CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents the review of the related literature and

studies. The reviews of the related studies presented in this chapter were

collected to have a better insight into and clear perspective of the field under

investigation. This would indicate the ideas about Factors Affecting the Reading

Skills.

Reading

Reading is one of the four macro skills taught in an English classroom,

which requires a response from the reader through summarizing the main facts

based on what was read. Reading in a sense is a communication between the

reader and the text. Blay, (2009)

According to Bishops, Brownell, Dingle & Seo (2008) improving reading

comprehension and fluency skill is an overall goal of the nation as a whole to

works towards. Reading serves as the basis of education in all other academic

content areas, and without the ability to read, student may truly struggle through

our life. Studies have found that students who are at risk for reading difficulties

are often not engaged in academic instruction. This disengagement from

academic instructions due to reading is pervasive in students with reading

difficulties; a deficit that may lead to academic failure in other subject areas.

Studies have also shown that students with learning disabilities often spend less

time engaged in academic activities than their counterparts.

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The longer students remain disengaged from academic tasks the more

likely their academic will suffer, resulting from undesirable outcomes. Rock,

(2005)

When readers are fully engaged in reading they comprehend better and

are motivated to read. Reading is to process text meaning through some

process of interaction with print.

Reading Comprehension

Comprehension is the process of making sense of words, sentences, and

connected grammatical knowledge, experience with text and other strategies to

help them understand written text. Literally, comprehension means

understanding that we are reading. Comprehension is also a constructive

process in which student creates meaning based on their background

knowledge.

Reading as stated by Nunan, (2003) is a fluent process of readers

combining information from text and their own background knowledge to build

meaning. The goal of reading comprehension, the act of reading combines a text

reader, fluency and strategies.

Reading comprehension is very important because it may be tested by a

passage which is to be translated into good English, or by a question based on

the content of a passage. In this case the passage is not translated, the

questions being asked in the foreign language and the students answering

English.
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Reading Comprehension is often conceptualized as functioning at different

levels of sophistication and referred to for example, as literal, inferential and

critical. The most basic level (literal) is where the reader is able to understand

the factual information presented in a passage of text for example, he or she

because that information is stated explicitly in the text. The next level is refers to

as the inferential level. Westwood, (2008

Time in Reading

Reading for pleasure is significantly related to better academic

performances. Several studies show that a favourably significant relationship

exists between the college student’s academic standing and their habits of

spending more 5time in their recreational reading. Harrold, (2004)

Evidently students do read a lot especially if the reading task is part of

their academic requirements. They spend quite an amount of time, even

sleepless nights before examinations to pass the subject and eventually

complete the course.

Academic reading is certainly a relevant factor in the learning performance

of the students. The effectiveness and positive relationship between the two

reading and performance become evident from elementary to the college levels

in various language skills development, namely, comprehension, vocabulary,

building spelling, writing styles, and grammar. Reading is undeniably a corner

stone for success not just in school but throughout life .it is indeed the key to
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lifetime learning with naturally the simultaneous application of other skills

particularly listening, speech and writing.

Vocabulary

The National Reading Panel of the National Institute of Child Health and

Human Development NICHD, (2000) identified vocabulary instruction as an

essential skill that students need to improve reading performance. In fact there

is a strong evidence to support providing vocabulary instruction not only to

improve students reading comprehension and writing quality, but also their

listening vocabulary and their speaking vocabulary.

Vocabulary knowledge, including both oral and written vocabulary, is

critically for a child’s success in school.

According to Farstrup and Samuels (2008), vocabulary learning research

with students with learning disabilities over the last 25 years has repeatedly

reported that teachers should provide students with (1) explicit vocabulary

instruction (2) repeated exposure to new words (3) sufficient opportunities to use

words in activities such as discussion and writing (4) strategies to help determine

word independently.

Difficulties in Understanding English Language

Good readers are phonemically aware, understand the alphabetic

principle, apply these skills in a rapid and fluent manner, possess strong

vocabularies and syntactical and grammatical skills, and relate reading to their
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own experiences. Conversely the children who are most at risk for reading

failure enter kindergarten and the elementary grades without these early

experiences frequently many poor readers have not consistently engaged in the

language patterns. They have limited exposure to bedtime and lap time reading.

In short, children rose in poverty, those with limited proficiency in English, those

from homes where the parents reading levels and practices are low, and those

with speech language and hearing handicaps are at increased risk of reading

failure. Lyon, (2000)

Reading Habits

According to Cervantes (2001), anyone who reaches college has the

potential to acquire knowledge skills and understanding. Attaining this level

however, is not a guarantee that he is an effective learner and therefore, knows

how to study. One of the commonly tested skills in school is reading .Many

qualifying examination in elementary, secondary, tertiary schools focus on

reading or consists largely of reading comprehension.

Perhaps, educators believe that one’s reading proficiency is a reflection

of his /her written language skills and other sub skills such as constructing

correct sentences, using appropriate words to express ideas, organizing ideas

logically, etc.

According to Bashir and Matto (2012) reading habits are well – planned

and deliberate pattern of study which has attained a form of consistency on the

part of students towards understanding academic subjects and passing at

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examinations. Reading habits determine the acade3mic achievements of

students to a great extent. Both reading and academic achievements are

interrelated and dependent on each other.

Students often come from different environments and localities with different

levels of academic achievement. Therefore, they differ in the patterns of reading

habits. Often tend to exhibit poor reading habits. Academic achievement means

how much knowledge the individual has acquired from the school.

A creative and pragmatic education involves the habit of personal

investigation. Green (2001) stated the act of personal investigation requires

self-study to be followed by self-thinking and analysis. Self-study otherwise

referred to as reading.

Reading habit is an essential and important aspect for creating a literature

society in this world. It shapes the personality of individuals and its helps them

to develop proper thinking methods, and creates new ideas. However, the

developments in the mass media had continued to influence interest in reading

books magazines and journals, among others. Palani (2012) is the opinion that

effective reading is important avenue of effective.

Strategies in reading

To improve reading skills, students must learn to apply a variety of reading

strategies. Cunningham and Allington (2007) summarized six strategies, based

on Dukje and Pearson’s (2002) research. The following subsections describe

each of Duke and Pearson’s strategies prediction, think aloud, using text
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structure, using visual cues, summarization, questioning, graphic organizers and

outlining. There is evidence to suggest that these skills are important and

necessary reading comprehension skills.

Prediction, readers need to ask questions about what they are about to

read, and to relate what they read to prior knowledge. Using prediction skills,

such as looking at the illustrated cover or discussing the title of a work, can help

readers to make a link to related works. This is important, as prior knowledge

helps readers to make sense of new readings. By activating prior knowledge,

students can make connections about the new information as they read it. This

also helps readers to organize the content into a logical framework for learning.

Using the visual cues, using a visual to facilitate understanding is another

reading strategy that improves the reader’s understanding of a text. Visualization

cues may also be used to self-monitor for understanding. For example, a fluent

reader should see a “movie” running through his or her mind when reading. If the

movie or mind pictures stop, then the text is too difficult or the reader is not

engaged. Seeing an image when reading is a useful self-check for readers to

gauge the speed with which they read. Fluent readers are able to visualize as

they read Fountas and Pinnell, (2006).

Summarization, the ability to retell the key points of a text in a logical

sequence and hold these details in memory is an important skills strategy called

summarization. Often these key points are needed later in the text to make sense

of what is read. For example, a small but important detail may help reader to
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solve the mystery in the novel read Fountas and Pinnell, (2016). Being able to

summarize information effective is an invaluable skill for readers of all ages.

Questioning, good readers ask questions about what they read, as they

self-monitor for understanding. They ask questions of themselves, of their peers

and of their teachers. Pausing to ask questions is part of the reading process.

The ability to make inference about what one reads requires higher order thinking

skills. Asking question that starts with how or why engaged the reader. By asking

question of the text, a reader is actively responding with the material to

incorporate the new material into his or her schema.

Graphic organizer, also known as knowledge map, concept map, story

map, cognitive organizer or concept diagram, is a communication that uses

visual symbols to express knowledge, concepts, thoughts or ideas and the

relationship between them. The main purpose of graphic organizer is to provide a

visual aid to facilitate learning and instruction.

Think aloud, it helps readers to understand the thought processes of a

competent reader. Proficient readers aloud as they read to show how they make

meaning of a text. For example, a teacher might say, ‘’I think the author wanted

me to see a picture in my mind when I read that paragraph’’. This is an excellent

way to teach students to make inferences as they read. Thinking about hope one

reads is an example of using metacognition skills to improve one’s learning.

Think aloud provide examples of an effective reader see that proficient readers

are actively engaged in the text and are not simply reading the words.
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Using text structure, most readers understand the components of friction

better than the elements of a non – fictional text only because they have more

experience in reading fictional text only because they have more experience in

reading fictional texts Cunningham and Allington, (2007). Readers must be

familiar with the variety of text forms and features to aid their skills to that genre

of text. Understanding the components of a narrative form provides the

framework for global understanding.

Being familiar with the structure of a text helps the readers to organize the

information and improves their skills. The kind of reading which this particular

study investigated from among the freshmen is the recreational reading .It refers

to an array of fun reading activities in which the students freely engage in self –

directed reading: first , they read to check reality; second ,they read to escape ;

and third they read to learn specific skills of information.

Furthermore, the said reports Patterson and Proust, (2008) indicate strong

correlation between pleasure reading and academic excellence as noted in the

following results: 1) Voluntary readers are better readers and writers than non –

readers; 2) Children and teenagers who read for pleasure on a daily or weekly

basis score better on reading tests than infrequent readers; and 3) Frequent

readers also score better on writing tests than non- readers or infrequent

readers.
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a. Clock Diagram- is a variation of pie chart that can be used for

diagramming the use of hours and day. For example, it can be used to illustrate

how time is spent during a school day or the sequence of events in a story.

b. Venn Diagram- shows the logical relationship between group of things.

They are the most often shown as two circles that intersect in the middle of the

page. Attributes that shared by both groups as listed in the intersecting space.

c. Decision- making diagram provides a visual layout for organizing the

possible alternative to a problem along with their advantages and disadvantages.

d. KWHL Chart- allows the student to document their own learning

process from the start to finish the particular subject. The latter stands for the

steps in the process, which are; what are we already we already know, what we

want to learn, how we will find out and what we have learned. The steps is

sometimes not part of a KWHL chart (reducing it to a KWL chart) so we made

that step optional. You may also enter a subject title for worksheet, the number of

rows of cell in the chart and the orientation of the chart page.

e. Y-Chart- is a three part graphic organizer that is used for describing

three aspects of the topic. Examples include observations of an object (looks like

sounds like and feels like) or the characteristic of the branches of the United

States Government (executive, legislative and judicial branches).

f. Cycle Diagram- is used how a series of event interacts repeatedly

through a cycle. Some examples of topic that work well with cycle diagram

include cycle of life, the flow of money in an economy and the carbon cycle in
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nature. A typical plan using this diagram would have student identifying critical

events that make up a cycle, determining the relationships between cycle events

and explaining how cycle is self-reinforcing.

g. Fishbone Diagram- is used to identify the causes or composition of

some complex system of event. Each bone coming off the spine of the diagram is

then broken down into more details. A lesson plan utilizing a fishbone diagram

might include brainstorming session or group research tasks.

h. Frayer Model- is a vocabulary development tool. In contrast with a

straight definition, the model helps to develop a better understanding of complex

concepts by having students identify not just something is, but what something is

not. The centre of the diagram shows the concept being defined, while the

quadrants around the concept are used to providing the details or words that

work well with the Frayer Model includes quadrilaterals.

i. Chain Diagram- also called sequence event diagram, area type of

graphic organizer that describes the stages or steps in a process. The students

able to identify the first in the stages or step in the process, all of the resulting

stages in the procedure as they unfold and the outcome (the final stage). In this

process, the students realize how one step leads to the next in process, then

eventually to the outcome. Chain diagram are useful in examining liner cause

and effect, processes and other processes that unfold sequentially.

Outlining, there are two major parts of Outline: the topic outline and the

sentence outline.
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a. Topic Outline- a topic outline arranges your idea hierarchy (showing

which are the main and which is the sub-points), in the sequence you want, and

show what you will talk about . As the name implies, it identifies all the mini-

topics that your paper will comprise and show how they relate.

b. Sentence Outline- a sentence outline does all these types; plus, it

shows exactly what you will say about each mini topic.

Your sentence outline should be done thoroughly and carefully, represent

almost the specific first draft of your composition or paper. Once you’ve written it,

the paper will practically write itself. You’ll just be filling in the blanks, so to speak

providing specific examples and other support to flesh out the and prove the lead

ideas you’ve already sketched out. The purpose, in the other words of doing this

work is not long run by breaking the job down into the smaller and manageable

task.

Remember that a topic outline list words or phrases. A sentence outlines

list complete sentences.

Critical Reading in Developing Critical Thinking

Comprehension is the foundation of all reading experiences; it is not

ultimate goal of all reading assignments. The world demands every individual to

read critically, which means moving beyond what the text says to asking question

about how and why of the text meaning. Reading critically means the reading

sceptically, not accepting everything a text says, at face value but wondering why
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a particular author made a particular argument in a particular way. Thus, it

involves an in depth examination of the text.

A reader who is constantly looking for a new information and inspiration

encounters a text with an open mind but at the same time questions the purpose

and context of the text by testing it against his or her previous knowledge and

experience. A critical reading also tries to discover the hidden message in the

text and to find out how the information in the text accords with his or her

opinions, values and objectives.

There is a grow body of evidence supporting the concept that a reader’s

background knowledge about what he or she reading is one of the most critical

factors in determining whether the student will understand what she or he

reading or not. To continue to make progress in learning, as well as fuel self-

concept and motivation, students should participate in regular classroom

experience appropriate to their cognitive and maturational levels, including

interesting and cognitive challenging books presented orally or on tape.

It is not sufficient to provide books that are geared solely to student’s

instructional reading level. When reading level is solely considered, below level

basal readers are generally used for instructing struggling readers. Reading such

“baby books “makes struggling readers feel more defeated.” Focusing on student

interest in selecting reading materials may be more beneficial in promoting

reading success than focus on level. It turns out that interest is far more
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significant than readability. When students have strong interest in what they read,

they can frequently transcend their reading skills.

Students who do not enjoy typical school text often fail to engage in

reading, and may develop a lifelong aversion to reading. Even if they are not

initially struggling readers “reluctant readers tend to gradually lose some

academic ground, because wide reading is related to increase in general

knowledge and reading skills”. High challenge academic tasks invite students to

expand the maximum level and encourage students to value the process of

learning. As a result, motivation researchers view high challenge tasks as most

beneficial for promoting learning motivation (Miller, 2003).

Teachers promote motivation when they provide students with

opportunities to assume increasingly higher levels of responsibility for their

learning. Moreover, a challenging task often requires student to use prior

knowledge and construct an understanding of a topic. This practice increases the

personal meaning that student attach to an activity, therefore increasing the

likelihood of becoming engaged in an activity (Miller, 2003). During school,

students interact and work alongside peers and adults. These social perceptions

and relationships are related to and predictive of school-related outcomes.

For an individual to survive in today’s world, it is requirement for him or her

to know how to read with understanding. He or she should be capable of

understand a simple text such as transportation documents which includes travel

direction and road instructions, bills and contacts. The effect of not being able to
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comprehend could be disastrous (e.g. instruction on a battle of medicine or

chemical warnings) Lastrella, (2010). With the ability to comprehend a text,

people are able not only to live safety and productivity, but also to continue to

develop socially, emotionally and intellectually. Likewise, reading is a very

significant language skill for a student. Since they are subject to a continuous

flow of information, they need to prepare themselves for the demands that

reading in school and in bigger society places on them.

Improving Students Reading Skills through Text Structure

Strategy Instruction

The study indicates that recognition of text structure helps in the

identification and recall of significant ideas, and that instruction given to students

in hoe to use this strategy has positive effects on skills and recall. Furthermore,

an abundance of research indicates that students who use text structure as a

reading strategy ask themselves relevant question about the material being read.

Recent studies by Halaar (2010), suggest that independent influences on

reading skills are associated with both overlapping and independent genetic

pathways. In contrast, there was little evidence for shared environment

influences. None shared environment influence were also significant, but were

uncorrelated with reading comprehension.

The theories and ideas contained in the literature just reviewed, helped

the researchers view the study in the study in the proper perspective.
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Synthesis

The researchers would like to know the Factors Affecting the Reading

Skills. The researcher would like to determine why students have difficulties in

reading such as comprehension.

Some of the related literature above may help the researcher to determine

the Factors Affecting the Reading. As the researcher found out that the factors

affecting in reading are cause of having lack of vocabulary skill, lack of

comprehension in reading and also they are not interested in English language,

lack of time management. The researcher would like to help the students to

determine the common problems in reading and to enhance their skills in

reading.