯾﺎً ﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﻤﻜﺎﻓﺌﺔ ﻟﺤﺠﻤﮭﺎ وﻣﻊ إﻋﺘﺒﺎر ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻞ‬
‫أﻣﺎن ﻗﺪره ‪.١.٠‬‬
‫‪٣٨‬‬

Guidelines for Practice of Piles in Sand:
n Install piles at center-to-center spacing (S) of at least 3 x
average pile diameter (D) to optimize group capacity and
minimize installation problems. The minimum S = 2.5 D is
allowed by AASHTO code (1994).
n For piles in sand soil : Driven Piles ξ = 1.0
Bored Piles ξ = 0.67
n Avoid pre-drilling and jetting whenever possible. Pre-drilling
and jetting can result ξ < 1.0
n When S/D ≥ 3 and no pre-drilling and jetting is used, use ξ =1.0
n When pile group is founded on a firm bearing stratum of
limited thickness overlying weak soil, group capacity is equal to
the lesser of :
1. sum of individual ultimate pile capacities or,
2. group capacity against block failure of an equivalent pier,
consisting of the pile group and enclosed soil mass punching
through the firm stratum into the underlying weak soil.

It is important to check that the bearing capacity of the
underlying layer is not exceeded so that the group does
not punch through the bearing layer as illustrated below.
Shallow footing analyses would be applied.
٣٩

Results of Model Tests on Groups of Instrumented

Driven Piles in Granular Soils
٤٠

6.5 Factor of Safety for Pile Capacity
The ultimate axial capacity, based on geotechnical

considerations, should be divided by the following factors
of safety to determine the design pile capacity for axial
loading:
Method of Loading Minimum Factor of Safety

Determining Capacity Condition
Compression Tension
Theoretical or empirical Usual 2 2
prediction to be verified Unusual 1.5 1.5
by pile load test
Theoretical or empirical Usual 3 3
prediction not verified Unusual 2.25 2.25
by load test
6.5 Factor of Safety for Pile Capacity
Loading Conditions:
(1) Usual. These conditions include normal operating and
frequent flood conditions. Basic allowable stresses and
safety factors should be used for this type of loading
condition.
(2) Unusual. Higher allowable stresses and lower safety

factors may be used for unusual loading conditions such
as maintenance, infrequent floods, barge impact,
construction, or hurricanes. For these conditions
allowable stresses may be increased up to 33 percent.
٤١

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Chapter (6) B

Axial Pile Capacity

Piles in multi-layered soil

• The Ultimate load for piles in Clay:

Qult = K σ′v tan δ As + α Cu As + σ′v Nq At

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Pile installed through compressive soils can experience

6.2 Negative skin friction (NSF)

When a pile is installed through a stratum which undergoes

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Negative skin friction (NSF):

6.2 Negative skin friction (NSF)

Known Facts about Negative Skin Friction

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6.2 Negative skin friction

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Piles with NSF

6.2 Negative skin friction

Examples of cases where downdrag could occur

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6.2 Negative skin friction

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6.2 Negative skin friction

Positive shaft resistance

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6.2 Negative skin friction

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6.2 Negative skin friction

Effective stress at point A (Case 1 - prior to drawdown)

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Schematic Diagram of Pile with NSF

6.2 Negative skin friction

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Schematic Diagram of Pile with NSF

6.2 Negative skin friction

In fact, the location of neutral

If the settlement at the neutral plane is small, there is no

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a) Negative skin friction is a downward shear drag acting on

6.2 Negative skin friction

Vesic (1977) stated that a relative downward movement of

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A = horizontal area bounded by the pile group (cross-

where P’ = perimeter of pile.

6.2 Negative skin friction

The total applied load (QT) on a pile group or single pile is

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Calculate negative shaft resistance using the same methods

Qnet = Qult – Qnsf ≥ FS (DL+LL)

6.2 Negative skin friction

The negative frictional load on the group is the maximum of

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Finally, in an actual design case, when the site and

1. The allowable load (dead load plus live load) is equal to

6.2 Negative skin friction

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6.2 Negative skin friction

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6.2 Negative skin friction

Batter piles should be avoided in situations where negative

Batter piles in a settling soil

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Reduction of Negative Skin Friction: