Animal Tissues

1. Epithelial
Epithelial tissue is made of closely-packed cells arranged in flat sheets. Epithelia form
the surface of the skin, line the various cavities and tubes of the body, and cover the
internal organs.
Subsets of Epithelia
Epithelia that form the interface between the internal and external environments.
Skin as well as the lining of the mouth and nasal cavity. These are derived from ectoderm.
Inner lining of the GI tract, lungs, urinary bladder, exocrine glands, vagina and more. These
are derived from endoderm. The apical surface of these epithelial cells is exposed to the
"external environment", the lumen of the organ or the air. Mesothelia. These are derived
from mesoderm.
pleura — the outer covering of the lungs and the inner lining of the thoracic (chest) cavity.
peritoneum — the outer covering of all the abdominal organs and the inner lining of the
abdominal cavity.
pericardium — the outer lining of the heart.
Endothelia. The inner lining of the heart, all blood and lymphatic vessels — derived from
mesoderm.
The basolateral surface of all epithelia is exposed to the internal environment (ECF). The
entire sheet of epithelial cells is attached to a layer of extracellular matrix that is called the
basement membrane or, better (because it is not a membrane in the biological sense), the
basal lamina. [View example]
The function of epithelia always reflects the fact that they are boundaries between masses
of cells and a cavity or space. Some examples:
The epithelium of the skin protects the underlying tissues from mechanical damage,
ultraviolet light, dehydration, invasion by bacteria. The columnar epithelium of the intestine
secretes digestive enzymes into the intestine; absorbs the products of digestion from it.
An epithelium also lines our air passages and the alveoli of the lungs. It secretes mucus
which keeps it from drying out and traps inhaled dust particles. Most of its cells have cilia on
their apical surface that propel the mucus with its load of foreign matter back up to the
throat.
2. Muscle
Three kinds of muscle are found in vertebrates: Skeletal muscle is made of long fibers whose
contraction provides the force of locomotion and other voluntary body movements. Smooth
muscle lines the walls of the hollow structures of the body, such as the intestine, urinary
bladder, uterus, and blood vessels. Its contraction, which is involuntary, reduces the size of
these hollow organs. The heart is made of cardiac muscle.
3. Connective
The cells of connective tissue are embedded in a great amount of extracellular material. This
matrix is secreted by the cells. It consists of protein fibers embedded in an amorphous
mixture of protein-polysaccharide ("proteoglycan") molecules.
Supporting connective tissue Gives strength, support, and protection to the soft parts of
the body cartilage. Example: the outer ear bone. The matrix of bone contains collagen fibers
and mineral deposits. The most abundant mineral is calcium phosphate, although
magnesium, carbonate, and fluoride ions are also present. [More on bone]
Dense connective tissue Often called fibrous connective tissue. Tendons connect muscle to
bone. [View] The matrix is principally Type I collagen, and the fibers are all oriented parallel
to each other. Tendons are strong but not elastic. Ligaments attach one bone to another.
They contain both collagen and also the protein elastin. Elastin permits ligaments to be
stretched.
Loose connective tissue It is distributed throughout the body. It serves as a packing and
binding material for most of our organs. Sheets of loose connective tissue that bind muscles
and other structures together are called fascia. Collagen, elastin, and other proteins are
found in the matrix of loose connective tissue. Both dense and loose connective tissue are
derived from cells called fibroblasts [View], which secrete the extracellular matrix.
Adipose tissue Adipose tissue is "fat". There are two kinds found in mammals:white adipose
tissue (WAT) in which the cells, called adipocytes, have become almost filled with oil. The oil
is confined within a single membrane-enclosed droplet. Virtually all of the "fat" in adult
humans is white adipose tissue. brown adipose tissue (BAT) in which the adipocytes contain
many small droplets of oil as well as many mitochondria. White adipose tissue and brown
adipose tissue differ in function as well as cellular structure. New adipocytes in white
adipose tissue are formed throughout life from a pool of precursor cells. These are needed
to replace those that die (after an average life span of 10 years). Whether the total number
of these adipocytes increases in humans becoming fatter as adults is still uncertain. If not,
why do so many of us get fatter as we age? Because of the increased size of individual
adipocytes as they become filled with oil. The adipocytes of white adipose tissue secrete
several hormones, including leptin and adiponectin.
4. Nerve Nerve tissue is composed of nerve cells called neurons and glial cells.
Neurons Neurons are specialized for the conduction of nerve impulses. A typical neuron
consists ofa cell body which contains the nucleus; a number of short fibers — dendrites —
extending from the cell body
a single long fiber, the axon.The nerve impulse is conducted along the axon. Glial cells
surround neurons. Once thought to be simply support for neurons (glia = glue), they turn
out to serve several important functions.
There are three types:
Schwann cells. These produce the myelin sheath that surrounds many axons in the
peripheral nervous system.
Oligodendrocytes. These produce the myelin sheath that surrounds many axons in the
central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).
Astrocytes. These — often star-shaped — cells are clustered around synapses and the nodes
of Ranvier where they perform a variety of functions: modulating the activity of neurons [An
example] [Another example]; supplying neurons with materials (e.g. glucose and lactate) as
well as some signaling molecules; regulating the flow of blood to their region of the brain. It
is primarily the metabolic activity of astrocytes that is being measured in brain imaging by
positron-emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).
pruning away (by phagocytosis) weak synapses.
In addition, the central nervous system contains many microglia — mobile cells
(macrophages) that respond to damage (e.g., from an infection) by engulfing cell debris
secreting inflammatory cytokines like tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) and interleukin-1 (IL-1)
Microglia are also active in the healthy brain, at least in young mice where, like astrocytes,
they engulf synapses thus reducing the number of synapses in the developing brain.
5. Blood
The bone marrow is the source of all the cells of the blood. These include: red blood cells
(RBCs or erythrocytes) five kinds of white blood cells (WBCs or leukocytes) platelets (or
thrombocytes)