CELL JUNCTIONS

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the session, the student is expected to:
1. Identify the different types of cell connection
2. Differentiate the characteristics of each type of cell connection.

Most epithelial cells and some muscles and nerve cells are tightly joined into functional
units. Cell junctions (connections) points between the plasma membranes of tissue
cells. Depending on their structure, cell junction may serve one of the three functions.
Some cell junctions from fluid-tight seals between cells, like a “zip-lock” at the top of a
sandwich bag; other cell junctions anchors cells together or extracellular material; and
others act as channels that allow ions and molecules to pass from cell within a tissue.

CELL CONNECTIONS
Some cells (blood cells) do not associate with other cells, and therefore remain
as independent cells suspended in a fluid. Most cells, however, are organized
into tissues and organs, and therefore are associated with cells of similar
structure via membrane connections.
These are the five most important cell connections:

1. TIGHT JUNCTIONS (Zonula Occludens)

Extend around the entire perimeter of a cell making a very tight seal
between it and adjacent cells and form permeability barriers.
The seal is created by fusion of the cell membranes of adjacent cells as
their membrane protein interlock like the teeth of a zipper. It connects the
cells of tissue that line the surfaces of organs and body cavities. At a tight
junction, the outer surfaces of adjacent plasma membranes are fused
together by a web-like strip of proteins. Tight junction prevents the
passage of substances between cells, and they are common between
cells of epithelial tissues that line the stomach, intestines, and urinary
bladder. It prevent the content of these organs from leaking into the blood
or surrounding tissues, a situation that could be life threatening if it were to
occur.

2. ADHERING JUNCTIONS
Are made of plaque, a dense layer of proteins on the side of the plasma
membrane. Microfilaments extend from the plaque into the cell’s
cytoplasm Transmembrane glycoproteins anchored in the plaque of one
cell cross the space between the membranes and connect with
transmembrane proteins of the adjacent cell to attach the cells. The
extensive lateral attachments provided by the adhesion belts help
epithelial surfaces to resist separations.
 Consist of bundles of keratin fibers (tonofilaments) imbedded in
glycoprotein deposits between the cells.

3. DESMOSOMES (Macula Adherens)

Are also composed of plaque and linked by transmembrane glycoproteins
that extend across the gap between adjacent cell membrane.
Found in the epithelia subjected to stress, such as stratified squamous
epithelium of the skin and between cardiac muscle cells of the heart.

4. HEMIDESMOSOMES
Look like half a desmosome. They connect cells to extracellular material
such as the basement membrane. This structural arrangement anchors
one kind of tissue. This structural arrangement anchors one kind of tissue
to another in the body.

5. GAP JUNCTION (Zonula Adherens)

Are so named because the outer layers of adjacent plasma membranes
converge but a leave a tiny intercellular gap between them. The gap is
bridge by transmembrane protein channels called Conexons that form
minute fluid-filled tunnels.
It consists of tubular passageways or channels that allow direct
communication between the cytoplasm of neighboring cells.
Large enough to allow passage of ions and small molecules such as
amino acids, sugar, steroids, and nucleotides.
Can be opened by the messenger molecule cAMP and closed by calcium
ions entering a cell.
Gap junctions enable nerve or muscle impulses to spread rapidly between
cells, a process that is crucial for the normal operation of the some parts
of the nervous system and for the concentration of the muscles in the
heart and gastrointestinal tract.
 ANATOMICAL PRINCIPLES

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the session, the student is expected to:
1. Define anatomical terms pertaining to body:
1.1. Position
1.2. Planes
1.3. Sections
2. Describe the orientation of the body in the human anatomical position.
3. Identify and describe the planes of the human body.
4. Identify the 2 divisions of the human body and their corresponding structures.
5. Identify the major and minor cavities of the human body and the organ structures
it contain.

Scientists and health-care professionals use a common language of special terms when
referring to body structures and their functions. The language of anatomy and
physiology has precisely defined meanings that allow us to communicate without using
unneeded for ambiguous words.

ANATOMICAL POSITION
Person is standing erect with the feet forward, arms hanging to the sides and
palms of the hands facing forward.

Provides a frame of reference for using various terms of positions to:

 Locate specific structure
 Describe spatial relationship

PLANES AND SECTIONS

In visualizing anatomical relationships, it is often helpful to imagine planes
passing through the body.

PLANES
Imaginary flat surfaces

1. SAGITTAL PLANE
Runs vertically through the body
Separates the body into right and left portions.

2. FRONTAL PLANE
Runs vertically from right to left side of the body.
Divides the body into front and back portions.
 3. TRANSVERSE PLANE
Runs parallel to the surface of the ground.
Divides the body into upper and lower portion.

SECTIONS
Imaginary slices through the body along a plane.

TERMS OF POSITION
Refers to the body in the anatomical position regardless of its actual positions.
These are used to describe the position of structures in relation to other
structures or body parts.

INFERIOR
A structure lower than the other
SUPERIOR
A structure higher than the other
ANTERIOR
Toward the front of the body
POSTERIOR
Toward the back of the body
DORSAL
Toward the back of the body
VENTRAL
Toward the front of the body
PROXIMAL
Closer to the point of attachment to the body than another structure
DISTAL
Farther from the point of attachment to the body than another
structure
LATERAL
Away from the midline of the body
MEDIAL
Toward the midline of the body
SUPERFICIAL
Toward or on the surface
DEEP
Away from the surface

BODY DIVISIONS
AXIAL DIVISION
1. Head
2. Neck
3. Trunk
 Thorax
 Abdomen
  Pelvis

APPENDICULAR DIVISION
1. Upper limbs
 Arms
 Forearms
 Wrists
 Hands
2. Shoulder girdles
3. Lower limbs
 Thighs
 Legs
 Ankles
 Feet
4. Pelvic girdles

BODY CAVITIES
The body is divided into two major cavities. Both of which are located on the axial
portion of the body. These are:

1. DORSAL CAVITIES
It is located near the posterior surface of the body.
1.1 CRANIAL CAVITY
It is formed by the cranial bones and contains the brain.
1.2 SPINAL CAVITY
It is formed by the vertebral column and contains the spinal cord.
2. VENTRAL CAVITIES
It is located on the anterior aspect of the body.

2.1 THORACIC CAVITY

It is encircled by the ribs, the muscles of the chest, the sternum,
and the thoracic portion of the vertebral column.
Within this cavity, there are smaller cavities:

2.1.1 PLEURAL CAVITY

Left and right lateral portions of the thoracic cavity.
Contains the lungs.

2.1.2 PERICARDIAL CAVITY

Contained within the mediastinum
Contains the heart

2.1.3 MEDIATINUM
 It is the central portion of the thoracic cavity which is
located between the pleural cavities and extend from the
sternum to the vertebral column, and from the neck to the
diaphragm. It contains all the thoracic viscera except the
lungs.

2.2. ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY

2.2.1. ABDOMINAL CAVITY
Primarily bounded by the abdominal muscles
Contents:
1. Stomach
2. Intestines
3. Liver
4. Spleen
5. Pancreas
6. Kidneys
2.2.2. PELVIC CAVITY
Small space enclosed by the bones of the pelvis
Contents:
1. Urinary bladder
2. Part of the large intestine
3. Internal reproductive organs

There are also minor cavities of the body. These are:

1. ORBITAL CAVITY
Contains the eyes

2. NASAL CAVITY
Contains the olfactory epithelium

3. BUCCAL CAVITY
Contains the tongue, teeth, palate, uvula, and tonsils
 LEVELS OF COMPLEXITY

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the session, the student is expected to:

1. Define the following terms:

1.1. Chemical Components
1.2. Organelle
1.3. Cell
1.4. Tissue
1.5. System
1.6. Organism
2. Describe the levels of complexity in the human body. And briefly discussed how
they are related.
3. Discuss briefly how the levels of complexity are interrelated.
4. Identify the basic life processes essential for the survival of an organism.

LEVELS OF COMPLEXITY

1. CHEMICAL COMPONENTS
At the chemical level, the human body, like all other matter both living and
non-living is composed of ATOMD (smallest unit of matter) the participate
in chemical reactions and IONS, which are, charged atoms. Atoms
combine to form MOLECULES. Atoms, ions, and molecules participate in
the chemical reactions that contribute to all higher level of body functions.

2. ORGANELLE
Structure contained within a cell that performs one or more specific
functions.
 Nucleus
 Mitochondrion
 Golgi apparatus
 Endoplasmic reticulum
 Ribosomes
 Lysosomes

3. CELL
The cells are the basic structural and functional unit of an organism and
are the smallest living units of the human body. It performs all the
functions that are necessary to sustain life. Each cell is surrounded by a
PLASMA MEMBRANE that separates it from its environment, and the
cell’s organelles are suspended in a semi-liquid substance known as the
CYTOSOL/CYTOPLASM.
Though the human body develops from a single cell, it eventually contains
about 75 trillion cells of different kinds. During embryonic development,
 dividing cells undergo DIFFERENTIATION, during which they become
structurally and functionally different.

4. TISSUES
Group of similar cells and the material surrounding them specialized to
carry out particular functions.

There are four major types of tissues, namely:

4.1 EPITHELIAL TISSUE

Protects against abrasion and entry of harmful substances.
 Skin surface
 Passageways in the digestive and respiratory
systems
 Forms parts of many glands

4.2 CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Connects body parts.
Mostly are surrounded by an organic fibrous matrix.
 Forms bones
 Attaches muscles to bones
 Attaches skin to muscles

4.3 MUSCLE TISSUE

Specialize to exert force by contraction.
 Skeletal muscle
 Cardiac muscle
 Smooth muscle

4.4 NERVOUS TISSUE

Specialize to carry signals.
 Brain
 Spinal cord
 Nerve

5. ORGAN
Composed of different types of tissues to carry out a more general
function.
Examples:
 Lungs
 Heart
 Stomach
 6. SYSTEM
Group of organs integrated by structure and function to carry out one or
more general processes.
For example, the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and associated
glands work together as a DIGESTIVE SYSTEM digest foods, absorbs
nutrients, and excrete wastes. Activities of organ systems are integrated at
the organism level of function.

SYSTEM ORGANS FUNCTIONS

INTEGUMENTARY Skin, hair, nails, sweat Protects, regulates
glands temperature, prevents
water loss, and produce
vitamin D precursors
SKELETAL Bones, cartilage, and joints Protects, supports, and
allows body movement,
produce blood cells, and
store minerals
MUSCULAR Skeletal muscle Produce body movement,
maintain posture, produce
body heat
NERVOUS Brain, spinal cord, nerve, A major regulatory system,
sensory receptors detects sensation, controls
movements, controls
physiological and
intellectual functions
ENDOCRINE Endocrine glands A major regulatory system,
participates in the
regulation of metabolism
and reproduction
CARDIOVASCULAR Heart, blood vessels and Transport nutrients, waste
blood products, gases, and
hormones throughout the
body; plays a role in the
human response and the
regulation of body
temperature.
LYMPHATICS Lymph vessels, lymph Remove foreign substances
nodes from the blood and lymph,
combat disease, maintains
tissue fluid balance, and
absorbs blood pH
RESPIRATORY Lungs and respiratory Exchanges gases between
passage the blood on the air and
regulates blood pH
DIGESTIVE Mouth, esophagus,
stomach, intestines,
accessory structures
URINARY Kidneys, urinary bladder,
and the ducts that carry
urine
REPRODUCTIVE Gonads, genitals of males
and females
Performs the mechanical
and chemical processes of
digestion, absorption of
nutrients, and elimination of
wastes
Remove waste products
form the circulatory system,
regulates blood pH, ion
balance, and water balance
Performs the processes of
reproduction and controls
sexual functions and
behaviors.

7. ORGANISM
Any living thing considered as a whole.
Human organism is a complex of mutually dependent organ system.

BASIC LIFE PROCESSES

Human organs work together continuously to perform all the basic life processes
necessary to maintain life. Basic life processes of the human body include:

1. METABOLISM
Is the sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body: it includes
breaking down large, complex molecules into smaller, simpler ones and
building the body’s structural and functional components.

2. RESPONSIVENESS
Is the body’s ability to detect and respond to changes in its external or
internal environment. Different cells in the body detect different sorts of
changes and respond in the characteristics ways.

3. MOVEMENT
Includes motions of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, and
even tiny structures inside the cell.

4. GROWTH
It is an increase in body size that results from an increase in the size of
the existing cells, the number of cells, or both.

5. DIFFERENTIATION
Is a process a cell undergoes to develop from unspecialized state/
specialized cells differ in structure and function from the ancestor cells that
gave rise to them.
6. REPRODUCTION
Refers either to the formation of new cells for growth, repair, or
replacement, or to the production of new individual.