PART 1

8
deleterious recessive alleles, which in turn decreases individual ftness (i.e.
inbreeding depression) (White, Adams and Neale, 2007). Inbreeding
can have impacts at any stage of development, for
example through reduced embryo viability, seedling survival, tree vigour or seed
production (see
Insight 1: Examples illustrating the importance of
genetic considerations in ecosystem restoration).
Restoration, rehabilitation and reforestation are all terms commonly used to refer
to reestablishing forest vegetation on deforested areas. In this study we use the
term �ecosystem restoration.� This largely coincides with �ecological restoration,�
defned as �the process of assisting the
recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded,
damaged, or destroyed� (SER, 2004), but also aims
to accommodate rehabilitation and reforestation activities that do not necessarily
comply with
some more conservative defnitions of restoration (Lamb, 2012). These and other
terms related
to ecosystem restoration are defned in Box 1.1.
We acknowledge that restoration is not the most
appropriate term for characterizing some of the
activities described in this and the following chapters because it suggests the aim
of re-establishing
a pre-existing ecosystem. In some cases it is almost
impossible to defne a previous state to which an
ecosystem can be restored (Hilderbrand, Watts and
Randle, 2005). It may also be impossible to return
ecosystems to historical states because of radical
changes that have already taken place (e.g. severe
aridifcation, soil degradation or socioeconomic
changes) (Buizer, Kurz and Ruthrof, 2012), or the
objective of a restoration activity may simply be
less ambitious with respect to the plant community it aims to establish (Lamb,
2012). In spite of
these shortcomings, we have chosen to use �ecosystem restoration� throughout this
study for the
sake of uniformity.
While the systems and approaches discussed in
this study cover a range of objectives and species
assemblages, sometimes including exotic species,
they all emphasize the use of indigenous tree species and diversity for their
intrinsic relationships
with indigenous ?ora and fauna and local knowledge and cultures.
1.1. Objectives and organization
of the study
The objective of this thematic study is to review
and analyse current practices in ecosystem restoration, with a particular focus on
the use of native
tree species and genetic considerations related to
the selection of appropriate planting material.
Based on this analysis we put forward a number
of practical recommendations, including genetic
considerations in ecosystem restoration, that are
intended to help practitioners to avoid genetic
problems and enhance both the short- and longterm success of future restoration
activities. Our
target audience includes researchers, restoration
practitioners and policy-makers.
Gilmour, D.A., San, N.V. & Xiong Tsechalicha. 2000.
Rehabilitation of degraded forest ecosystems in Cambodia,
Lao PDR, Thailand and Vietnam: an overview. Pathumthani,
Thailand, IUCN, The World Conservation Union, Asia
Regional Offce.
ITTO (International Tropical Timber Organization). 2002.
ITTO guidelines for the restoration, management and
rehabilitation of degraded and secondary tropical forests. ITTO
Policy Development Series No. 13. Yokohama, Japan, ITTO.
SER (Society for Ecological Restoration). 2004. SER
international primer on ecological restoration. SER,
Washington, DC (available at: http://www.ser.org/
resources/resources-detail-view/ser-international-primeron-ecological-restoration).
Walker, B. & Salt, D. 2006. Resilience thinking: sustaining
ecosystems and people in a changing world. Washington,
DC, Island Press.
WWF & IUCN. 2000. Forests reborn. A workshop on forest
restoration. WWF/IUCN International Workshop on Forest
Restoration: 3�5 July 2000, Segovia, Spain (available
at: http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/?r_segovia.pdf).
Accessed 21 January 2013.
Box 1.1. (continued)
Key concepts in ecosystem restoration (continued)9
GENETIC CONSIDERATIONS IN ECOSySTEM RESTORATION USING NATIvE TREE SPECIES
This report is organized in fve main parts,
including this introduction. In the second part,
experienced scientists brie?y present theoretical
and practical issues relevant to ecosystem restoration, with particular emphasis on
genetic aspects. This more theoretical series of contributions
serves as a basis for the analysis of the restoration methods and approaches and
underpins the
recommendations. The third part is an overview
of various methods and approaches that are currently used in ecosystem restoration
and are based
� at least partially � on the use of native species.
The authors contributing to the presentation of
these methods and approaches were requested to
reply to a set of questions aimed at facilitating an
analysis of the methods they used and their genetic implications; the questionnaire
is available on
the Bioversity website.3 The fourth part presents
an analysis of the use of genetic considerations in
current restoration methods, as well a number of
action and research recommendations, building
on the previous chapters of theoretical and general considerations, presentation of
the methods
and approaches, and the responses to the survey.
The ffth and fnal part summarizes the main conclusions of this thematic study.
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GENETIC CONSIDERATIONS IN ECOSySTEM RESTORATION USING NATIvE TREE SPECIES
Poor genetic matching of planting material to
the target site may result in reduced viability
of restoration projects
The widespread and severe dieback in three ponderosa pine plantations planted south
of Pagosa
Springs, Colorado, United States, in the late
1960s to mid-1970s has been related to the use
of inappropriate genetic seed source. A pathogen
(Cenangium ferruginosum) has been identifed
in the plantations, but observations are consistent with this being a secondary
impact and not
the primary cause of failure (Worral, 2000; Rogers
and Montalvo, 2004).
Use of provenance trials to guide genetic
matching
The natural range of black walnut (Juglans
nigra L.) extends from the eastern United States
west to Kansas, South Dakota and eastern Texas.
A subset of 15 to 25 sources from 66 sampled
provenances was planted in each of seven geographically disparate common-garden
feld trials.
After 22 years, survival was much higher for local
trees (71 percent) than for the other provenances
(zero survival at some sites) (Bresnan et al., 1994;
Rogers and Montalvo, 2004). This allowed the
authors to make informed decisions about where
best to use what germplasm.
Selfng (self-pollination) can considerably
affect survival and size of offspring
In a study in which offspring of Pseudotsuga
menziesii selfed and outcrossed crosses were
compared 33 years after establishment of seedlings, the average survival of selfed
offspring was
only 39 percent that of the outcrossed individuals.
Moreover, the average diameter at breast height
(DBH) of the surviving selfed trees was 59 percent
that of the surviving outcrossed siblings (White,
Adams and Neale, 2007).
Low levels of genetic diversity can
compromise successful mating between plant
individuals
Attempts to restore the endangered daisy Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides were
constrained by the
limited reproductive potential of small populations (fewer than 200 plants) where
the low
number of self-incompatibility alleles prevented
successful mating between many of the remnant
plants (Young et al., 2000). Among trees, several
Prunus species are known to have self-incompatibility alleles, so the same
considerations could