Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
11.
Research-‐Based
Practice
Assessing
and
Treating
Childhood
Anxiety
in
School
Settings
Savannah
Wright
&
Michael
L.
Sulkowski
17.
Cognitive
Behavioral
Strategies
For
Working
With
Anxious
Youth
In
Schools
(PowerPoint
Slides)
Elana
R.
Bernstein,
PhD
Morgan
J.
Aldridge,
MS
Jessica
May,
MS
32.
High
Stakes
Testing
&
Children’s
Well-‐Being:
A
Guide
for
Parents
NYASP
35.
High
Stakes
Testing
&
Children’s
Well-‐Being:
A
Guide
for
Teachers
NYASP
38.
Reducing
Test
Anxiety
to
Increase
Academic
Performance
(PowerPoint
Slides)
Peter
Faustino
PhD
and
Tom
Kulaga
M.S.
104.
Utilizing
Video
Self-‐Modeling
and
Reattribution
Training
to
Alleviate
Test
Anxiety
(PowerPoint
Slides)
Shahrokh-‐Reza
Shahroozi,
B.S.
ANXIETY AND ANXIETY DISORDERS IN
CHILDREN: INFORMATION FOR PARENTS
By Thomas J. Huberty, PhD, NCSP
Indiana University
Anxiety is a common experience to all of us on an almost daily basis. Often, we use terms like jittery,
high strung, and uptight to describe anxious feelings. Feeling anxious is normal and can range from very
low levels to such high levels that social, personal, and academic performance is affected. At moderate
levels, anxiety can be helpful because it raises our alertness to danger or signals that we need to take
some action. Anxiety can arise from real or imagined circumstances. For example, a student may
become anxious about taking a test (real) or be overly concerned that he or she will say the wrong thing
and be ridiculed (imagined). Because anxiety results from thinking about real or imagined events,
almost any situation can set the stage for it to occur.
Defining Anxiety
There are many definitions of anxiety, but a useful one is apprehension or excessive fear about real
or imagined circumstances. The central characteristic of anxiety is worry, which is excessive concern
about situations with uncertain outcomes. Excessive worry is unproductive, because it may interfere
with the ability to take action to solve a problem. Symptoms of anxiety may be reflected in thinking,
behavior, or physical reactions.
Helping Children at Home and School II: Handouts for Families and Educators S5–1
Anxiety Disorders present to a significant degree, can indicate anxiety that
When anxiety becomes excessive beyond what is needs attention. As a parent, you may be the first person
expected for the circumstances and the child’s to suspect that your child has significant anxiety.
developmental level, problems in social, personal, and
academic functioning may occur, resulting in an anxiety Relationship to Other Problems
disorder. The signs of anxiety disorders are similar in Although less is known about how anxiety is related
children and adults, although children may show more to other problems as compared to adults, there are some
signs of irritability and inattention. The frequency of well-established patterns.
anxiety disorders ranges from about 2 to 15% of Depression. Anxiety and depression occur together
children and occurs somewhat more often in females. about 50–60% of the time. When they do occur together,
There are many types of anxiety disorders, but the most anxiety most often precedes depression, rather than the
common ones are listed below. opposite. When both anxiety and depression are present,
Separation anxiety disorder. This pattern is there is a higher likelihood of suicidal thoughts, although
characterized by excessive clinging to adult caretakers suicidal attempts are far less frequent.
and reluctance to separate from them. Although this Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. At times,
pattern is typical in 12–18-month-old toddlers, it is not anxiety may appear similar to behaviors seen with
expected of school-age children. This disorder may Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). For
indicate some difficulties in parent-child relationships example, inattention and concentration difficulties are
or a genuine problem, such as being bullied at school. In often seen in children with ADHD and with children who
those cases, the child may be described as having have anxiety. Therefore, the child may have anxiety
school refusal, sometimes called school phobia. rather than ADHD. Failing to identify anxiety accurately
Occasionally, the child can talk about the reasons for may explain why some children do not respond as
feeling anxious, depending on age and language skills. expected to medications prescribed for ADHD. The age
Generalized anxiety disorder. This pattern is of the child when the behaviors were first observed can
characterized by excessive worry and anxiety across a be a useful index for determining if anxiety or ADHD is
variety of situations that does not seem to be the result present. The signs of ADHD usually are apparent by age
of identified causes. 4 or 5, whereas anxiety may not be seen at a high level
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. This pattern often until school entry, when children may respond to
is discussed in the popular media and historically has demands with worry and needs for perfectionism. A
been associated with soldiers who have experienced thorough psychological and educational evaluation by
combat. It is also seen in people who have experienced qualified professionals will help to determine if the
traumatic personal events, such as loss of a loved one, problem is ADHD or anxiety. If evaluation or
physical or sexual assault, or a disaster. Symptoms may consultation is needed, developmental information
include anxiety, flashbacks of the events, and reports of about the problem will be useful to the professional.
seeming to relive the experience. School performance. Children with anxiety may
Social phobia disorder. This pattern is seen in have difficulties with school work, especially tasks
children who have excessive fear and anxiety about requiring sustained concentration and organization.
being in social situations, such as in groups and crowds. They may seem forgetful, inattentive, and have difficulty
Obsessive-compulsive disorder. Characteristics organizing their work. They may be too much of a
include repetitive thoughts that are difficult to control perfectionist and not be satisfied with their work if it
(obsessions) or the uncontrollable need to repeat does not meet high personal standards.
specific acts, such as hand washing or placing objects in Substance use. What appears to be anxiety may be
the same arrangement (compulsions). manifestations of substance use, which may begin as
early as the pre-teen years. Children who are abusing
Characteristics of Anxiety drugs or alcohol may show sleep problems, inattention,
Although the signs of anxiety vary in type and withdrawal, and reduced school performance. Although
intensity across people and situations, there are some substance abuse is less likely with younger children, the
symptoms that tend to be rather consistent across possibility increases with age.
anxiety disorders and are shown in cognitive, behavioral,
and physical responses. Not all symptoms are exhibited Interventions
in all children or to the same degree. All people show Anxiety is a common experience for children, and,
some of these signs at times, and it may not mean that most often, professional intervention is not needed. If
anxiety is present and causing problems. Most of us are anxiety is so severe that your child cannot do expected
able to deal with day-to-day anxiety quite well, and tasks, however, then intervention may be indicated.
significant problems are not common. The chart at the
end of the handout demonstrates behaviors that, if
Test and
S
amantha’s story: Fourteen-year-old Samantha went to the school nurse
on a weekly basis, complaining of stomach aches and being nervous and
Performance worried about school. The nurse referred her to the school psychologist,
who talked with her about the visits to the nurse’s office. Samantha reported
Anxiety
that when taking tests or having to speak in public, she became anxious and was
not able to do well, although she thought that she knew the material. When
describing her anxiety, she said, “My mind goes blank,” “I get shaky,” and “I get
sweaty and red.”
Anxiety is a normal Upon further discussion, the school psychologist found that Samantha also
human emotion that felt anxious often when not at school and that her mother had high expectations
can be detrimental in for her schoolwork. The school psychologist talked to her mother, who indicated
that she had high expectations of Samantha, but she also described her daughter
a school setting, but as being anxious, fearful, and a “worrier” since she was a small child.
good communication
and support can help Anxiety in Adolescents tends to generalize to many evaluative
minimize its negative Cases like Samantha’s are more situations, contributing to more per-
common in school settings than vasive underachievement. Additional
impact. most school professionals realize. In consequences of chronic test anxiety
the majority of cases, test and per- can include lowered self-esteem,
By Thomas J. Huberty formance anxiety is not recognized reduced effort, and loss of motiva-
easily in schools, in large part because tion for school tasks. Other forms of
adolescents rarely refer themselves for anxiety that can be seen in the school
Thomas J. Huberty (huberty@indiana.edu) emotional concerns. Not wanting to include generalized anxiety, fears, pho-
is a professor and the director of the School
risk teasing or public attention, anx- bias, social anxiety, and extreme social
Psychology Program at Indiana University.
ious adolescents suffer in silence and withdrawal.
underperform on school-related tasks.
Student Services is produced in collaboration with Anxiety is one of the most basic Characteristics of Anxiety
the National Association of School Psychologists human emotions and occurs in every The central characteristic of anxiety
(NASP). Articles and related handouts can be
person at some time, most often is worry, which has been defined by
downloaded from www.nasponline.org/resources/
principals. when someone is apprehensive about Vasey, Crnic, and Carter (1994) as
uncertain outcomes of an event or set “an anticipatory cognitive process
of circumstances. Anxiety can serve involving repetitive thoughts related
an adaptive function, however, and to possible threatening outcomes and
is also a marker for typical develop- their potential consequences” (p. 530).
ment. In the school setting, anxiety is Although everyone worries occasion-
experienced often by students when ally, excessive and frequent worry can
being evaluated, such as when taking impair social, personal, and academic
a test or giving a public performance. functioning. It can contribute to feel-
Most adolescents cope with these ings of loss of control and perhaps
situations well, but there is a subset of depression, especially in girls.
up to 30% of students who experience When people become highly
severe anxiety, a condition most often anxious, they tend to view more situ-
termed “test anxiety.” ations as potentially threatening than
When test anxiety is severe, it can do most of their peers. They have an
have significant negative effects on irrational fear that a catastrophe will
a student’s ability to perform at an occur and feel that they are unable
optimal level. Over time, test anxiety to control outcomes. Often, there is
12 z Principal Leadership z Se pt e m be r 2009 Copyright National Association of Secondary School Principals, the preeminent organization for middle level and high
school leadership. For information on NASSP products and service, visit www.principals.org.
a rational basis for the anxiety, but will worsen an adolescent’s anxiety,
it is greatly disproportionate to the further impairing performance, self-
circumstances. esteem, and motivation.
Anxiety is manifested in three
ways: cognitively, behaviorally, and Types of Anxiety
physiologically. Often the symptoms There are two forms of anxiety that
are apparent in all three areas, such as are pertinent to understanding the
worry, increased activity, and flushing formation and maintenance of anxiety.
of the skin. (See figure 1.) Many of “Trait anxiety” refers to anxiety that is
the behaviors exhibited by anxious chronic and pervasive across situations
children and youth reflect attempts and is not triggered by specific events.
to control the anxiety and minimize Trait anxiety is the basis for a variety
its effects. The majority of adolescents of anxiety disorders, including general-
who are anxious are not disruptive ized anxiety and social phobia. “State
and are more likely to withdraw and anxiety” refers to anxiety that occurs
avoid anxiety-producing situations. In in specific situations and usually has
extreme cases, they may be seen by a clear trigger. Not all people who
teachers as unmotivated, lazy, or less have high state anxiety have high trait
capable than their peers. On the other anxiety, but those who have high trait
extreme, some students with perfor- anxiety are more likely to experience
mance anxiety may act out, con- state anxiety (Spielberger, 1973). Although everyone
sciously or unconsciously, as a way of While taking tests, state anxiety
worries occasionally,
avoiding the risk of being embarrassed may occur, although the student may
or failing. School personnel should be also have tendencies toward trait excessive and frequent
aware of students whose disruptive or anxiety. Therefore, if a student shows
worry can impair
negative behavior aligns with upcom- high state anxiety, it is possible that
ing performance-based assignments. he or she has high trait anxiety. It is social, personal, and
important to identify adolescents with academic functioning.
Causes of Anxiety high trait anxiety, because it can be
The specific conditions and mecha- a sign of significant emotional prob- It can contribute to
nisms that cause anxiety are not well lems and may be a precursor for the feelings of loss of control
understood, but there is evidence that development of depression, especially
youth who are test-anxious tend to in adolescent girls. In cases of severe and perhaps depression,
have high levels of general anxiety anxiety, referral to a school psycholo- especially in girls.
that are exacerbated during evalua- gist for more extensive evaluation is
tions. There is considerable research recommended. In Samantha’s case, the
evidence that some children have school psychologist concluded that
biological predispositions to high she had high levels of trait anxiety,
levels of general anxiety, making which worsened her test/state anxiety.
them more susceptible to the effects High parental expectations likely also
of being evaluated (Huberty, 2008). contributed to both her trait and state
Repeated difficulties with test-taking anxiety.
or other performances tend to lower
self-confidence, which in turn can cre- High-Stakes Testing
ate conditions for more frequent and Over the last several years, graduation
intense experiences of anxiety. Also, has come to depend on passing stan-
excessive pressure or coercion likely dardized tests. As a consequence, more
students are likely to have anxiety abilities, may find those examinations at risk for developing it. Some sugges-
when taking such tests and their abil- especially challenging, increasing their tions include:
ity to do their best will be impaired. anxiety. Therefore, schools should n Communicating that test anxi-
Consequently, some students may consider screening all students who ety is a real psychological issue
fail sections of these exams despite fail those examinations. and does not reflect laziness,
knowing the material. Although there lack of motivation, or lack of
is little research to suggest that high- School-Based Interventions capability by the student
stakes testing causes anxiety disorders If test anxiety is not complicated by n Communicating to staff
in adolescents, it is likely that students other problems, such as anxiety dis- members and parents that test
with high trait or test anxiety are orders or depression, it is treatable in anxiety should be a priority for
more vulnerable to underperform- the school setting by properly trained schools to address
ing. A key indicator that test anxiety mental health specialists (e.g., school n Providing inservice training
may occur in students is when they psychologists) and teachers with the about how to recognize and
do not do well, despite indications to help of principals and parents. Each treat anxiety and to consider it
the contrary (e.g., current achieve- of the following groups has a role to to be a genuine and pervasive
ment). School personnel should be play in identifying and supporting problem
alert to this possibility and follow up students. n Leading efforts to identify spe-
with students who unexpectedly fail cialists in the school to identify
parts of an examination to check for Principals performance- and test-anxious
the possibility of trait or state anxiety. Principals can be instrumental in students and provide support
Moreover, students who struggle in working with staff members to help to them (Huberty, in press).
school, particularly those with dis- students who have test anxiety or are
School Mental Health
Practitioners
Primary Characteristics of Anxiety Mental health specialists, such as
school psychologists, social workers,
Cognitive Behavioral Physiological and counselors, can work singly and
Concentration problems Motor restlessness Tics collaboratively to develop and imple-
ment interventions for students and
Memory problems Fidgets Recurrent, localized pain
to consult with teachers about how to
Attention problems Task avoidance Rapid heart rate identify and work with students in the
classroom. There are several interven-
Oversensitivity Rapid speech Flushing of the skin
tions that can be used in the school
Difficulty solving Erratic behavior Perspiration setting to help students prevent and
problems control test and performance anxiety.
Irritability Headaches
These strategies include:
Worry
Withdrawal Muscle tension n Providing relaxation training
Cognitive dysfunctions n Using test-anxiety hierarchies
Perfectionism Sleeping problems
—Distortions for assessments and public
—Deficiencies Lack of participation Nausea performances using variations
Failure to complete tasks Vomiting of systematic desensitization
Attributional style
n Using pretask rehearsal
problems Seeking easy tasks Enuresis n Using practice tests
n Reviewing task content before
Source: Huberty, T. J. (in press). Performance and test anxiety. In L. Paige & A. Canter (Eds.),
examinations
Helping children at home and at school III. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School n Modifying tasks, such as break-
Psychologists. ing them into smaller units
n Assessing individual stu- are key to identifying students who Samantha learned how to relax, plan
dents to determine cognitive, have text anxiety. for examinations, rehearse public
behavioral, and physiological Effective intervention begins with performances, and develop test-taking
symptoms school administrators, who can cre- strategies. The psychologist worked
n Training teachers, students, ate an awareness of the problem and with the teachers of the classes in
and parents in how to use commit to providing resources and which Samantha was most anxious to
rehearsal, relaxation, and other leadership for mental health special- help them become aware of her anxi-
techniques at home and at ists and teachers so that they can help ety. The teachers helped Samantha
school students. Mental health specialists and develop test-taking strategies, such as
n Helping teachers plan, imple- teachers can be strong advocates who organizational skills, practice exercises,
ment, and evaluate interven- help anxious students improve school and study guides.
tions (Huberty, in press). performance and reduce the risk of Finally, the psychologist talked
the development of other problems, with Samantha’s mother to help her
Leadership Commitment particularly depression. Properly ad- better understand Samantha’s anxiety,
Test and performance anxiety are dressed, test and performance anxiety how her expectations contributed to
common problems for adolescents can be significantly reduced in the her daughter’s problems, and how to
in the school setting and can impair school setting. help prepare Samantha at home to
achievement in as many as one-third take tests and give oral presentations.
of students. Because adolescents may Returning to Samantha Samantha’s anxiety was reduced and
not be aware of the problems, do The school psychologist worked with she performed better, with a signifi-
not know what to do, or do not refer Samantha directly, consulted with her cant reduction in visits to the nurse’s
themselves for help, school personnel teachers, and talked with her mother. office. Although there was little effect
on her trait anxiety, her state anxiety
was reduced to help her improve her
school performance. PL
References
n Huberty, T. J. (2008). Best practices
in school-based interventions for anxiety
and depression. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes
(Eds.), Best practices in school psychology:
Vol. 5 (pp. 1473–1486). Bethesda, MD:
National Association of School Psychologists.
n Huberty, T. J. (in press). Performance
and test anxiety. In L. Paige & A. Canter
(Eds.), Helping children at home and at
school III. Bethesda, MD: National Associa-
tion of School Psychologists.
n Spielberger, C. A. (1973). State-Trait
Anxiety Inventory for Children [Manual].
Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists
Press.
n Vasey, M. W., Crnic, K. A., & Carter, W.
G. (1994). Worry in childhood: A develop-
mental perspective. Cognitive Therapy and
Research, 18, 529–549.
Research-Based Practice
Assessing and Treating Childhood Anxiety in School Settings
By Savannah Wright & Michael L. Sulkowski
Between 2% to 27% of children and adolescents suffer with an anxiety disorder and many more struggle with
distressing yet subclinical levels of anxiety (Costello, Egger, & Arnold, 2005; Mychailyszyn, Mendez, &
Kendall, 2010). However, only about 6% of youth receive treatment for their anxiety symptoms or related
sequelae (Esser, Schmidt, & Woerner, 1990). This service provision deficit is concerning because of the large
body of research indicating that anxious youth are at risk for school absenteeism, academic
underachievement, low social acceptance, and impaired psychosocial functioning (Kearney & Albano, 2004;
McDonald, 2001; Mychailyszyn et al., 2010; Spencer, DuPont, & DuPont, 2003). Furthermore, if they do not
receive effective treatment, anxious youth are at risk for developing mental health problems (e.g.,
depression, substance abuse, anxiety) and impaired occupational functioning (Donovan & Spence, 2000;
Kendall, Safford, Flannery- Schroeder, & Webb, 2004; Rapee, Kennedy, Ingram, Edwards, & Sweeney, 2005;
Woodward & Fergusson, 2001).
Fortunately, effective interventions such as cognitive–behavioral therapy (CBT) exist for treating childhood
anxiety, and school psychologists can have an important role in implementing these interventions
(Sulkowski, Joyce, & Storch, 2012). As professionals who often know the most about psychology in school
settings and education in clinical settings and because of the importance of addressing both academic and
mental health needs in anxious youth, school psychologists are uniquely positioned to assist anxious
students. In addition, due to their specific training (e.g., psychoeducational assessment, progress
monitoring, direct intervention, consultation, data-based decision making) and the roles that they assume in
school systems, school psychologists possess a dynamic skill set that can be utilized to identify anxious
students, ensure that these youth receive evidence-based interventions services, and monitor how students
respond to interventions once they are implemented (Wnek, Klein, & Bracken, 2008). In recognition of this
skill set and because of the importance of treating childhood anxiety, this article will highlight how school
psychologists can support anxious students through using a multitiered framework that can be flexibly
applied to fit different types of school settings.
Despite being an ancillary aim of many school psychologists and other school-based mental health
professionals, efforts to address childhood anxiety in school settings display considerable promise and
applicability to common practice. As the most comprehensive evaluation to date, a meta-analysis by Neil
and Christensen (2009) suggest that school-based cognitive–behavioral interventions are moderately
effective for treating childhood anxiety, with effect sizes ranging from .11 to 1.37 (Mdn = .57). This study
also illustrates the utility of using a multitiered service delivery model to address childhood anxiety as 59%
of the interventions were universally delivered, 11% were selective or geared toward specific at-risk groups
of students, and 30% involved implementing individual interventions or treatment plans. Collectively, these
results highlight the potential to address childhood anxiety across different service-delivery tiers,
particularly at the universal or school-wide level.
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Assessing and Treating Childhood Anxiety Page 2 of 6
Currently, two commonly used and commercially available behavior screeners exist. The Behavioral
Assessment Scale for Children, Second Edition, Behavioral and Emotional Screening System (BASC- 2, BESS;
Kamphaus & Reynolds, 2007) screens for general internalizing and externalizing symptoms. This measure has
been incorporated into the AIMSweb data screening, monitoring, and management system. Similarly, the
Brief Problem Monitor (Achenbach, McConaughty, Ivanova, & Rescorla, 2011) also allows users to screen for
internalizing problems. The Brief Problem Monitor is a new screener and progress monitoring measure that is
part of the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA). Although both of these screeners
assess internalizing symptoms, neither measure independently assesses anxiety. Assessing anxiety symptoms
on behavior screeners requires assessors to inspect students' responses to individual screening items.
Following universal screening for anxiety problems, a multitrait, multisetting, and multi-informant
assessment approach can be used to assess for anxiety problems and related concerns in at-risk youth
(Whitcomb & Merrell, 2013). In addition to conducting clinical interviews with multiple informants and
observations across settings, this process generally involves administering omnibus behavior rating scales
that include items that purport to assess anxiety such as the BASC-2, Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL),
Clinical Assessment of Behavior (CAB; Bracken & Keith, 2004), and the Conners' Comprehensive Behavior
Rating Scale (CCBRS; Conners, 2009), as well as narrow- construct anxiety measures such as the Revised
Children's Anxiety Scale, Second Edition (RCMAS-2; Reynolds & Richmond, 2008), State-Trait Anxiety Scale
for Children (STAI-C; Spielberger, 1973), the Beck Anxiety Inventory for Youth (BAI-Y; Beck, Beck, & Jolly,
2001), and the Spence Children's Anxiety Scale (Spence, 1997). When analyzing data obtained through this
assessment process, consistency in ratings across informants, settings, and identified traits allows the
assessor to have greater confidence in the assessment results. For example, if a child was found to be at-risk
on the BESS, in the clinically significant range on the BASC-2 for Anxiety Problems, and for any of the
anxiety constructs represented on the RCMAS-2 across informants, it is likely that the child is suffering from
clinically significant anxiety. Table 1 lists the number of items, types of rating formats, internal consistency
estimates, and the constructs that are measured by each of the previously listed behavior rating scales.
Lastly, to confirm a clinical diagnosis, a school psychologist may wish to conduct the Anxiety Diagnostic
Interview Schedule (ADIS; Silverman & Albano, 2004) with a child and a caregiver because of its adherence
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Assessing and Treating Childhood Anxiety Page 3 of 6
to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV-TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000) criteria for
assessing all childhood anxiety disorders and many psychiatric disorders that occur in children (e.g., major
depression disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder). Although a psychiatric diagnosis is not needed
for a student to receive services under RTI, under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement
Act (IDEIA), or Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act, schools that bill for Medicaid may need to include
diagnostic information in order to be reimbursed for services. In addition, provisions in the Patient
Protection and Affordable Care Act will impact the availability of health insurance and the ability of schools
to bill for mental health services. Therefore, the role of school psychologists in diagnosing psychopathology
and classifying students to receive interventions may increase.
Targeted service delivery. Many students do not respond to universal interventions and need more
intensive and targeted intervention services. To identify these students, school psychologists can employ
behavioral screeners and rating scales to find youth who display elevated internalizing and anxiety scores.
Collectively, and consistent with an RTI or a graduated approach to service provision, these students may
benefit from targeted interventions that can be delivered to groups of youth who display similar concerns.
Several studies support the efficacy of group-based CBT interventions for treating childhood anxiety (e.g.,
Barrett, 1998; Flannery-Schroeder & Kendall, 2000; Masia-Warner, Fisher, Shrout, Rathor, & Klein, 2007;
Mendlowitz et al., 1999; Silverman et al., 1999). These interventions may be particularly effective because
group members can identify with each other, provide and receive social support, and help to facilitate
therapeutic engagement and treatment adherence (Masia-Warner et al., 2005). In addition, the mere act of
participating in an anxiety treatment group can be therapeutic for youth with social anxiety because
interacting with other group members is a form of behavioral exposure, which is an effective component of
CBT (Masia-Warner et al., 2007).
Computer delivered CBT programs also may be effective for treating anxious children or students who are
at-risk for experiencing anxiety problems. Although research is needed to establish the program's efficacy in
school settings, the Camp Cope-A-Lot (CCAL; Khanna & Kendall, 2008) computerized CBT program has been
specifically designed to address childhood anxiety. Camp Cope-A-Lot is designed for use with children and
young adolescents (ages 7–13 years). It includes six computer-assisted anxiety-reductive therapy sessions
that can be followed with six therapist-directed exposure therapy sessions. Results from a randomized
controlled clinical trial support the efficacy, feasibility, and likeability of CCAL (Khanna & Kendall, 2010).
Specifically, 81% of youth who received 12 sessions of CCAL displayed greater reductions in anxiety
posttreatment compared to youth in a control condition.
Intensive service delivery. Anxious students who do not respond effectively to universal (e.g., mindfulness-
based intervention) or targeted interventions (e.g., group therapy) likely will need intensive intervention
services. These services might involve individualized CBT or CBT combined with pharmacotherapy. These
youth can be identified either directly through a MTSS assessment process or through analyzing their
response to previously attempted interventions. In general, these youth would be expected to already
display functional impairments in their academic, social, and family functioning because of their anxiety
problems. For example, they may be reluctant to go to school, be socially withdrawn, or even refuse
outright to attend school.
All mental health professionals must be adequately trained to deliver intensive CBT. This training should be
obtained through supervised graduate training experiences or through attending CBT workshops and
obtaining supervision from experienced colleagues (Mychailyszyn et al., 2011). In school systems that lack
experienced CBT therapists, skilled CBT practitioners in the community can be located via databases
maintained by the International Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Foundation (IOCDF) and the Anxiety and
Depression Association of America (ADAA). In collaboration with a community-based therapist, school-based
mental health professionals can work together to optimize treatment and ensure that treatment gains
generalize to the school environment (Sulkowski et al., 2011).
Evidence-based treatment protocols such as the Coping Cat (Kendall & Hedtke, 2006) can help with
structuring and delivering CBT to treat childhood anxiety. The Coping Cat program has a 16-session format
that aims to teach youth to identify, regulate, and cope with anxiety-provoking thoughts, feelings, and
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Assessing and Treating Childhood Anxiety Page 4 of 6
sensations. As a multicomponent treatment program, the Coping Cat involves modeling being calm,
relaxation/ self-calming strategies, in vivo exposure tasks, and learning problem solving strategies.
Several studies support the efficacy of the Coping Cat for treating childhood anxiety in a variety of clinical
and educational settings (for review, see Kendall and Suveg, 2006). In addition, Beidas and Kendall (2010)
report that the treatment program can be flexibly adapted for school settings and applied by school-based
mental health professionals. However, this process might involve modifying therapy sessions to
accommodate a school's schedule and sessions may need to be scheduled around other important events
that occur at school (e.g., exams, field trips). Furthermore, preliminary research suggests that even a brief
course of treatment using the Coping Cat (approximately 8 sessions) can be effective for reducing moderate
forms of childhood anxiety, which highlights the program's utility and versatility (Crawley et al., 2013).
Conclusion
Many youth suffer with anxiety; however, few receive the treatment they need. Treatment for childhood
anxiety often occurs in clinical settings yet school-based interventions for anxiety display considerable
promise (Neil & Christensen, 2009). Treating anxiety in school settings can help overcome some extant
treatment barriers, and providing services in schools allows for the needs of anxious youth to be addressed
across a continuum of services. A multitiered framework was presented in this article that can be flexibly
applied to fit different types of school settings and address students' needs across universal, targeted, and
intensive levels of service delivery.
Promising universal efforts to assist anxious youth include conducting universal screeners to identify youth
with internalizing problems and implementing universal prevention programs that improve school climate
and connectedness. At the targeted service delivery level, school psychologists can conduct more
comprehensive assessments to identify students who currently display (or are at risk for) anxiety problems,
and then help to facilitate the delivery of interventions to address these problems. Lastly, students who
display serious anxiety problems can be provided with effective interventions such as CBT, which is an
evidence-based intervention that can be effectively translated to school settings (Neil & Christensen, 2009;
Sulkowski et al., 2012).
To conclude, school psychologists display unique skills that can help them be key stakeholders in efforts to
address childhood anxiety. In addition, resources exist that can help school psychologists obtain advanced
training in the delivery of evidence-based interventions for childhood anxiety such as CBT. For example,
informational and didactic presentations often are featured at national conferences that are sponsored by
the National Association of School Psychologists, IOCDF, and ADAA. However, even if not directly involved in
service delivery, school psychologists also can be key stakeholders in efforts to address childhood anxiety
through collaborating with other professionals. In this regard, the IOCDF and ADAA provide extensive lists of
CBT specialists that school psychologists can refer to or contact to facilitate professional case collaboration.
As professionals who often know the most about psychology in school settings and education when
communicating with clinical professionals, school psychologists are uniquely positioned to support the needs
of anxious youth.
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Savannah Wright is a doctoral student in the school psychology program at the University of Arizona. Her
research interests include behavioral disorders and childhood anxiety. Michael L. Sulkowski, PhD, is an
assistant professor in school psychology program at the University of Arizona.
National Association of School Psychologists, 4340 East West Highway, Suite 402, Bethesda, MD 20814
Phone: (301) 657-0270 | Toll Free: (866) 331-NASP | Fax: (301) 657-0275
http://www.nasponline.org/publications/cq/41/8/anxiety.aspx 10/17/2013
NASP Convention School-Based CBT for Anxiety
1 2
Presentation Overview
COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL 1. Anxiety: Overview, prevalence & long-term impact
2. School-based services for anxiety
STRATEGIES FOR WORKING WITH 3. Case examples
ANXIOUS YOUTH IN SCHOOLS 4. CBT: Overview, theoretical underpinnings, & important concepts
5. CBT: The nuts & bolts
a) Affective
National Association of School Psychologists b) Cognitive
Seattle, WA c) Behavioral
February 12th 2013 6. A typical CBT session presented through a case example
7. School-based implementation of CBT: Challenges & pitfalls
Elana R. Bernstein, PhD 8. School-based implementation of CBT: Application at multiple tiers
Morgan J. Aldridge, MS 9. Questions
Jessica May, MS
3 4
Costello, Egger & Angold (2005); Fox, et al. (2012); Kendall, Aschendrand, & Hudson (2003); Greenberg et al. (1999); Kendall et al. (2003); Kendall (2012); Menutti, Christner, & Freeman (2012)
Mennuti, Christner, & Freeman (2012) Ramirez et. al (2006); U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2001)
5 6
7 8
ASSESSMENT PREVENTION/INTERVENTION
Multi-Tiered System of Support (MTSS) Chorpita (2007); DSM-IV-TR (2000); Dozois & Dobson (2004)
Source: www.pbis.org
9 10
Case Examples
• Vivi, Preschooler
See Handout #1
• Allison, 3rd grader
11 12
• The strategies in CBT are designed to produce changes • Note: Studies are mainly limited to clinical (not school) settings or
in thinking, feeling, and behavior have utilized outside providers who implement the treatment in a
school setting.
13 14
15 16
17 18
19 20
21 22
23 24
Affective (Feelings)
• Anxious youth demonstrate a heightened sensitivity to
negative or threatening events, things, and information.
• Anxious youth have more difficulty regulating their
emotions.
CBT: • Somatic (physical) complaints are common with anxious
children (e.g., stomachaches, headaches, etc.).
AFFECTIVE COMPONENTS • We treat this through psycho- (affective) education.
• Has positive effects in behavioral, emotional, and social functioning
Psychoeducation & Developing a Fear Hierarchy in children and adolescents
• Is a frequent element in most evidence-based anxiety interventions
Kendall (2012)
25 26
Merrell (2000)
27 28
29 30
See Handout #3
Kendall (2012)
Menutti & Christner (2012)
31 32
33 34
35 36
: Techniques/Strategies
• Group Activity – “Changing Maladaptive Thoughts to Coping
Thoughts”
See Handout #4
37 38
Chemistry Worried, “Girls were I was stuttering They may have I don’t really
Class stomach laughing in and stumbling been laughing at know why
hurt the back of on my words each other or the they were
the room,
while I was teacher. laughing
they must
have been presenting. and I am
laughing at confident in
me” my project.
What was
What error the What error Modifications for younger
in thinking situation? in thinking children like Vivi:
did I make? did I • Use only 3 columns:
Getting up make? (feelings, negative thought,
_________ to present positive thought)
my project Selective • Use pictures
Abstraction
39 40
Role Play
• We need to practice doing things, we can’t just talk about it!
• Practicing can be different for different kids
• Role play is an opportunity to practice in private before you
perform in public.
• Give the child an opportunity to be active in the session.
CBT: • We role play cognitive, behavioral, and problem-solving
strategies with the child.
BEHAVIORAL COMPONENTS • Role plays should be situations relevant to the child (derived
from his/her fear hierarchy)
Role-play, Exposure, Contingency Management, Self- • Is the child resistant to role play?
reward, & Relaxation Training • Be silly, act out something first and then let the child join in.
41 42
43 44
Chorpita (2007)
Chorpita (2007)
45 46
47 48
49 50
51 52
53 54
55 56
57 58
59 60
ASSESSMENT PREVENTION/INTERVENTION
Indicated Assessment:
- Rating scales
Few
~5%
Indicated Prevention:
- Individual counseling with Manualized Interventions
- Behavioral observations anxious youth utilizing a
- Interviews CBT framework.
Some • Highly structured
~15% Selected Prevention:
Selected Assessment:
- Small groups for youth • Allows for more methodological control
- Teacher/Parent referral/
at risk focused on
nomination
cognitive-behavioral • More easily able to assess treatment integrity
- Screening tools
skill acquisition
• Flexibility is a concern
Universal Assessment:
Universal Prevention: • Evidence-based manualized interventions:
- Outcome evaluation for
- School- or class- • Coping Cat (Kendall & Hedtke, 2006)
programs selected
wide programs to teach
relaxation/stress • Camp-Cope-A-Lot (CCAL; Kendall & Khanna, 2008)
reduction
• Computer-based CBT modeled after Coping Cat
• FRIENDS for Children Program (Barrett, et al., 2000)
The only way to
move through the
system is with
ALL • Cognitive-Behavioral Intervention for Trauma in Schools (CBITS;
Jaycox, 2003)
DATA! ~80% of Students
Kendall & Southam-Gerow (1995); Weisz, Wiess, & Donenberg (2011)
Multi-tiered System of Support (MTSS) for Anxiety
Source: www.pbis.org
61 62
Modularized Interventions
• Case conceptualization approach
• Problem-solving framework
• More flexibility and individualization
• Maintains a level of structure
• Evidence-based modularized intervention:
• Modular Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Childhood Anxiety
Disorders (Chorpita, 2007) QUESTIONS
… Robin has trouble concentrating in her chemistry class because she’s getting so little
sleep at night. She lies awake for hours worrying, and, when she does get to sleep, she’s
jerked awake by nightmares.
… Liz is starting to skip school and her grades are suffering. She had a blow up with her
friends and now she’s afraid of being rejected socially whenever she’s at school.
… Kendrick saw an exchange of gunfire between rival gangs in his neighborhood and now,
whenever he hears a loud noise, his palms get sweaty and he has a hard time catching his
breath. Except for school, where he feels safe, he avoids going out of his house.
Anxiety is one of the most common problems facing teenagers in schools today. Worry and anxiety
are normal reactions to concerns about what might happen in the future. Most teenagers worry at times
about school performance, classmates and friends, family, appearance, health, and personal harm.
A certain amount of anxiety is healthy, especially when it results in productive action, such as when
we worry about getting a bad grade on a test and, consequently, we study extra hard. We all know what it
means to have butterflies in our stomach and to feel restless and tense from time to time. For some of
us, though, anxieties and worries begin to control our lives. We may turn to drugs and alcohol in an
attempt to reduce our anxieties or we may avoid participating in regular activities. These actions limit
our enjoyment of life.
Approximately 1 out of 11 teenagers is diagnosed with anxiety severe enough to be considered a
disorder, with girls being more likely to develop an anxiety disorder than boys. Common anxiety
symptoms that can affect people at any age tend to increase during the adolescent years.
Causes of Anxiety
There are many different causes of anxiety. Anxiety appears to develop from an interaction among
different factors rather than from any single cause. In general, we are more likely to experience anxiety if
one or both parents exhibit anxiety symptoms. That is, anxiety tends to run in families.
Helping Children at Home and School II: Handouts for Families and Educators S10–5
Behavioral inhibition, a temperament style, has also The attack usually lasts 10–15 minutes. There is
been linked to anxiety in children and teens. Infants with intense fear and a shortness of breath, shakiness,
this type of temperament are described as shy, timid, dizziness, sweating, heart palpitations, and chest
and wary, and seem to be at a greater risk for pain. These people live in fear that they are going to
developing an anxiety disorder when they are older. have another panic attack and will avoid situations
We can learn to be anxious as a result of our that may bring on another attack, such as avoiding
experiences or conditioning. This is especially true for school and social situations they associate with
those who have excessive fears (phobias) for certain ob- panic attacks.
jects or situations. For example, a frightening experience • Phobia: People who experience a specific phobia
such as being chased by a dog can become associated have an intense, persistent, and maladaptive fear of
with any dog, resulting in an unreasonable fear of all dogs. a specific object such as an animal or insect or of a
Certain styles of thinking also contribute to devel- situation such as standing on a tall ladder or being
oping anxiety. Those of us who experience excessive in an enclosed space. They avoid the feared object
worries and anxieties tend to develop a pattern of or situation leading to interference with their daily
negative and unrealistic thinking. We can misinterpret routines.
harmless situations as threatening and focus our • Post-traumatic stress disorder: People with a post-
attention on what we perceive as threatening. traumatic stress disorder experience severe anxiety
Other environmental factors that may cause anxiety symptoms in response to a traumatic event. The
include exposure to a stressful environment or a trau- traumatic event may involve a natural disaster such
matic event, observing others’ anxious behavior, having as a tornado, a violent act such as a school shooting
overly protective and controlling parents, and learning or abuse, or a frightening act such as a car accident
to avoid certain situations to relieve anxiety symptoms. in which they were either a witness or a victim. The
traumatic event may be re-experienced over and
Types of Anxiety Disorders over again in nightmares, flashbacks, thoughts, or
What follows are the most common types of anxiety memories. These people avoid anything associated
disorders experienced by teens: with the trauma. They startle easily, have difficulty
concentrating and doing their school work,
• Generalized anxiety disorder: People with a general- experience sleep disturbances and irritability, and
ized anxiety disorder experience excessive, unrealistic, have problems getting along with their friends.
and persistent worry about everyday life events and • Separation anxiety disorder: People with a
activities such as their school performance. They separation anxiety disorder experience excessive
find it difficult to control their worrying. They may worry or anxiety when separated from their parents
worry about their school work all the time and spend or primary caregivers. The excessive worry or fear is
hours doing and redoing their work because it is not in response to routine separations such as their
perfect. Their worry causes a tremendous amount of leaving home and going to school for the day. They
distress. They may experience physical symptoms may have physical complaints, such as stomach-
including headaches, stomachaches, fatigue, and aches and headaches, refuse to attend school, do
muscle tension. Other symptoms may be restless not like to sleep alone or away from home, and
and irritable behaviors, difficulty concentrating, and experience unrealistic worry that harm will come to
problems sleeping. themselves or their parents.
• Obsessive-compulsive disorder: People with an obses- • Social phobia or social anxiety: People with a social
sive-compulsive disorder have repetitive thoughts phobia or social anxiety show intense fear in
(obsessions) or behaviors (compulsions) that seem situations in which they may experience criticism,
impossible to control. They realize that their obses- embarrassment, or humiliation in public. They may
sions and compulsions are excessive and meaning- also experience anxiety in social situations when
less, but the repetitive thoughts and behaviors are there is no identifiable stressor to others. Common
difficult to stop and cause distress. Common social phobias include intense fear associated with
obsessions include fear of contamination and public speaking and avoidance of strangers. They
thoughts of harm to themselves or family and friends. avoid feared situations, and their avoidance beha-
Common compulsions include washing and cleaning viors restrict their daily lives. Isolation and possibly
rituals, and checking and rechecking behaviors. depression may follow as a result of their behaviors.
• Panic disorder: People who experience a panic
disorder have recurrent, unexpected panic attacks.
Helping Children at Home and School II: Handouts for Families and Educators S10–7
be shared with others. You have to set ground rules with
your therapist about what can and what cannot be
discussed with your parents, for instance, or with
anybody else.
Parents should also learn to use techniques that may The National Association of School
help you lessen your worries and anxieties. A therapist Psychologists (NASP) offers a wide
can work with several members of your family or the variety of free or low cost online
resources to parents, teachers, and others
entire family to address issues that relate to your anxiety. working with children and youth through
And, finally, sometimes medication prescribed by the NASP website www.nasponline.org
your physician can be used in addition to therapy. If and the NASP Center for Children & Families website
medication is prescribed, be sure to take it exactly as www.naspcenter.org. Or use the direct links below to
access information that can help you improve outcomes
instructed and let your parents or school nurse know if
for the children and youth in your care.
you are experiencing any side effects—feeling sick,
being more anxious or extra sleepy or having trouble About School Psychology—Downloadable brochures,
sleeping. You are the best judge. Medication does not FAQs, and facts about training, practice, and career
work for everyone and sometimes it takes a while to find choices for the profession.
www.nasponline.org/about_nasp/spsych.html
the right medication or the right dose.
Crisis Resources—Handouts, fact sheets, and links
Resources regarding crisis prevention/intervention, coping with
Davis, M., Robins-Eshelman, E., & McKay, M. (1995). The trauma, suicide prevention, and school safety.
www.nasponline.org/crisisresources
relaxation and stress reduction workbook. Oakland,
CA: New Harbinger. ISBN: 1572242140. Culturally Competent Practice—Materials and resources
Greenberger, D., & Padesky, C. A. (1995). Mind over promoting culturally competent assessment and
mood. New York: Guilford. ISBN: 0898621283. intervention, minority recruitment, and issues related to
Hipp, E. (1995). Fighting invisible tigers: A stress cultural diversity and tolerance.
www.nasponline.org/culturalcompetence
management guide for teens. Minneapolis, MN: Free
Spirit. ISBN: 0915793806. En Español—Parent handouts and materials translated
Powell, M. (2003). Stress relief: The ultimate teen guide into Spanish. www.naspcenter.org/espanol/
(It happened to me, 3). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow.
IDEA Information—Information, resources, and advocacy
ISBN: 0810844338.
tools regarding IDEA policy and practical implementation.
Seaward, B. L., & Bartlett, L. K. (2002). Hot stones and www.nasponline.org/advocacy/IDEAinformation.html
funny bones: Teens helping teens cope with stress
and anger. New York: Health Communications. Information for Educators—Handouts, articles, and
ISBN: 0757300367. other resources on a variety of topics.
www.naspcenter.org/teachers/teachers.html
Patricia A. Lowe, PhD, is on the faculty of the School Information for Parents—Handouts and other resources
Psychology program at the University of Kansas. Susan a variety of topics.
M. Unruh, EdS, is a doctoral student in School Psychology www.naspcenter.org/parents/parents.html
at the University of Kansas. Stacy M. Greenwood is an
Links to State Associations—Easy access to state
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Before:
Make sure your child gets plenty of sleep, not only the night before, but
several days leading up to the assessment
Provide a high quality breakfast (and lunch if your child brings lunch from
home- some tests are given in the afternoon)
Try to keep a normal routine at home, but consider temporarily scaling back
on after-school activities if your child’s evenings tend to be heavily scheduled
Allow plenty of time for physical activity, free play and opportunities to unwind
Be positive with your child and point out all of the things your child does well
Remind the child that he or she is well prepared for the test and will likely do
well
Be patient and be prepared to listen to your child’s concerns. Answer all
questions honestly, but with short answers
Monitor your own anxiety; kids quickly pick up on the anxieties of the
important adults in their lives
Maintain realistic, attainable goals and expectations for your child.
Do not communicate that perfection is expected or is the only acceptable
outcome. Accept mistakes as a normal part of growing up and let your child
know that no one is expected to do everything equally well
Teach a few specific relaxation and stress management strategies, not just to
minimize anxiety around the tests, but as a general life skill. Strategies could
include:
o Deep controlled breathing
New York Association of School Psychologists
August 2013
o Mindfulness exercises
o Listening to relaxing music
o Asking what things might help them relax - this sends the message
that there are concrete things they can do to manage stress and
anxiety, which are normal parts of the human experience
Share a time when you felt anxious and how you coped with the feeling
Often, reasoning is not effective in reducing anxiety, so do not criticize your
child for being unable to respond to rational approaches.
Seek help from the school if the problem persists and continues to interfere
with daily activities. Start with the classroom teacher, but you may also
consult with the school psychologist, counselor, or social worker.
If your son or daughter becomes anxious during testing, you can give them
strategies to use ahead of time, such as:
Deep breathing, breathing in through the nose and out through the mouth in a
smooth motion.
“Calming statements,” such as simply saying “relax” quietly to self.
Shifting negative thoughts to more positive coping thoughts, such as “I will do
the best that I can” or “I prepared well for this test.”
Focusing on the problems that are easier first, and then go back to more
difficult problems.
After:
Ask one or two general questions about the test, such as “how did it go?”
Do not ask questions such as “How many do you think you got wrong?” or
“Do you think you did better than the other kids?”
Ask what your son or daughter learned in school?
Ask what he or she did that was fun?
Help your child keep the testing in perspective. You can say things like, “Sure,
the test are important and you need to do the best that you can, but
remember tests aren’t the only things that matter, and they aren’t the things
that are the most important”
Research on motivation (Dweck, 2006) has found that how a person responds to
academic challenges, not grades or intellectual ability, is one of the best predictors of
later success in life. A child can view a failure or a challenging experience as a
reflection of either their lack of ability, or as a reflection of the strategies and effort that
were used during this experience. Those with the latter view tend to perceive these
challenges as something to “master” or have a “mastery orientation.” They tend to face
the next challenge with greater determination, a more positive outlook, and ultimately
experience greater learning and success. They will seek out more challenges in
learning and in life and tend to be willing to stretch themselves beyond where they are
comfortable. Because of this approach, in the end, they achieve more. Parents should
understand this and explain it to their children. Ultimately, we may find that it is how the
New York Association of School Psychologists
August 2013
child understands his or her success or difficulty that is the best predictor of his or her
future success.
There are certain vulnerable groups of children, who are more easily emotionally
impacted by high stakes testing. These may include students with learning difficulties or
English Language Learners, who tend to have a negative perception of tests in general.
However, even students at the opposite end of the education spectrum, to whom good
grades, high achievement, and academic accomplishment have come relatively easy,
are vulnerable to test anxiety. While at first, this may seem counter-intuitive, upon closer
analysis, it quickly becomes clear that their anxiety is a result of their own perception of
the test determining their academic status or their “demand” to perform well on all tests.
For all of these children, it is important to remind them:
If your child seems to have a preoccupation with the tests (e.g., talks about them
constantly, comes to you with “what if” scenarios, etc.) or has an extreme reaction (e.g.,
unable to sleep, becoming sick, refusing to go to school the day of the test, etc.) and
your attempts to reassure him or her have not alleviated the anxiety, it may be helpful to
speak with other caring adults in your child’s life. You may wish to speak with your
child’s teacher, school psychologist, or principal. School employed mental health
personnel should be able to provide information regarding your child’s presentation in
school and give you additional strategies and support to help your child.
In this new era of reliance on data and ever increasing levels of accountability,
standardized testing will not go away. Furthermore, when used correctly, as part of
(rather than the sum of) a child’s educational experience they can provide useful
information to educators. With this in mind, it is incumbent upon parents and educators
to minimize the unintended negative effects on the overall well-being of the child.
Additional Resources:
Recommend that the students get enough sleep the night before and have
breakfast the morning of the test. This could be their only “homework
assignment.”
Consider having a “bagel breakfast” the morning of the test to lighten the
mood in class, but also to ensure that the children have had some nutrition.
Local bagel shops/bakeries will often donate items for these events.
Keep to the normal routine as much as possible, but build in plenty of physical
movement, self-directed time, or socialization
o Give students a chance to unwind after taking the test
Tell the students what to expect the day of the test, even if they have taken it
before. You can say things like, “When you come in tomorrow, your desks will
be in rows and not in our usual groups.” Or “Mr. Smith will be here tomorrow
to help us with the test.”
Have extra supplies available if the students are supposed to bring their own
materials. Testing days are not the time for lessons in personal responsibility
or materials management
Help your students keep the testing in perspective. You can say things like:
“Sure, the test are important and you need to do the best that you can, but
remember tests aren’t the only things that matter and they aren’t the things
that are the most important”
Select class read alouds that tell stories about testing for younger students
(e.g., The Big Test by Julie Danneburg or Testing Miss Malarkey by Judy
Fincher and Kevin O’Malley). For older students hold brief class meetings,
that give students a chance to speak about their feelings if they wish. By
New York Association of School Psychologists
August 2013
simply acknowledging that the stress is out there, helps to reduce the
pressures that some students feel.
Point out previous student successes
Remind the students that they are well prepared for the test and are likely to
do well on the test
Acknowledge that the test may contain questions that are meant to be
challenging; if they are struggling with an item, it is probably because it is a
hard question, not because there is something that is wrong with them
Never add pressure to the students by telling them that “your job depends on
their scores”
Monitor your own anxiety; kids quickly pick up on the anxieties of the
important adults in their lives
Throughout the year, teach specific relaxation and stress management
strategies, not just to minimize anxiety around the tests, but as a general life
skill. Strategies could include:
o Deep, slow, controlled breathing
o Mindfulness exercises
o Progressive muscle relaxation or simple Yoga poses
o Listening to relaxing music
o Share a time when you were anxious and how you managed those
feelings
o Empower your class by asking what things might help them relax - this
sends the message that there are concrete things they can do to
manage stress and anxiety, which are normal parts of the human
experience
Utilize the services of the school employed mental health professionals
(school psychologists, counselors, social workers) to consult with you on
classroom-based strategies or actually come into your class to talk about test
anxiety and stress management
Research on motivation (Dweck, 2006) has found that how a person responds to
academic challenges, not grades or intellectual ability, is one of the best predictors of
later success. A child can view a failure or a challenging experience as a reflection of
either their lack of ability, or as a reflection of the strategies and effort that were used
during this experience. Those with the latter view tend to perceive these challenges as
something to “master” or have a “mastery orientation.” They tend to face the next
challenge with greater determination, a more positive outlook, and ultimately experience
greater learning and success. They will seek out more challenges in learning and in life
and tend to be willing to stretch themselves beyond where they are comfortable.
Because of this approach, in the end, they achieve more. Teachers should understand
this and explain it to their students. Ultimately, we may find that it is how the student
understands his or her success or difficulty that is the best predictor of his or her future
success.
New York Association of School Psychologists
August 2013
Students who are mastery-oriented think about learning, not about proving how
smart they are. When they experience a setback, they focus on effort and strategies
instead of worrying that they are incompetent. This leads directly to what teachers can
do to help students become more mastery-oriented: Teachers should focus on students'
efforts and not on their abilities. When students succeed, teachers should praise their
efforts or their strategies, not their intelligence. Contrary to popular opinion, praising
intelligence backfires by making students overly concerned with how smart they are and
overly vulnerable to failure. When students fail, teachers should also give feedback
about effort or strategies -- what the student did wrong and what he or she could do
now. This has been shown to be a key ingredient in creating mastery-oriented students.
In other words, teachers should help students value effort.
There are certain vulnerable groups of children, who are more easily emotionally
impacted by high stakes testing. These may include students with learning difficulties or
English Language Learners, who tend to have a negative perception of tests in general.
However, even students at the opposite end of the education spectrum, to whom good
grades, high achievement, and academic accomplishment have come relatively easy,
are vulnerable to test anxiety. While at first, this may seem counter-intuitive, upon closer
analysis, it quickly becomes clear that their anxiety is a result of their own perception of
the test determining their academic status or their “demand” to perform well on all tests.
For all of these children, it is important to remind them:
In this new era of reliance on data and ever increasing levels of accountability,
standardized testing will not go away. Furthermore, when used correctly, as part of
(rather than the sum of) a child’s educational experience they can provide useful
information to educators. With this in mind, it is incumbent upon parents and educators
to minimize the unintended negative effects on the overall well-being of the child.
Additional Resources:
Reducing Test Anxiety To
Increase Academic Performance
Really, we didn’t
make it up. It’s a real
book.
More teachers
than kids were
waiting for the
nurse.
Principal
Wiggins
waves the
flag to start
THE TEST.
Something
happens to
his hair.
Morgan got a
stomachache
and when
Miss
Malarkey
said to erase
all your
pencil marks,
Janet erased
her whole
test.
After THE
TEST
everybody
got prizes
and extra
recess.
The
teachers
were
happy.
WHAT IS ANXIETY?
• Anxiety is a very complex human reaction that
has both physical and mental elements to it. The
physical elements include things such as sweaty
palms, accelerated heartbeat, and a queasy
stomach.
• The mental elements include self-doubts and
constant worry about things. To control your test
anxiety you will need to deal with both of these
elements.
WHAT IS ANXIETY?
• One way to define anxiety is to say that it
is a fear-like arousal, when the situation
really isn't that threatening.
• Granted, a test can be threatening to your
grade point average, but it is not a
physical threat and doesn't warrant a full-
blown physical reaction.
WHAT IS TEST ANXIETY
& HOW DID I GET IT?
• Have you ever had any of the following types of
reactions?
• "I felt I was ready for the test, but when it started
my mind just went blank."
• Unfamiliarity.
• Preparation.
• General Lifestyle.
• Conditioned Anxiety.
• Irrational Thinking.
Twelve Myths Of Test Anxiety
• Students are born with test anxiety.
• Test anxiety is a mental illness.
• Test anxiety cannot be reduced.
• Any level of test anxiety is bad.
• All students who are not prepared have test
anxiety.
• Students with test anxiety cannot learn math.
• Doing nothing about test anxiety will make it
go away.
Twelve Myths Of Test Anxiety
• Students who are well prepared will not have
test anxiety.
• Very intelligent students and students taking
high level courses, such as calculus, do not
have test anxiety.
• Attending class and doing all my homework
should reduce all of my test anxiety.
• Being told to relax during a test will make you
relaxed.
• Reducing test anxiety will guarantee better
grades.
How To Reduce Test Anxiety
RELAXATION
TECHNIQUES
Physical Relaxation
Positive Self-Talk
Managing the Test Situation
Coping Strategies - A Review
It is not easy to change how you think overnight,
it has taken you quite a few years to establish
the patterns that you have and habits are hard to
break.
CSULB
¡ Kristin Powers, Ph.D.
¡ Kristi Hagans, Ph.D.
¡ James Morrison, Ph.D.
¡ Judy McBride, Ph.D.
The 80s brought about the test taking and study skills
paradigm
¡ Students with poor study skills have difficulty encoding classroom
material à fail repeatedly on tests à onset of test anxiety
(Benjamin et.al 1981)
Bellini, 2010
Materials Needed for Video Modeling/Editing
Computer
Television
Definitions
Dowrick, 1977
Video Self-Modeling Procedures
¡ Pre-teaching/Frontloading
Self-Efficacy = If you think you can, you are more likely to
succeed
!
Necessary Requisites for Successful Modeling
(Bandura)
1. Attention
2. Memory
3. Imitation/Behavioral Production
Bandura
Attention
Bellini, 2007
Memory
Bellini, 2007
Imitation and Behavioral Production
Vygotsky, 1978
An Example of the ZPD at Work
Vince Carter Me
Attribution (Weiner, 1986)
Weiner, 1986
Two Types of Student Theorists (Dweck, 1999)
Whyte, 1978
Setting
Student #1
¡ 12 year old male in the 6th grade
¡ Dx: ADHD and Generalized Anxiety
¡ History of limited academic production , poor writing skills, low self-
esteem, and performance anxiety
Student #2
¡ 10 year old male in the 4th grade
¡ Dx: ADHD and sleep disorder
¡ Challenges with low self-esteem and motivation
Student #3
¡ 10 year old male in the 4th grade
¡ Dx: ADHD combined/ODD
¡ History of distractibility, low work-productivity, dependence on
assistance
Participants (Female)
Student #4
¡ 12 year old female in the 6th grade
I’m just bad at math, I have the ability, but I
writing, etc. and that need help accessing it.
will never change. The effort I put into my
I have no control over work is what I’ll get out
how I do, even if I try. of it
Tests are trials that are
If I do poorly on a test,
intended to measure
I’m a bad student. My what we know and what
parents and teachers we need to work on (no
will think I’m stupid. more and no less).
Maladaptiveà Functional Test-Taking Strategies
(VSM)
¡ They also seemed aware of their behaviors, but saw them in a
different light when shown the video.
÷ They
consciously tried to change their behavior in the 2nd
examination.
¡ They regarded test anxiety as negatively impacting their test
performance.
÷ Moststudents agreed that a little bit of anxiety helped spur them
into action, but after a certain point it would be to their detriment.
Limitations/Areas for Future Development
Intensive:
• Video Self-Modeling of Test Taking Skills
• Individual Counseling
• Reattribution Training
• Continued progress monitoring
Targeted:
• Students identified as being test
anxious
Tier 3 • Group Counseling/Talk Therapy
Tier • Progress monitoring to note positive
2 or negative change
Tier 1
Universal:
• Universal Screening (TAI,
WTAS, TAICA)
• Preventative curriculum
addressing test-taking skills
• Environmental modifications
The Role of the School Psychologist
Academic Behavioral
Performance Output
Social/Emotional
Health
Shahroozi, 2011
Advocacy Groups and More Information…
¡ sshahroo@student.csulb.edu
Questions
IF YOU SEE OTHER THAN TWO
DOLPHINS IT’S TIME FOR A BREAK