Evaluating The Installation of Vibration and Temperature Monitoring Equipment For Pumps

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
EVALUATING THE INSTALLATION

OF VIBRATION AND TEMPERATURE
MONITORING EQUIPMENT FOR PUMPS
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Mechanical For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: MEX-211.05 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Engineering Encyclopedia Pumps
Evaluating the Installation of Vibration
and Temperature Monitoring Equipment for Pumps
Section Page
INFORMATION ............................................................................................................... 3
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 3
VIBRATION AND TEMPERATURE MONITORING EQUIPMENT .................................. 4
Vibration Monitoring.............................................................................................. 4
Basic Vibration........................................................................................... 5
Transducers for Vibration Variables......................................................... 11
Seismic Probes ........................................................................................ 18
Temperature Monitoring Instruments.................................................................. 22
Resistance Temperature Detector ........................................................... 22
Thermocouples ........................................................................................ 24
VIBRATION MONITORING ARRANGEMENTS............................................................ 28
Vibration ............................................................................................................. 29
Centrifugal Pumps ................................................................................... 29
PositiveDisplacement Pumps .................................................................. 40
Temperature ....................................................................................................... 41
Embedded Probes ................................................................................... 42
Oil Drain Probes ...................................................................................... 43
GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................. 44
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Basic Relationship of Measured Parameters with a Simple

Harmonic Motion .......................................................................................... 8
Figure 2. Formation of a Complex Harmonic Signal....................................................... 9
Figure 3. Views from the Time and Frequency Domains.............................................. 10
Figure 4. Range and Limitations on Machinery Vibration Analysis Systems
and Transducers ........................................................................................ 13
Figure 5. Eddy Current Proximity Probe....................................................................... 15
Figure 6. Velocity Transducer ...................................................................................... 19
Figure 7. Piezoelectric Accelerometer.......................................................................... 20
Figure 8. Non-contacting Eddy Current Probe Orientation ........................................... 31
Figure 9. API 670 Axial Position Probe Installation for a Shaft with an Integral
Thrust Collar............................................................................................... 33
Figure 10. API 670 Standard Axial Position Probe Installation Arrangement ............... 34
Figure 11. Vibration Measurement Locations for a Single Stage, Overhung
Pump .......................................................................................................... 37
Figure 12. Vibration Measurement Locations for a Between Bearings Pump .............. 38
Figure 13. Vibration Measurement Locations for a Vertically Suspended
Pump .......................................................................................................... 39
Figure 14. Temperature Detector Installation for a Tilting Pad Thrust Bearing.............. 41
Figure 15. Typical Thermocouple Installation in Line and Thrust Bearings ................... 42
Figure 16. Oil Drain Line Thermocouple Installation..................................................... 43
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Advantages, Disadvantages and Useful Ranges of Transducer

Types.......................................................................................................... 12
Table 2. Typical Acceptable Frequency Limits and Resonance Frequencies
for Common Sensor/Mount Configurations ................................................ 36
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

INFORMATION
INTRODUCTION
A vibration, axial position and bearing temperature monitoring
system consists of probes, accelerometers, temperature
sensors, signal conditioning devices, interconnecting cables,
power supplies, monitors and communication devices. As
defined by Saudi Aramco Engineering Standard SAES-J-604,
“Vibration, Axial Position and Bearing Temperature Monitoring
System” will be referred to as the “Vibration Monitoring System.”
Vibration and axial position information is acquired by means of
transducers and proximity probes positioned at optimal locations
on a pump. Transducers convert mechanical responses to
electric signals that are conditioned and processed by electronic
instruments.
When required, pump bearing temperature information is
acquired by means of temperature detectors positioned at the
bearings.
The vibration monitoring system provides the information
necessary to monitor pump condition, to verify performance and
to diagnose faults. Vibration monitoring systems provide the
electrical signals to the Rotating Machinery Protection System
(RMPS) and the condition monitoring system. The RMPS
automatically sends alarm and shutdown commands to the
pump driver control system if pump vibration, axial position or
monitored temperature exceeds a specified limit. The condition
monitoring system is a computer based data collection system
that communicates directly to the vibration monitoring system.
The condition monitoring system will also accept process data
from communication links to the Distributed Control System
(DCS) or directly from process instruments. The condition
monitoring system collects, stores, processes, displays and
prints the pump operating data in a variety of formats. The
condition monitoring system data will typically be used for
historical trending, machinery diagnostics and predictive
maintenance purposes, but it will not be used for shutdown
protection.
This module describes the types of vibration monitoring system
equipment for pumps and the installation arrangements used at
Saudi Aramco installations.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

VIBRATION AND TEMPERATURE MONITORING EQUIPMENT

This section of the manual describes both the equipment that is
used for condition monitoring and the following condition
monitoring processes:
• Vibration Monitoring
• Temperature Monitoring
Vibration Monitoring
Vibration monitoring is a monitoring method and process.
Vibration monitoring measures the condition of the machine
from the initial vibration signature after installation and then at
periodic intervals throughout the machine’s life. This monitoring
method and process enable an accurate accrual or trend of
information by which equipment may be diagnosed before any
major problems occur.
Because vibration is the most sensitive and accurate of the
indicators that are used for monitoring machinery condition,
vibration sensors are typically used to prevent unscheduled
downtime and/or equipment failure. Saudi Aramco requires
automatic vibration shutdown at preset levels on all critical
equipment. Vibration sensors can identify a machinery defect
earlier than can other types of sensors and they can also be
used to pinpoint the specific source or machinery component
that is defective. Therefore, vibration analysis is frequently used
in predictive maintenance programs in order to provide the basic
guidance for performance of maintenance and overhauls.

Basic Vibration
Vibration is the back and forth motion across a point of

equilibrium. Rotating equipment vibration is usually periodic,
i.e., it is related in some manner to the action of the rotating
element. At times, there are non-periodic vibrations in rotating
equipment, but such vibrations are normally from external
sources. The vibration motion is described by the variables of
frequency, displacement, velocity and acceleration.
The terms and expressions that are used in this discussion of
vibration monitoring are presented in the text that follows.
Vibration is defined as the oscillation of an object about its
position of rest. When the mass of an object is set in motion, it
will move back and forth between some upper and lower limits.
This movement of the mass through all of its positions and back
to the point where it is ready to repeat the motion is defined as
one cycle of vibration. The time it takes to complete this cycle is
the period of vibration.
Frequency is the number of cycles in a given period. Frequency
is occasionally stated in cycles per minute (cpm) or cycles per
second (cps) and is also referred to as “hertz” (Hz). More
frequently though, frequency is expressed in multiples of the
rotational speed of the machine due to the tendency of machine
vibration frequencies to occur at direct multiples or submultiples
of the rotational speed of the machine. Frequency of vibration is
expressed in terms of one times rpm, two times rpm or 43
percent of rpm, rather than expressing all vibrations in cycles –
per minute or hertz. Frequency is one of the basic
characteristics that are used to measure and describe vibration.
The forces that cause the vibration are the first events that
occur in time. The responses to these forces are the other
basic characteristics or movements, such as displacement,
velocity and acceleration. The magnitude of each of these
characteristics describes the severity of vibration.

The magnitude of severity is described as the amplitude of the

movement. Amplitude of vibration is expressed in peak-to-peak
mils 1 mil = 0.001 in). Vibration probes that are mounted near
bearings or on casings can sense the maximum excursion
(amplitude) of the shaft or the high frequency casing vibrations.
A normal operating machine will generally have a stable
amplitude reading of an acceptable, low level less than 1.0 mil
(25 microns). Any change in this amplitude reading indicates a
change of the machine condition. Increases or decreases in
amplitude should be considered justification for further
investigation of the particular machine’s condition.
Phase, or phase angle, is another characteristic of vibration that
is important to diagnose and correct machinery problems.
Phase angle is used either to compare the motion of a vibrating
part to a fixed reference or to compare two parts of a machine
structure that vibrate at the same frequency. Phase angle can
be defined as the angular difference at a given instant between
two parts with respect to a complete vibration cycle. Phase
angle is usually expressed in degrees. The phase angle
measurement is a means of describing the location of the rotor
at a particular instant in time. Phase angle is also valuable in
determining the rpm location of the natural rotor balance
resonance or critical speeds. Furthermore, a good phase angle
measuring system will define the location of a high spot on the
rotor at each transducer location relative to some fixed point on
the machine train. Through determination of these high spot
locations on the rotor, the amount and the locations of the
residual unbalances on a rotor can be determined. Changes in
the balance condition of a rotor will be shown as changes in
phase angle and amplitude. Accurate phase angle
measurements are important in the balancing of rotors and they
can be extremely important in the analysis of a particular
machine malfunction. Determination of phase angle requires
the use of portable analyzers or of computer based condition
monitoring systems.

In measurements of shaft relative radial vibration, amplitude of

displacement is labeled “peak-to-peak” displacement and is
measured in units of “mils.”
Velocity indicates the speed at which the object is vibrating and
it is highest where the object passes through its position of rest.
Velocity is zero at the upper and lower maximum displacement
limits of a harmonic vibration. The maximum value is usually
the value that is recorded when measurements are taken.
Velocity is measured in units of “inches per second RMS.”
Velocity is usually the best parameter for machinery vibration
analysis, particularly where important frequencies lie in the 600
to 60,000 cpm range. Velocity is always used to monitor
antifriction (ball and roller) bearing systems and it is also the
best method for detecting a wide variety of different machinery
defects that occur at low, mid and high frequencies.
Displacement primarily senses low frequency problems and
acceleration primarily senses high frequency defects.
Acceleration reaches a maximum value as the object reaches
its maximum limits of displacement or when it begins to move in
the opposite direction. The maximum or “peak” acceleration
that is measured is usually the recorded value. Acceleration is
measured in units of “g RMS” (1 g = 386 in/sec2). Acceleration
monitors are typically used to monitor antifriction (ball and roller)
bearing systems. However, because of their large range,
acceleration monitors can be used to monitor other sources of
vibration.
Simple harmonic motion provides an illustration of the
relationship between displacement, velocity and acceleration. In
simple harmonic motion, vibration occurs at a single frequency,
with acceleration being proportional to displacement and
occurring in a direction opposite to displacement. Simple
harmonic motion can be represented by a sine wave and it can
be illustrated as the linear vertical motion of a weight that is
suspended or supported on a coiled spring. The

displacement of the weight below and above its point of rest and
the return to the point of rest, as a function of time, is the
frequency variable. The change in the amount of displacement
as a function of time is the velocity variable. During a single
cycle, this velocity constantly changes from a value of zero at
the peak displacement above and below the rest or equilibrium
point to a maximum velocity value as the weight passes through
the equilibrium point at zero displacement. The rate of change
in the velocity is the acceleration variable. The acceleration
variable is a negative value as the velocity slows down and the
displacement approaches maximum.
The phase relationships between the variables for vibration
measurement (displacement, velocity and acceleration) are
shown on a simple sine wave in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Basic Relationship of Measured Parameters

with a Simple Harmonic Motion

Typical vibration signatures are not as simple as a single sine

wave. Most machinery vibration consists of complex harmonic
signals. A complex harmonic signal can be described as many
sine waves mixed together. Figure 2 shows a basic example of
a complex harmonic signal that consists of two pure sine waves.
The upper sine wave is four times the frequency and one-fourth
the amplitude of the lower sine wave. The resulting complex
harmonic signal results when the two sine waves are mixed
together.
Figure 2. Formation of a Complex Harmonic Signal
The vibration signals shown in Figures 1 and 2 are shown as

amplitude versus time, which is also known as the “time
domain.” Amplitude is on the vertical axis and time is on the
horizontal axis. If a vibration transducer is connected to an
oscilloscope, the oscilloscope display is in the time domain.
Another method to view vibration signals is to plot the amplitude
versus the frequency, which is called the frequency domain.
Figure 3 shows the same two sine waves that were previously
shown in Figure 2, but it shows them as a three-dimensional
plot that illustrates the views from the time and frequency
domains.

Figure 3. Views from the Time and Frequency Domains
The French mathematician, Jean Babtiste Fourier, discovered

that all complex harmonic signals could be broken down into a
series of simple sine waves by means of a mathematical
method. The mathematical method can be used to break down
periodic signals into discrete waves (sine waves, square waves
and triangular waves) as long as the waves repeat themselves.
An FFT spectrum analyzer takes a complex waveform from a
vibration transducer and, using Fourier’s mathematical method,
it calculates the discrete sine waves that form that signal and
displays the individual waves in the frequency domain. Using
digital technology, the process has been made “fast”, leading to
the term “fast Fourier transformation” or FFT.
In addition to sine waves, which are pure tones, there are
random vibrations. Random vibrations look similar to a complex
vibration signal except that the vibrations do not repeat regularly

or on a cycle. It is difficult to assign a frequency to random

vibrations. Random vibrations can occur from fluid moving
through a pump or where gases are entrained in the fluid
stream. Random vibrations can indicate cavitation or
recirculation in a pump impeller. Friction can also cause
random vibrations.
In rotating equipment, mechanical sources of vibration, such as
rotor unbalance, misalignment, critical speeds, associated
gearing and looseness in parts, are only partially responsible for
any vibration. Process type sources that also contribute to
vibration may come from the high velocity and turbulence of the
fluid flow through the pump and the vibration sources from the
driven equipment.
Transducers for
Vibration Variables
There are two general applications for vibration sensors that are
used on rotating equipment. Saudi Aramco uses both
applications.
One application is used to detect the actual vibrations of the
rotating shaft within a hydrodynamic radial bearing and to
provide a signal to the appropriate monitoring equipment. Saudi
Aramco uses a non-contacting proximity sensor for the
detection part of the vibration system in this type of application.
The second application is used to detect the effects of the
rotating element vibrations on the static equipment (casing
and/or bearing housings). The seismic type sensor is used in
this application and it is directly mounted on the surface of the
body to be monitored. When antifriction bearings are used in a
machine, the seismic sensor provides a good indication of rotor
energy because antifriction bearings have essentially zero
clearance and because the dynamic force of rotor vibration is
directly transmitted to the bearing bracket through the bearings.
Vibration information is acquired through the use of transducers
that are strategically located in various positions on a pump.
The vibration transducers convert the mechanical motion of the
equipment to an electrical signal that is sent to a
monitoring/control unit.

Table 1 describes the advantages, the disadvantages and the

useful ranges of the transducer types. The selection and
positioning of the proper transducers are discussed later in
various parts of this module.
Transfer Useful Frequency

Type Range Measurement Advantages Disadvantages
Displacement 0-10 kHz Displacement • Sensor • Senses surface

(Eddy current) Observes imperfections
probes Shaft • Conductive
Directly parts only
• Mounting
difficulty
• Frequency
limits
Velocity 10 Hz – 10 kHz Velocity
• Self- • Moving parts
Transducer
generating • Large
(Not used in
Aramco) • Good • Senses EMFs
indicator of
machine • Frequency
condition limits
• Hand held • Unreliable due
to handling
sensitivity
Accelerometer With acceleration Acceleration
• High • Temperature
(Velometer) output = 10 – 25 kHz
frequencies limits
With velocity output
• Rugged
= 2.5 – 10 kHz
• Small size
• Hand held
Table 1. Advantages, Disadvantages and Useful Ranges of Transducer Types

Figure 5 shows the range and the limitations on machinery

vibration analysis systems and transducers. The acceleration
line shows that the signal strength (vibration amplitude) is low at
low frequencies. The displacement line shows that
displacement probes have low signal strength at high
frequencies but that its frequency response is flat at frequencies
where signal strength is good. The velocity sensor line indicates
that the signal strength is good throughout a range of
frequencies but that frequency response rolls off at high or low
frequencies.
Figure 4. Range and Limitations on Machinery Vibration

Analysis Systems and Transducers

Displacement Probes - Displacement is generally the best

parameter to use for very low frequency measurements (i.e.,
less that 600 cpm) in which velocity and acceleration amplitudes
are extremely low. Displacement is traditionally used for
machinery balancing at speeds up to 10,000 or 20,000 rpm and
it should also be used where stress levels or clearances are the
important criteria. Displacement probes are available for a
variety of applications and they are sometimes referred to as
transducers. Saudi Aramco uses non-contacting proximity
systems for displacement probes.
The non-contacting proximity systems, as used by Saudi
Aramco, have the following basic applications that are related to
the proximity probe installations: radial to the rotating shaft, axial
to the rotating shaft, shaft speed and phase reference.
Regardless of the application, the same types of proximity
systems are used. Each type consists of the non-contacting
proximity probe that is connected with a precise impedance
cable to an oscillator/demodulator unit, which is also known as a
proximitor. Typically, the outputs from the proximitors that are
mounted on a single piece of equipment are instrument wired to
a common plug-in module installed in a rack that houses plug-in
modules for one or more than one machine train.
Non-contacting Proximity Sensor Probes – Non-contacting
proximity sensor probes do not contact the rotating element.
However, they are rigidly positioned so that the probe tip is in
close proximity to the rotating surface. The sensor measures
the gap between the probe tip and the surface. Such
measurement makes the sensor very suitable to detect and to
measure the radial displacement of the shaft with its radial
bearing. A number of different types of proximity probes are
made that operate on different principles to achieve basically
the same result. The following are types of proximitors:
• Eddy Current Proximity Probe (Used by Saudi Aramco)
• Light Proximity Probe
• Inductance Proximity Probe
• Capacitance Proximity Probe

Although Saudi Aramco only uses the eddy current type probes
and some light proximity probes, a brief description of each type
is presented below.

The eddy current probe consists of a small coil, usually a flat

“pancake” shape, at the tip of the probe. A high frequency ac
signal (in the frequency range for radio transmission) is applied
to this coil from an oscillator circuit. The proximity probe sets up
a magnetic field in the gap between the end of the probe and
the rotating shaft. In turn, the magnetic flux induces eddy
current in the portion of the shaft that is exposed to this flux.
Loss of energy in the returning signal is detected by means of
the proximitor. Relative distance or displacement is measured
between the probe tip and the surface by sensing the change in
the gap. The eddy current probe is useful for gaps from about
10 to 70 mils, which is the approximate linear range of the eddy
current probe. The sensitivity of most eddy current probes is
200 mV/1 mil.
The eddy current type of non-contacting proximity probe is
shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Eddy Current Proximity Probe
The eddy current system is not affected by water vapor in the

probe tip gap. The output signal provides an indication (in mV)
of the varying gap between the sensor and the “observed” shaft
surface.
The impedance of the probe to proximitor system is a critical
item as the proximitors are “tuned” to matching impedances in
the connecting cables. Impedance matching prevents errors in

measurement. Tuning is controlled through the use of only

certain equivalent electrical lengths of cable that match the
required impedance. During field installation, this cable length
must never be cut to make an attractive installation. The excess
cable should be rolled and neatly installed. If the cable length is
changed, the system will require recalibration. If the system is
ever replaced, it should be with a cable of the same impedance
or equivalent electrical length.
The light proximity probe consists of a light source, a two-way
light conducting fiber optic lead and probe and a photoelectric
sensor. Light is conducted to the probe tip through use of half
of a fiber optic bundle. This light is directed at the surface of the
rotating element. Light that is reflected back by this surface is
conducted to the photoelectric sensor by the other half of the
fiber optic bundle and is converted to a voltage. The light
intensity at the photo sensor is proportional to the gap between
the sensed surface and the probe tip.
This system has high sensitivity, resolution and frequency
response and the system can be used to observe any type of
surface that is reflective or that can be made reflective.
However, industrial application is limited by two problems:
• Circumferential variations in surface finish and reflectivity of

most shafts causes significant noise and errors when
observing rotating shafts.
• Oil mist or process fluid vapors may distort the light in the
probe-to-shaft gap and cause noise and errors due to the
variations in gap transmittance.
Due to the erratic responses, Saudi Aramco only uses the light
proximity probe as a phase reference transducer.

The inductance proximity probe consists of a ferromagnetic core

inside a coil of wire. A high frequency alternating current is
supplied to the coil, which establishes an alternating magnetic
field at the tip of the probe. The proximity of a metallic surface
near the probe tip varies the strength of the magnetic field,
which changes the probe inductance and modulates the
amplitude of the high frequency alternating current.
The rotating element under the inductance probe tip does not
have to be made of a magnetic material, but it must be
conductive and magnetically permeable. The probe will not
sense non-conducting materials. Therefore, if the conducting
material has a non-conducting coating applied to it, the probe
will only respond to the underlying metal. Any defects or
eccentricity of the underlying surface will cause noise and
erratic false readings even though the actual finished shaft
surface is running true. Because the probe calibration curves
are relatively non-linear and vary with different materials, the
inductance proximity probe is not satisfactory for use on Saudi
Aramco rotating equipment.
The capacitance probe is basically only one plate of a capacitor.
The rotating element forms the other plate, and the air in the
gap is the dielectric material. The variable capacitance of the
probe is generally placed in the feedback loop of an operational
amplifier with a high frequency ac excitation signal. Variations
in the probe-to-shaft gap size vary the capacitance of this circuit
element, which changes the excitation signal. The readout
circuitry transforms this signal to a dc voltage that is proportional
to the instantaneous gap.
The capacitance system offers the greatest accuracy, linearity
and freedom from drift and temperature effects of all the
proximity systems. However, the capacitance system is not
applicable for many industrial uses because the type of material
in the probe-to-shaft gap affects the output signal. Water vapor
that passes through the probe tip gap will change the dielectric
and output signal or will short-circuit the output completely.
When the rotating shaft is coated with dielectric materials, such
as plasma-sprayed ceramics, the probe senses only the metallic
substrate.

Seismic Probes
Seismic (mass-spring) transducers use the response of a mass-

spring system to measure vibration. The seismic transducer
consists of a mass that is suspended from the transducer case
through the use of a spring of specific stiffness. The motion of
the mass within the case may be damped by means of a
viscous fluid, a spring or an electric current. When the
transducer case is contact mounted to the moving part, the
transducer may be used to measure velocity or acceleration,
depending on the frequency range of interest.
Saudi Aramco is no longer using velocity transducers. Velocity
measurements (usually required for all structural vibrations with
the exception of high frequency gear mesh vibrations) are
obtained through the use of an accelerometer with signal
integration to velocity. This type of transducer configuration is
sometimes called a piezoelectric velocity transducer.
Velocity Transducers - The velocity transducer is an adaptation
from a voice coil in a speaker and it is shown in Figure 6. There
are two configurations of velocity transducers: stationary
magnet/moving coil and stationary coil/moving magnet. Figure
6 represents a stationary magnet/moving coil configuration. The
velocity transducer consists of an internal mass (in the form of a
permanent magnet or coil) that is suspended on springs. A
damping fluid, usually oil, surrounds the mass. A coil of wire or
magnet is attached to the pickup case. The case is held against
the vibrating object. The pickup case moves with the vibrating
object while the internal mass remains stationary and
suspended on the springs. The relative motion between the
permanent magnet and the coil generates a voltage that is
proportional to the velocity of motion.

Figure 6. Velocity Transducer
The velocity transducer is self-generating and it produces an

output that can be fed to the monitoring system channel without
any further signal conditioning. The raw (unfiltered) output
signal from a velocity transducer can be transmitted to an
oscilloscope or to another analyzer instrument. The
measurement processed from a velocity transducer’s output is a
seismic measurement (referenced to inertial space). For this
reason, a velocity transducer is also called a seismic
transducer.
The velocity transducer has an internal natural frequency
(referred to as mounted resonance) of about 8 Hz (those sizes
that are used for machine monitoring). This natural frequency is
simply the resonance of the single degree of freedom of the
internal mass suspended on springs. The response at
resonance is highly damped because of the internal fluid. This

transducer produces a linear output only above this resonant

frequency.
Accelerometers - The most common acceleration transducer is
the piezoelectric accelerometer, as shown in Figure 7. The
piezoelectric accelerometer consists of piezoelectric discs that
are made of a quartz crystal (or barium titanate, which is an
industrial ceramic) with a mass bolted on top and a spring that
compresses the quartz. A piezoelectric material generates an
electric charge (voltage) output when it is compressed.
Figure 7. Piezoelectric Accelerometer
In operation, the accelerometer base is contact mounted to the

vibrating object and the mass stays stationary in space. With
the mass stationary and the base moving with the vibration, the
piezoelectric discs get compressed and relaxed. In the most
typically used compression-type models, the seismic mass and
the base alternately exert compression in the piezoelectric
discs. The piezoelectric discs generate a charge (voltage), the

output becoming positive and negative as the discs are

alternately compressed tighter and relaxed. The charge output
follows the motion of the surface in the direction of the
accelerometer’s sensitive axis. The immediate millivolt output of
this transducer is proportional to the acceleration of the vibrating
subject. If the acceleration level is high, the force transmitted
from the shaft to its supporting radial bearing is high. This force
is the cause of excessive wear and premature failure in a radial
bearing.
The measurement processed from an accelerometer’s output
signal is seismic (absolute motion relative to inertial space).
Unlike the velocity pickup, it is practically unaffected by external
electrical or magnetic fields. Accelerometers are as sensitive to
ground loops as other pickups. Ground loops can be easily
eliminated by providing ground isolating washers at the
accelerometer base.
As specified in API Standard 670, the accelerometer channel
accuracy for measuring casing vibration must be within ±5
percent of 100 millivolts per g (mV/g) over a minimum range of
0.1 g to 75 g, peak and over the frequency range of 10 Hz to 10
kHz. In order to avoid problems from noise and cable whip and
to minimize error in measurement, the electrical impedance of
the cable that links the accelerometer to the signal conditioner
and to the channel plug-in module is matched to the electrical
impedance of the accelerometer case.
The accelerometer has a very high mounted resonance,
typically 25,000 kHz, because it has no moving parts. The
response is linear for the first third of the accelerometer’s range
and it is used below its mounted resonance. The range is 5 to
about 10,000 kHz, depending on its size. Small accelerometers
have low sensitivities but higher operating frequencies. Some
small accelerometers are useful above 50,000 kHz. Large
accelerometers have high sensitivities but lower high frequency
limits (800 to 1000 kHz).

Temperature Monitoring Instruments
Resistance
Temperature Detector
A Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) is a general term for

any device that senses temperature through a measurement of
the change in resistance of a material. All metals produce a
positive change in resistance for a positive change in
temperature. RTDs are available in many forms. However,
they usually appear in sheathed form. An RTD probe is an
assembly that consists of a resistance deterrent, a sheath, a
lead wire and a termination connection. The sheath, which is a
closed end probe that immobilizes the element, protects the
element against moisture and the measured environment. It
also provides protection and stability to the transition lead wires
from the fragile element wires. Some RTD probes can be
combined with thermowells for additional protection. In this type
of application, the thermowell will also isolate the system fluid
from the RTD.
When the nominal value of the RTD resistance is large, system
error is minimized. To obtain a high RTD resistance, a metal
wire with high resistivity must be chosen. Platinum has the
highest resistivity of the selected metals that are commonly
used for RTD construction.
RTDs can be constructed of several different types of metal.
Gold and silver are rarely used as RTD elements because of
their lower resistivities. Tungsten has a relatively high
resistivity, but it is reserved for very high temperature
applications because it is extremely brittle and difficult to work.
Tungsten would also suffer in an oxidizing environment because
of the high reaction rates. Copper is occasionally used as an
RTD element. Copper’s low resistivity requires that the element
be longer than a platinum element, but its linearity and very low
cost make it an economical alternative. Copper RTDs have an
upper temperature limit of 120°C (248°F).

The most common RTDs are made of platinum, nickel, or nickel

alloys. The economical nickel derivative wires are used over a
limited temperature range. Nickel wire output is non-linear and
tends to drift with time. For the best measurement integrity,
platinum is the metal of choice. Platinum is used at the primary
element in all high accuracy resistance thermometers. Platinum
is especially suited for widely varying degrees as it can
withstand high temperatures while maintaining excellent
stability. As a noble metal, platinum shows limited susceptibility
to contamination. Saudi Aramco practice recommends platinum
RTDs, three-wire, and calibrated to 100 ohm at 0°C (32°F).
Although the RTD is an accurate temperature measurement
device, some errors may develop. The RTD is a passive
resistance element and a current must be applied to the RTD to
develop an output signal. This current generates heat that
becomes objectionable when the heat is sufficient to
significantly change the temperature to be measured. This self-
heating effect causes minor errors. A limited amount of power
used to produce the output signal should minimize the error.
Another error that may affect the accuracy of the temperature
measurement can be caused by the lead wire. The copper lead
wire for connection of the RTD to the transducer, although a
satisfactory trade-off between cost and resistance, represents a
resistance in series with the RTD and, thus, is a source of
inaccuracy. For long transmission distances, ambient
temperature effects can cause appreciable errors. However,
these errors can be compensated for by designing the RTD as a
three or four terminal device.
Lack of standardization among manufacturers concerning the
relationships between resistance and temperature may cause
an accuracy problem. Errors can occur when RTDs of several
manufacturers are used in a single system or when the element
of one manufacturer is replaced with the element of another
manufacturer. These errors can be avoided by not mixing RTDs
with different temperature versus resistance curves.

Inaccuracy of an RTD may also result from slow dynamic

response. Slow response may be caused by the RTD
construction. The RTD sensing element consists of an
encapsulated wire that is cut to a length that provides a
predetermined resistance at 0°C. The temperature sensitive
portion of the probe, which depends on the length of the sensing
element, is from 0.5 to 2.5 in. The RTD is thus considered to be
an area sensitive device and it has a significantly slower
dynamic response than point-sensitive devices like
thermocouples. Because RTDs are invariably installed in
thermowells, the thermowells represent a much larger
contribution to the slowing of the dynamic response. Therefore,
the error is of little significance.
Thermocouples
Thermocouples are another reliable source for electrical

temperature measurement. Thermocouples function very
differently from RTDs, but they generally appear in the same
configuration. Thermocouples are usually sheathed and they
can be used in conjunction with a thermowell. Thermocouple
type instruments have a range of -260 to +2,750 °C (-440 to
+5,000 °F) and an accuracy of 0.1 °C (0.2 °F).
The thermocouple (T/C) consists of two dissimilar metal or alloy
wires that are joined at one end, the so-called measuring (or
“hot”) junction. The free ends of the two wires are connected to
the measuring instrument to form a closed path in which current
can flow. The point at which the T/C wires connect to the
measuring instrument is designated as the “reference” (or
“cold”) junction.
Application of heat to the measuring junction causes a small
electromotive force (EMF or voltage) to be generated at the
reference junction. When a readout device is employed, it
converts the EMF that is produced by the temperature
difference between the measuring and the reference junctions
to record or otherwise display the temperature of the measuring
junction. When the reference temperature is known (usually
0°C) and when the measuring junction is exposed to an
unknown temperature, the EMF that is developed will vary
directly with changes in the unknown temperature.

The noble metal T/C, Types B, R and S are all platinum or

platinum-rhodium T/Cs and share many of the same
characteristics. Platinum wire T/Cs should only be used inside a
non-metallic sheath, such as high purity alumina, due to metallic
vapor diffusion at high temperatures that can readily change the
platinum wire calibration. The only other acceptable sheath
would be one made from platinum, which would rather
expensive.
The platinum-based T/C is the most stable of all the common
T/Cs. Type S is so stable that it is specified as the standard for
temperature calibration between the antimony point
(630 °C/1,167 °F) and the gold point (1,064 °C/1,947 °F). Type
R is similar to the type S; the only difference being that the
rhodium makes up 10% instead of 13% of the wire.
The Type B T/C is the only common thermocouple that exhibits
a double-valued ambiguity. Due to the double-valued curve,
Type B is not used below 50°C (122 °F). Because the output is
nearly zero from 0 °C (32 °F) to 42 °C (107.6 °F), Type B has
the unique advantage that the reference junction temperature is
almost immaterial when it is between 0°C (32 °F) and 40 °C
(104 °F). However, the measuring junction temperature is
typically very high.
The Type E T/C positive element is made from nickel-chromium
metal. Saudi Aramco practice recommends Type E chromel-
constantan thermocouples (ISA Type E), grounded junction,
manufactured in accordance with ANSI MC 96.1. The Type E is
ideally suited for low temperature measurements because of its
low thermal conductivity and high corrosion resistance. The
Type E thermocouple is useful for detecting small temperature
changes.
Saudi Aramco practice recommends ISA Type J or Type E
unless an existing monitoring system requires a different type.
The Type K T/C is similar to the type E with the exception that
the negative element is made from nickel instead of constantan.

Iron is the positive element in a Type J T/C. Iron is an

inexpensive metal and is rarely manufactured in pure form,
which contributes to the poor conformance characteristics.
Although the impurities in the iron are high, the Type J T/C is
popular because of its low price. The Type J T/C has a more
restrictive temperature limitation than most T/C. At 760°C
(1,400°F), an abrupt magnetic transformation occurs that can
cause decalibration even when the T/C is returned to lower
temperatures.
The measuring instrument usually is located away from the
point at which the temperature is measured. Therefore, an
extension is needed. Because the temperature sensing resistor
for maintaining a constant reference junction EMF can be most
conveniently located in the instrument as a part of its circuit, the
reference junction itself must be located in the instrument.
Therefore, the thermoelectric circuit must be extended from the
measuring junction, at the point at which the temperature
measurement is desired, to the reference junction in the
instrument. This extension is done through the use of extension
wires.
Extension wires theoretically extend the T/C to the reference
junction in the instrument. This wire is generally furnished in the
form of a matched pair of conductors. The simplest procedure
is to use the same types of wire from which the T/C itself is
made. However, in installations with noble metal T/Cs where
several hundred feet of extension wire must be used, or where
numerous T/Cs are employed, such a procedure may become
too expensive. In such cases, alternative lower cost materials
with similar characteristics at lower temperatures are available.
Thermocouples, much like RTDs, suffer from errors in their
measurement. Static electrical noise may be introduced into
T/C circuits by adjacent wires carrying ac power or rapidly
varying (pulsating) dc. Static electrical noise may also be
introduced if the T/C extension wires are capacitively coupled to
an electric field. These noises can be minimized or avoided by
shielding each pair of extension wires and by grounding the wire
shields. T/C wires must never run in the same conduit as
electric power wires.

Magnetic noise may be induced into a T/C circuit any time the
extension wires are subjected to a magnetic field and a current
is produced to oppose the magnetic field. This magnetic noise
can be minimized by means of twisting each pair of T/C
extension wires. Cross talk noise between adjacent wire pairs
in the same conduit may also occur. Cross talk can be avoided
by shielding each pair of extension wires.
Common mode noise in the circuit between the measuring
junction and the transducer may occur when the circuit is
grounded in more than one place or when different grounding
potentials exist along the wire path. Three different approaches
can avoid these problems: the noise can be minimized by
proper grounding (T/C circuits are usually grounded at the
measuring junction), by shielding each pair of extension wires
and ground the shields at the T/C only or by using differential
input measuring devices.
The monitor/control unit should be the same as the general
control instrumentation. Monitors must consist of a separate
alarm unit for each point and a single, time-shared temperature
indicator. The alarm units must have dual setpoints and outputs
and they must accept the signal directly from the element. The
alarm units must be suitable for back-of-panel rack mounting or
for mounting at a remote location. The alarms must be
displayed on a separate annunciator.
The monitor must provide a fault alarm for open or short circuits
in the control wiring between the detector and the monitor.
Monitor relays that are used for pre-alarm and shutdown output
functions must be the hermetically sealed, plug-in type.
Temperature Alarms and Input Shutdown Devices, 100 ohm
platinum RTDs or Type E or K thermocouples that are wired
directly into a Triple Modular Redundant Emergency Shutdown
(TMR ESD) system, analog 4-20 mA dc or digital signals from
ambient temperature-compensated temperature
transmitters/transducer are recommended for measuring and
inputting ESD temperature signals. Capillary or bimetallic type,
direct process actuated temperature switches, with an
associated indicating gauge, must not be used unless
thermocouple or RTD measurements are not practical or
feasible.

VIBRATION MONITORING ARRANGEMENTS

Vibration monitoring arrangements describe the type of
monitoring instruments and the locations of the monitoring
instruments on a pump. API 670 requires that a monitoring
arrangement plan be furnished for each machinery train.
Monitoring arrangement plans typically illustrate the following:
• The position of each monitoring probe in relation to the pump

and the pump driver bearings.
• The direction of active thrust for the pump.
• The direction of pump rotation as viewed from the driver end

of the pump.
• A complete description of the monitoring system, including:

1. The number, the type and the position of probes.
2. The type of bearings.
3. The radial clock position of the probes, with degrees
referenced to the vertical top dead center (TDC) as
zero.
4. The location of axial position probes.
5. The arrangement of the pump oscillator-demodulator
box.
6. The layout of the radial shaft vibration, axial position,
casing vibration and bearing temperature monitors and
all signal locations on the monitor.
The following section will describe the monitoring equipment
requirements and arrangements for centrifugal and positive
displacement pumps as defined by industry and Saudi Aramco
standards.

Vibration
In accordance with 31-SAMSS-004, vibration and temperature
monitoring systems, when specified on centrifugal pump data
sheets, must be installed in accordance with the following
standards:
• API 610, Centrifugal Pumps for Petroleum, Heavy Duty

Chemical and Gas Industry Services
• API 674, Positive Displacement Pumps - Reciprocating
• API 670, Vibration, Axial Position and Bearing Temperature

Monitoring Systems
• 34-SAMSS-625, Vibration, Axial Position and Bearing

Temperature Monitoring Systems
Vibration equipment varies greatly with the size and type of
pump. Small centrifugal pumps are typically monitored with
hand-held or magnetically attached seismic transducers. They
are not typically monitored by axial or radial proximity probes.
Larger centrifugal pumps and pumps that use hydrodynamic
bearings may use permanently installed proximity and seismic
transducers.
Centrifugal Pumps
In accordance with API Standard 610, pumps with

hydrodynamic bearings may be specified with non-contacting
proximity probes and seismic probes.
Proximity Probes - As mentioned previously, the non-contacting
proximity systems as used by Saudi Aramco have the following
applications related to the proximity probe installations: radial to
the rotating shaft, axial to the rotating shaft, rotational speed
and phase relationship.
When required, non-contacting proximity probes are
permanently mounted in a bearing housing to analyze the
surface of a rotating shaft. Most probes must be calibrated for
the specific shaft material and the material must be electrically
conductive for the proximity probe to properly set up a magnetic
field to sense any gaps.

The proximity probe senses shaft surface defects, such as

scratches, dents, thermal growth and variations in conductivity
and permeability. The proximity probe also senses electrical
and mechanical runout and cannot distinguish vibration from
runout at operating speed. Electrical runout can be described
as an electrical signal from a proximity probe due to the effect of
irregular shaft conductivity and magnetic permeability in the
shaft material. Mechanical runout can be described as the
measurements of shaft surface imperfections, straightness and
out-of-roundness. Shaft surface imperfections are always
present. A proximity probe cannot distinguish shaft runout
(mechanical runout) from vibration. A slow roll may be
performed, however, to allow the electronic circuit to memorize
all of the shaft imperfections, which include the runout and
subtract the imperfections from the signal that the proximity
probe reports at running speed. In accordance with 31-SAMSS-
004, the combined total electrical and mechanical runout for
areas to be observed by radial vibration probes must not exceed
the following:
• 13 micrometers (0.5 mils) at 1800 rpm or less
450 450
• 25.4 × micrometer s or mils, between 1801 and 7200 rpm
rpm rpm
For areas to be observed by axial position probes, the total

runout must not exceed 13 micrometers (0.5 mils).
The measurement of radial vibration is accomplished by
monitoring the dc output of a displacement probe that is
associated with the radial vibration at the bearings. For
horizontal pumps with hydrodynamic radial bearings, under
normal operation with no external or internal preloads, the shaft
will ride at a slight deviation from the vertical centerline in the
direction of rotation (15 to 30 degrees). However, as soon as
the machine receives some external or internal preload (steady-
state force), the radial position of the shaft in the journal bearing
can be anywhere. The radial position measurement can be an
excellent indicator of bearing wear and heavy preload
conditions, such as misalignment.
Radial displacement should be closely monitored during pump
startup or coast down. During a pump startup (with
hydrodynamic radial bearings), the shaft would be expected to
rise from the bottom of the bearing to some place towards the

horizontal centerline of the bearing. This movement is

fundamentally due to the oil flowing under the shaft, which
causes the shaft to rise in the bearing. It is generally believed
that the oil film is about one mil in thickness.
Because of the ability of the radial position to change under
varying conditions of machinery load and alignment, the
proximity probe transducer system must have a sufficiently long
linear range to allow for the large radial position changes.
For a radial vibration transducer, Saudi Aramco requires that
two non-contacting proximity probes be mounted to or in each
radial hydrodynamic bearing of a pump. Unless the rotating
equipment construction prevents access to the bearings, there
should be strict adherence to this requirement. As shown in
Figure 8, the two probes should be installed at a radial
separation of as close to 90 degrees as is feasible. The probes
must be in the same radial plane to the shaft, so that a true
representation of the shaft movement can be monitored. Also,
the probes must be installed so that each probe is offset by 45
degrees from the top dead center of the bearing. The probes
should be identified as X and Y instead of horizontal and vertical
and they should be oriented to rotation as shown in Figure 8.
They are viewed from drive NDE.
Figure 8. Non-contacting Eddy Current Probe Orientation

As specified in API Standard 670, the non-contacting proximity

probe for a phase reference transducer must be installed so that
its radial axis of observation is along a plane other than the
plane for the radial axes that are observed by the probes for a
radial vibration transducer.
Only one phase reference (key phasor) probe is required to be
radially mounted on an equipment train with the same rotation
and speed. If part of the train has a different rotation or speed,
a separate probe should be provided.
The phase reference transducer detects, once each revolution
of the shaft, a phase reference mark on the shaft. This mark
may be a keyway, a key, a hole, a slot or a projection on the
shaft. Any of these marks will cause a radical change in the
probe tip gap and thus provide a signal change to the proximitor
on each revolution.
An oscilloscope references the output signal of a phase
reference transducer to a filtered output signal of a radial
vibration transducer. On the oscilloscope display, the detection
of the phase reference mark appears as a pulse on the radial
vibration waveform. Phase angle is the number of degrees
(along the x-axis of the X/Y plot) from a pulse mark to the first
positive peak in the waveform.
Axial displacement measurements are typically used to monitor

the condition of thrust bearings in rotating machinery. Axially
mounted non-contacting proximity probes are used to detect the
axial movement of the rotating element during operation. All
rotating elements have some axial movement in response to
external forces, such as forces that are imposed through
couplings from other equipment in the train or from the coupling
itself and in response to internal forces in the rotating
equipment, such as changes in process conditions and thermal
changes. All hydrodynamic machines have sufficient axial
clearance that allows relatively large gaps to be set for alarm
and trip setpoints. The typical setpoint for alarm is 5 mils into
the surface (wear) of the bearing babbitt. The typical setpoint of
machine trip is 10 mils into the surface (wear) of the bearing
babbitt. At least two axial thrust position probes should be
mounted to provide axial thrust position protection.
The axial shaft movements are normally constrained within
allowable limits by the design of the equipment. Axial shaft
movement constraints are commonly thrust bearings or thrust

shoulders, both of which interact between the rotating and

stationary parts of the equipment.
During normal operation, a pump will have an active thrust load
in one direction. A balance drum is sometimes used to
minimize axial thrust in centrifugal pumps. The design of the
thrust bearing compensates for any residual axial thrust force.
The pump rotor must be protected from excessive axial
movement that is caused by normal thrust bearing wear;
balance drum seal wear or thrust bearing failure that would then
permit internal rotating element wear and catastrophic failure.
In accordance with 34-SAMSS-625, Saudi Aramco uses axial

position probe arrangements specified in API Standard 670.
There are two probe installation arrangements: an arrangement
for a shaft that is equipped with an integral thrust collar and an
arrangement for a shaft without an integral thrust collar. Figure
9 shows the axial position probe installation for a thrust bearing
with an integral thrust collar. One probe is mounted to measure
the integral thrust collar; the other probe is mounted to measure
the end of the shaft.
Probe Viewing
End of Rotor
Integral Thrust Probe Viewing

Collar Integral Thrust Collar
Figure 9. API 670 Axial Position Probe Installation for a Shaft with an Integral
Thrust Collar

Figure 10 shows the axial position probe installation for a shaft

without an integral thrust collar. This configuration is referred to
in API Standard 670 as the standard axial position arrangement.
Both axial position probes are mounted to measure the end of
the shaft. Non-contacting proximity probes must never be
installed to observe a non-integral thrust collar. The
arrangement prevents incidental pump driver shutdown or alarm
in the event that a non-integral thrust collar comes loose and
allows the shaft to move axially.
Figure 10. API 670 Standard Axial Position Probe Installation Arrangement
In accordance with the requirements specified in API Standard

670, the axial position monitoring system must use dual voting
logic. In a dual voting logic system, the measurements
processed from the outputs of each transducer must equal or
exceed the setpoint to activate the danger alarm or shutdown
(two out of two).

Seismic Probes - A piezoelectric velocity or acceleration seismic

transducer can be permanently mounted on a pump bearing
housing. Hand-held probes may also be used. For the most
consistent and reliable data, vibration readings should be made
from a clean, smooth, flat surface at a position maintaining solid
metal paths from the sensor to the source of vibration. The
following guidelines are used for mounting seismic probes:
Stud mounting a steel disc at the measurement points provides
the most reliable data collection method with the widest
frequency response limits.
Adhesive mounting can be used for round or other non-flat
surfaces. API 670 does not recommend adhesive mounting for
permanent base mounting.
As an alternative to stud mounting, quick lock mounts that
consist of bases permanently attached to a measurement point
can be used with caps connected to the sensor.
For performing pump troubleshooting or periodic monitoring,
magnetic mounts can also be used when permanent vibration
disks are not feasible due to limited accessibility of
measurement points. Hand-held probes can also be used for
periodic monitoring or troubleshooting, but they typically have
the narrowest frequency response limits and should only be
used when measurement points are inaccessible by other
methods. When using hand-held probes, the best frequency
response can be obtained using a short stinger.

Table 2 shows some acceptable frequency limits and resonance

frequencies for common sensor/mount configurations.
Sensor Mount Configuration Typical Maximum Typical Resonant

Acceptable Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Sensor stud mounted to 3/8” steel 16,200 >20,000

plate stud mounted to vibrating
surface
Sensor stud mounted to steel disc 9,000 - 10,975 Not observed

bonded to vibrating surface
Sensor stud mounted with:

• Bakelite insulator 10,000 14,650
• Nylon insulator 9,000 13,750
• Fibre insulator 9,000 12,750
Sensor mounted to quick connect 6,000 10,150

stud mounted to vibrating surface
(hand tight)
Table 2. Typical Acceptable Frequency Limits and Resonance Frequencies

for Common Sensor/Mount Configurations
Piezoelectric velocity transducers must have a minimum linear

operating range of 2500 Hz. Piezoelectric acceleration
transducers must have a minimum linear operating range of 10
kHz. All piezoelectric transducers must be rated for
temperatures above 120 °C. Saudi Aramco establishes some
recommended practices for seismic transducers and these
practices are partially based on whether a machine is horizontal
or vertical. For vertical pumps, all vibration readings should be
taken as close as possible to the top bearing, perpendicular to
the shaft, in four positions, 45 ° to each other, with one feeding
in line with the piping. Alarm setpoints are normally specified by
the pump vendor. Typically, the alarm level is set at one and a

half times the acceptance level. The shutdown level is set at

two times the acceptance level.
The mounting locations for vibration and axial position sensors
on centrifugal pumps vary with the pump classification. Vertical
and horizontal vibration sensors are mounted on the bearing
housings. Axial position sensors can be mounted on the pump
driver or on the pump shaft.
Saudi Aramco has established recommended design practices
for vibration monitoring of fire pump and boiler feed pumps
based on the emergency application of the pumps. Vibration
detection equipment on rotating machinery in firewater and
boiler feed water service should actuate an alarm only. All boiler
feed water pumps must have vibration detection regardless of
the horsepower rating.
Single Stage Overhung Pump - Figure 11 shows typical vibration

measurement sensor locations for a single stage, overhung
pump. Vibration sensors are mounted on the pump casing in
the area of the bearing housings. The V position indicates the
vertical sensor location. The H position indicates the horizontal
sensor location. The A position indicates axial measurement
with a proximity probe.
Figure 11. Vibration Measurement Locations for a Single Stage, Overhung Pump

Between Bearings Pump - Figure 12 shows typical vibration

measurement sensor locations for a between bearing pump.
Vibration sensors are mounted on the pump casing in the area
of the bearing housings. The V position indicates the vertical
sensor location. The H position indicates the horizontal sensor
location. The A position indicates axial measurement with a
proximity probe. The axial measurement for a between
bearings pump is taken on the end of the pump opposite the
driver.
Figure 12. Vibration Measurement Locations for a Between Bearings Pump

Vertically Suspended Pump - Figure 13 shows typical vibration

measurement sensor locations for a vertically suspended pump.
Figure 13. Vibration Measurement Locations for a Vertically Suspended Pump

PositiveDisplacement
Pumps
Positive displacement reciprocating pump vibration can be

attributed to the intermittent flow of liquid through the internal
pump components (suction and discharge valves, compressing
elements) and the vibration from the pump drive train (bearings
and gears).
Reciprocating Pump - Vibration monitoring equipment used on
reciprocating pumps typically includes seismic probes with low
frequency characteristics measuring vibration on the pump
frame.
Rotary Pump - A seismic probe is typically used to measure
vibration on the rotary pump suction and discharge port cover.

Temperature
In accordance with API Standard 610 and 670, pumps that use
hydrodynamic bearings require embedded dual element
resistance temperature detectors for each radial bearing when
specified on the pump data sheet. When specified, radial
bearing temperature sensors, which are replaceable and
embedded in the shoe, are to be in accordance with FORM ISS
8020-415-ENG and FORM ISS 8020-416-ENG. Bearing metal
temperature detectors must be able to be removed without
damaging the bearing shoe or pad in which the detector is
installed. When embedded elements are used for bearing
temperature measurement, extra elements must be installed in
the bearing oil throw-off lines. If the pump is equipped with a
hydrodynamic thrust bearing, then embedded dual element
resistance temperature detectors are required in the pads for
both the active and inactive sides of the hydrodynamic thrust
bearing, as shown in Figure 14. The sensors are to be located
in the lower half of the bearing at 120 degrees apart.
Figure 14. Temperature Detector Installation for a Tilting Pad Thrust Bearing

Embedded Probes
An embedded temperature monitoring probe is typically an RTD

or a thermocouple. Figure 15 shows a typical thermocouple
installation in a line and in a thrust bearing. Saudi Aramco does
not permit the use of spring-loaded bayonet type temperature
sensors that contact the outer shell of the bearing metal
because experience has shown that a consistently good contact
for reliable and accurate readings is not obtained. In addition,
through drilling and puddling of the babbitt is not permitted. The
thermocouple is inserted through a drilled hole in the bearing
retainer and its tip is made to firmly contact the backing metal
but not in contact with the babbitt. This installation method
provides the most reliable results and can detect a temperature
change more quickly than if the thermocouples were measuring
the temperature of the oil stream. Measuring the backing
material could be significant in the case of a sudden rapid rise in
bearing temperature, which might lead to severe bearing
damage before the pump could be shut down.
Figure 15. Typical Thermocouple Installation in Line and Thrust Bearings

Oil Drain Probes
Oil drain probes consist mainly of thermocouple-type

temperature detectors installed in the oil drain line, as shown in
Figure 16. The thermocouple is installed in a thermowell with
the tip of the thermocouple in contact with the bottom of the
thermowell. Oil drain temperature is monitored to identify
potential operational problems that may cause failure of a
bearing.
Figure 16. Oil Drain Line Thermocouple Installation

GLOSSARY
Acceleration The rate at which velocity increases or decreases.

Measured in g (the acceleration produced by gravity
at the earth’s surface; equal to 386.087 in/sec2).
Accelerometer A transducer that responds to acceleration and that
produces an electrical output signal (in millivolts) that
is directly proportional to acceleration. Some
accelerometers contain circuitry to integrate the
response to acceleration to an output signal
proportional to velocity.
Amplitude The magnitude of a variable that varies periodically at
any instant during a cycle (or period).
Antifriction Bearing A bearing that reduces friction through the use of
rolling balls or rollers.
Babbitt A soft lead/tin mixture used as a surface in
hydrodynamic bearings.
Condition Monitoring A process and a method of monitoring specific
parameters on equipment to determine the status of
the mechanical condition.
Critical Equipment Equipment that is considered to be vital to continued
production and is usually non-spared.
Displacement Movement of an object from a position of rest,
equilibrium or in relation to a reference point.
Electromotive Force A rise in electrical potential energy.
Frequency The number of cycles that a periodic variation
completes in a given period. Sometimes stated in
cycles per minute (cpm) or cycles per second (cps,
Hertz, Hz). For vibration, frequency is also expressed
as a multiple (1×, 2×) of shaft rotational speed.
Hydrodynamic Bearings Bearings that use the principles of hydrodynamic
lubrication. Hydrodynamic bearing surfaces are
orientated so that relative motion forms an oil wedge
to support the load without journal-to-bearing contact.
Non-Contacting Proximity A sensor that detects the gap between its tip and a
shaft surface.
Probe

Non-Critical Equipment Non-critical equipment is defined as equipment that is

not critical to production and that can, therefore, be
spared.
Thermowell A closed-end tube that is designed to protect
temperature sensors from harsh environments, high
pressure and flows. Thermowells can be installed
into a system by pipe thread or welded flange and
they are usually made of corrosion resistant metal or
ceramic material.
Triple Modular Redundant An emergency or safety shutdown system that
Emergency Shutdown System employs a two-out-of-three voting scheme to
determine the appropriate output action.
Velocity The time rate at which an object is moving. For
vibration, measured in inches per second (in/sec).
Velocity Transducer A transducer that senses velocity of vibration and that
produces an electrical output signal (in mV) that is
proportional to velocity.
Vibration Motion in which an object undergoes periodically
occurring displacement. Vibration is measured in
terms of its variables of displacement (mils), velocity
(in/sec) and acceleration (g’s). For rotating
machinery, vibration is assessed in terms of
frequency, peak-to-peak amplitudes of displacement
and either root mean square (RMS) values or zero-to-
peak values for velocity or acceleration.
Zero-to-Peak Amplitude In reference to a waveform that traces a periodically
varying quantity, the maximum amplitude occurring
during a half cycle. On an X/Y graph, it is
represented as a vertical line from the horizontal zero
reference line to either the positive or the negative
peak of the waveform. Often used to quantify
amplitudes of velocity and acceleration of vibration.

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

EVALUATING THE INSTALLATION

Chapter : Mechanical For additional information on this subject, contact

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

Figure 1. Basic Relationship of Measured Parameters with a Simple

Table 1. Advantages, Disadvantages and Useful Ranges of Transducer

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

VIBRATION AND TEMPERATURE MONITORING EQUIPMENT

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

Vibration is the back and forth motion across a point of

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

The magnitude of severity is described as the amplitude of the

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In measurements of shaft relative radial vibration, amplitude of

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Figure 1. Basic Relationship of Measured Parameters

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Typical vibration signatures are not as simple as a single sine

Figure 2. Formation of a Complex Harmonic Signal

The vibration signals shown in Figures 1 and 2 are shown as

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Figure 3. Views from the Time and Frequency Domains

The French mathematician, Jean Babtiste Fourier, discovered

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or on a cycle. It is difficult to assign a frequency to random

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Table 1 describes the advantages, the disadvantages and the

Transfer Useful Frequency

Displacement 0-10 kHz Displacement • Sensor • Senses surface

Table 1. Advantages, Disadvantages and Useful Ranges of Transducer Types

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Figure 5 shows the range and the limitations on machinery

Figure 4. Range and Limitations on Machinery Vibration

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Displacement Probes - Displacement is generally the best

• Eddy Current Proximity Probe (Used by Saudi Aramco)

• Light Proximity Probe

• Inductance Proximity Probe

• Capacitance Proximity Probe

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The eddy current probe consists of a small coil, usually a flat

Figure 5. Eddy Current Proximity Probe

The eddy current system is not affected by water vapor in the

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measurement. Tuning is controlled through the use of only

• Circumferential variations in surface finish and reflectivity of

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The inductance proximity probe consists of a ferromagnetic core

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Seismic (mass-spring) transducers use the response of a mass-

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Figure 6. Velocity Transducer

The velocity transducer is self-generating and it produces an

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transducer produces a linear output only above this resonant

Figure 7. Piezoelectric Accelerometer

In operation, the accelerometer base is contact mounted to the

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output becoming positive and negative as the discs are

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