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R E V E A L I NG A N T IQU I T Y 22
G . W. B OW E R S O C K , G E N E R A L E DI TOR
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GREEK MODELS
of MIND and SELF
A. A. Long
Cambridge, Massachusetts
London, England
2015
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Copyright © 2015
by the President and Fellows of Harvard College
First Printing
Long, A. A.
Greek models of mind and self / Anthony A Long. — First [edition].
pages cm. — (Revealing antiquity ; 22)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-674-72903-2 (alk. paper)
1. Mind and body 2. Philosophy of mind. 3. Self
(Philosophy) 4. Soul. 5. Philosophy, Ancient. I. Title.
B105.M53L66 2014
128.0938—dc23 2014009937
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For Monique, as before
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CONTENTS
Preface ix
Translations and Citations xv
Introduction 1
1. Psychosomatic Identity 15
2. Intimations of Immortality 51
Epilogue 198
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PREFACE
x
P R E FAC E
xi
P R E FAC E
xii
P R E FAC E
xiii
P R E FAC E
xiv
TRANSLATIONS AND CITATIONS
2
INTRODUCTION
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GREEK MODELS OF MIND AND SELF
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INTRODUCTION
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used to talk that way, but his model for the structure
or identity of his characters is unitary rather than
binary. These figures have bodies, of course, and
they have minds; they have limbs and organs; they
think and they feel, intensely and with wonderful re-
alism. But Homer’s men and women, rather than be-
ing represented as embodied minds or as having a
mind that is distinct from the body, are what I call
psychosomatic wholes. They are infused throughout
with life. Where they think and feel, and what they
think and feel with, are as much parts of their gen-
eral makeup as are their hearts and their guts. These
features of Homeric persons do not, to repeat, im-
ply that they are bodiless or mindless. It is just that
Homer, or rather Homer’s linguistic culture, saw no
need to carve people up into two distinct entities or
dimensions.
How then, and why did that happen? To put the
question another way, why did subsequent Greek
thinkers take it to be axiomatic, as they did, that hu-
man identity and selfhood presuppose a radical dif-
ference between the body and the mind? Or, to pose
the question more precisely in Greek terms, why did
they posit the psyche or soul as the center of con-
sciousness and as the core of a human identity or
character? I conclude my first chapter by returning to
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Further Reading
Gill, C. (1996), Personality in Greek Epic, Tragedy, and
Philosophy: The Self in Dialogue (Oxford).
Nightingale, A., and Sedley, D. (2010), eds., Ancient
Models of Mind: Studies in Human and Divine Rationality
(Cambridge, UK). This volume, largely composed by
my former students, offers detailed studies of Plato,
Aristotle, Stoicism, and Plotinus.
Snell, B. (1953), The Discovery of the Mind: The Greek Origins
of European Thought; translation of Die Entdeckung des
Geistes, 2nd ed. (Göttingen, 1948) by T. G. Rosenmeyer
(Oxford).
Sorabji, R. (2006), Self: Ancient and Modern Insights about
Individuality, Life, and Death (Oxford).
Williams, B. (2008), Shame and Necessity, 2nd ed.
(Berkeley/Los Angeles).
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Further Reading
Clarke, M. (1999), Flesh and Spirit in the Songs of Homer:
A Study of Words and Myths (Oxford).
Claus, D. B. (1981), Toward the Soul: An Inquiry into the
Meaning of Psyche before Plato (New Haven).
Gill, C. (1996), Personality in Greek Epic, Tragedy, and
Philosophy: The Self in Dialogue (Oxford).
Long, A. A. (2007), “Williams on Greek Literature and
Philosophy,” in A. Thomas, ed., Bernard Williams
(Cambridge, UK), 155– 80.
Pelliccia, H. (1995), Mind, Body, and Speech in Homer and
Pindar (Göttingen).
Redfield, J. M. (1975), Nature and Culture in the Iliad: The
Tragedy of Hector (Chicago).
Remes, P. (2008), Neoplatonism (Berkeley/Los Angeles).
Rohde, E. (1925), Psyche: The Cult of Souls and the Belief in
Immortality among the Greeks; translation of Psyche:
Seelencult und Unsterblichkeitsglaube der Griechen by W.B.
Hillis (London; first published in German in 1893).
Ryle, G. (1949), The Concept of Mind (London).
Snell, B. (1953), The Discovery of the Mind: The Greek Origins
of European Thought; translation of Die Entdeckung des
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outlives the body because it, and not the body, is the
true seat of the person not only in embodied life, but
even before birth and after death.
Christianity and other religions have familiarized
us with something like the Platonic conception, at
least in the sense that individual human spirits may
be thought to have a life that continues beyond their
mortal bodies. That familiarity may make the Ho-
meric notion of death’s absolute finality surprising
or disappointing. Yet, setting faith and spiritualism
aside, Homer’s psychosomatic notion of human iden-
tity is empirically persuasive. What reasons could we
have, other than wish fulfillment, for thinking that
our life continues for us after the body has irrevoca-
bly ceased to breathe or move, and grows cold? (I em-
phasize for us in order to make room for the Homeric
acknowledgment that human beings can have a sur-
rogate afterlife if they continue to be remembered as
heroes after death.) To approach the huge question
of reasons for belief in a personally continuing after-
life, I return briefly to my initial contrast between
divine immortality and excellence, and human mor-
tality and limitation.
The Homeric gods are superior to human beings
in the many ways that I already mentioned, but they
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Further Reading
Adkins, A. (1960), Merit and Responsibility: A Study in
Greek Values (Oxford).
Betegh G. (2004), The Derveni Papyrus: Cosmology,
Theology, and Interpretation (Cambridge, UK).
Clarke, M. (1999), Flesh and Spirit in the Songs of Homer:
A Study of Words and Myths (Oxford).
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B O D I E S , S O U L S , A N D P E R S UA S I O N
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B O D I E S , S O U L S , A N D P E R S UA S I O N
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B O D I E S , S O U L S , A N D P E R S UA S I O N
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Further Reading
Dodds, E. R. (1959), ed., Plato, Gorgias (Oxford).
Gagarin, M., and Woodruff, P. (1995), eds., Early
Greek Political Thought from Homer to the Sophists
(Cambridge, UK).
Gallop, D. (1975), Plato: Phaedo (Oxford).
Holmes, B. (2010), The Symptom and the Subject: The
Emergence of the Physical Body in Ancient Greece
(Princeton).
Irwin, T. (1979), Plato: Gorgias (Oxford).
North, H. (1966), Sophrosyne: Self-Knowledge and Self-
Restraint in Greek Literature (Ithaca).
Robinson, T. (1995), Plato’s Psychology (Toronto).
Wagner, E. (2001), ed., Essays on Plato’s Psychology
(Lanham, MD).
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Further Reading
Barnes, J., et al. (1979), eds., Articles on Aristotle, Vol. 4:
Psychology & Aesthetics (London).
Barney, R., et al. (2012), eds., Plato and the Divided Self
(Cambridge, UK).
Burnyeat, M. (2000), “Plato on Why Mathematics Is Good
for the Soul,” Proceedings of the British Academy 111, 1–81.
Ferrari, G. R. F (2000), ed., Plato: The Republic. Translated
by T. Griffith (Cambridge, UK).
——— (2003), City and Soul in Plato’s Republic (Sankt
Augustin).
——— (2007), ed., The Cambridge Companion to Plato’s
Republic (Cambridge, UK).
Fine, G. (1999), ed., Plato 2: Ethics, Politics, Religion, and the
Soul (Oxford).
Frede, D., and Reis, B. (2009), eds., Body and Soul in
Ancient Philosophy (Berlin/New York).
Frede, M., (2011), A Free Will: Origins of the Notion in
Ancient Thought, ed. A. A. Long (Berkeley/Los Angeles).
Hobbs, A. (2000), Plato and the Hero: Courage, Manliness,
and the Impersonal Good (Cambridge, UK).
Long, A. A. (2011), “Aristotle on Eudaimonia, Nous, and
Divinity” in Miller, ed., Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics,
92–114.
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R A T I O N A L I T Y, D I V I N I T Y, H A P P I N E S S
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R A T I O N A L I T Y, D I V I N I T Y, H A P P I N E S S
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R A T I O N A L I T Y, D I V I N I T Y, H A P P I N E S S
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only I can live. We live that life for good or ill by how
we deploy our mental resources, by the use we make
of our impressions, and by the responsibility we take
for our actions. Here, if I am not mistaken, there is no
gap between the Stoic model of mind and our own
phenomenological experience.
In order to dramatize the mind’s potential au-
tonomy, Stoic teachers liked to present their stu-
dents with exceptionally striking examples, such as
Socrates’s unflinching response to an unjust death
sentence or the Roman Cato’s suicide as a decision for
liberty in the face of tyranny. But these rhetorical ges-
tures may be set aside here. Most of us are not called
upon to be heroic. More than other ancient philoso-
phers, the Stoics were highly sensitive to human be-
ings’ uncontrollable reactions and to individual dif-
ferences of aptitude and temperament. Their focus on
assent and volition makes no presupposition about
what persons should do. It is an invitation, rather, to
enlarge the range of one’s options, self-assessments,
and performance expectations. We may also view it as
a salutary antidote to media pressures and the mea-
surement of happiness by external outcomes. The di-
vinity of reason and our share of that divinity may be
a helpful trope even for a thoroughly secular world.
What it points to, in the final analysis, at least for us,
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Further Reading
Bobzien, S. (1998), Determinism and Freedom in Stoic
Philosophy (Oxford).
Cooper, J. (1999), Reason and Emotion: Essays on Ancient
Moral Psychology and Ethical Theory (Princeton),
especially chapter 20.
Gerson, L. P. (1990), God and Greek Philosophy: Studies
in the Early History of Natural Theology (London/
New York).
Graver, M. (2003), “Not Even Zeus: A Discussion of A. A.
Long, Epictetus: A Stoic and Socratic Guide to Life,”
Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy 25, 345– 62.
Inwood, B. (1985), Ethics and Human Action in Early
Stoicism (Oxford).
Long, A. A. (1986), Hellenistic Philosophy: Stoics, Epicureans,
Sceptics, 2nd ed. (Berkeley/Los Angeles).
——— (2002), Epictetus: A Stoic and Socratic Guide to Life
(Oxford), especially chapters 6 and 8.
——— (2004), “Eudaimonism, Divinity, and Rationality
in Greek Ethics,” in Proceedings of the Boston Area
Colloquium in Ancient Philosophy, vol. 19 (2003), ed. J. J.
Cleary and G. M. Gurtler (Leiden/Boston), 123–44.
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EPILOGUE
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200
ANCIENT AUTHORS AND THINKERS
NOTES
INDEX
ANCIENT AUTHORS AND THINKERS
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A NC I E N T AU T H O R S A N D T H I N K E R S
Hesiod (c. 700 BCE): Greek poet. There are good transla-
tions of his Works and Days and Theogony by M. L. West
(Oxford, 1983) and S. Lombardo (Indianapolis, 1993).
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NOTES
Introduction
208
N O T E S T O PA G E S 2 8 – 5 4
209
N O T E S T O PA G E S 61 – 8 3
210
N O T E S T O PA G E S 8 8 – 1 0 0
1. Antidosis 180.
2. My references to Socrates throughout this
chapter refer to Plato’s figure of that name. I
make no assumptions about the historical
accuracy of words Plato puts into the mouth of
his Socrates character, except that I take the gist
of Socrates’s words in the Apology to be authen-
tic. The historical Socrates has often been
credited with advancing radical new ideas about
the soul: see Robinson 1995, 3–4. Actually,
however, much that Plato assigns to Socrates
was already in the air during Socrates’s youth,
as we see from material presented in Chapter 2.
3. This dialogue has the name Gorgias.
4. The text is translated in Gagarin and Woodruff,
1995, 190– 95.
5. I don’t think this point has ever been given the
emphasis it should receive.
6. Compare Plato, Gorgias 483c, spoken by Gorgias’s
defender Callicles: natural justice “shows that it
211
N O T E S T O PA G E S 1 0 1 – 1 2 1
212
N O T E S T O PA G E S 1 2 1 – 1 3 6
213
N O T E S T O PA G E S 1 3 8 – 1 5 6
214
N O T E S T O PA G E S 1 5 6 – 16 7
215
N O T E S T O PA G E S 1 7 0 – 1 7 9
216
N O T E S T O PA G E S 1 8 0 – 1 9 0
217
N O T E S T O PA G E S 1 9 0 – 2 0 0
Epilogue
218
INDEX
Achilles, 17, 23, 25, 29, 32, appetite(s), 39, 45, 112–113,
35, 45, 52, 53–54, 57, 73, 115, 122, 128, 135, 139–140,
75, 143, 145 144, 147–148, 149, 151,
Aeschylus, 30 153–154, 199
afterlife, 30, 56, 61– 62, Aristotle, 3, 11, 12, 13, 21, 24,
68– 69, 73, 75, 84, 91– 92, 28, 122–123, 155–159, 162,
97, 117, 126, 151, 165–166, 164, 173, 176, 181, 182,
210n 186
agency, 39, 169, 177, 192–193 askesis, 110
analogy, of body and soul, assent, 179, 184, 188–192, 195
96, 106, 108, 110, 114; of athletics, 109–110
city and soul, 44, autonomy, 12, 44, 83, 105,
127–129, 149, 213n 110, 116, 140–141, 177–178,
Anaxagoras, 171–172 188, 192, 194–195, 199
anger, 23, 39, 59, 136, 142, 143
animals, 40, 41, 63, 68, 78,
85, 144, 151–152, 185–187, beauty, 10, 51, 99, 100, 102,
191, 216n 109, 151, 152, 185, 193
INDEX
220
INDEX
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INDEX
222
INDEX
223
INDEX
224
INDEX
Pindar, 7– 8, 70– 76, 78, 80, politics, 11, 44, 89, 93, 98,
82, 83, 85, 95 126–128, 129, 133–135,
Plato, 3–4, 7, 9–12, 21, 25, 140–141, 147, 155, 172
29–31, 37, 39–48, 54–56, power(s), 10, 51, 52, 57, 93,
64, 67, 74, 81, 83, 88– 90, 96, 100–102, 115, 134,
93– 98, 100, 105–123, 165, 169, 172, 173, 178,
125–156, 162, 163, 167–168, 181
170–172, 181–182, 186, prohairesis, 185
198–199; Apology, 93– 95, Prometheus, 59, 60, 64
108, 167; Crito, 106–108; prosperity. See happiness
Gorgias, 93, 95– 97, 114, Protagoras, 111
116, 125–126, 147, 189; psyche, 6, 8, 17–18, 23–25,
influence of, 118, 123; 28–31, 39, 41, 53–55, 59,
Phaedo, 113, 116–122, 70– 75, 79, 83, 88, 90– 92,
125–126, 128, 140, 150, 95, 99, 103, 107–108, 142,
152–153; Phaedrus, 150–151; 151–152, 208–209nn
Protagoras, 111; Republic, psychosomatic holism, 32,
126–150, 158; Timaeus, 37–42, 153
154–155, 156, 167–168. See Pyrrho, 22
also soul Pythagoras, 21, 68– 69,
Platonism/Platonists, 7, 13, 76– 77, 81, 97, 113, 133
18, 46–47, 51, 55–56, 122,
159, 166, 168, 176, 183
plea sure, 102, 105, 106, 113, rationality, 11–12, 13, 42–43,
119, 123, 140, 144, 84, 94, 103, 104, 119, 130,
147–148, 174 132, 137–138, 147, 156–157,
Plotinus, 4, 15–18, 25, 46, 158, 163, 168–169, 180, 182,
48, 121, 150, 159 199
225
INDEX
226
INDEX
227
INDEX
228
REVEALING ANTIQUITY
230
REVEALING ANTIQUIT Y
231