Distribution of metal droplets in top slags

during ladle treatment

J. Ekengård*1, A. M. T. Andersson2 and P. G. Jönsson2
The investigation focused on the mixing of the metal and slag phases during ladle refining from
the point of tapping the EAF to casting. Steel droplet distributions were determined for slag
samples taken at different stages in the ladle refining process at two different steel plants in
Sweden. The droplet distributions were determined using light optical microscopy and
classification according to the standard SS111116. Sample analysis results showed the slag
samples taken before vacuum degassing to contain the greatest concentration of steel droplets.
The total interfacial area between the steel droplets and slag was determined to be 3–14 times
larger than the projected flat interfacial area between the steel and slag. The effects of slag
viscosity and reactions between steel and slag on metal droplet formation in slag were also
considered.
Keywords: Metal droplets, Slag, Ladle, Refining, Distribution

Introduction which increases the likelihood of spontaneous dispersion

Metal droplets play an important role in steelmaking in,
for example, the decarburisation of iron droplets in
converters or in reactions in emulsions. This study
focused on droplets in emulsions, or more specifically,
steel droplets in ladle slags. Previously, researchers such
as Reiter and Schwerdfeger,1,2 Kobayashi3 and Han and
Holappa,4 discussed the possible mechanisms behind the
formation of steel droplets in ladle slags. The commonly
theorised mechanical mechanisms behind steel droplet
formation during ladle refining have been concluded to
be due to the vigorous stirring of steel ladles, i.e. to gas
bubbles (usually argon) introduced via porous plugs at
the bottom of the ladle. These previous studies suggest
that the entrainment of metal droplets from the steel
bath into the slag is due to either rupture of a metallic
film around the bubble as it passes through the interface
between the steel and the slag phase, or to the bubble
pulling up a jet of metal behind it as it passes from the
steel to the slag phase. These phenomena have been
studied in experimental setups involving liquids such as
oils, water, mercury,1,2 etc., as well as steel and slag
system setups.4
An alternate mechanism of steel droplet formation in
ladle slags may be related to the reduction of the surface
tension between slag and steel due to the reaction
between deoxidisers, such as aluminium dissolved in the
steel, and easily reducible oxides in the slag such as FeO.
The transport of oxygen over the slag/steel interface
lowers the interfacial tension between slag and steel,
1
Volvo Powertrain, SE-541 87 Skövde, Sweden
2
Division of Applied Process Metallurgy, Department of Science and
Engineering, KTH, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
*Corresponding author, email johan.ekengard@volvo.com
of slag into steel and vice versa.5
There are at least three major reasons to further our
knowledge of metal droplets in ladle slags in production:
(i) the steel droplet distribution may affect the kinetics
of reactions involving a steel and a slag phase
(ii) the amount of steel droplets in ladle slags should be
minimised in order to maximise the yield of steel
(iii) steel droplets in the slag can, depending on size,
cause problems when recycling the slag.
When it comes to the last point, experience has shown
that steel droplets can cause, for example, burned
separation filters during the recycling process.6 This
study mainly focused on the first aspect dealing with the
kinetics.
The two film theory can be used to calculate kinetics
of reactions between two phases. Using this theory, it is
assumed that a concentration gradient of an element
exists at the interface between two phases. Furthermore,
it is assumed that the phases on each side of the
concentration boundary layer, here the steel phase and
the slag phase, are steadily and completely homogenised.
Therefore, the removal rate of an impurity element from
the steel can be expressed as7
d½%x
krA

~{ ½%x
{½%x
e (1)
dt M
where A is the interfacial area between the steel and slag
phases, k is the total mass transfer coefficient, r is the
steel density, M is the steel mass, [%x] is the actual
concentration of the element to be refined and finally
[%x]e is the hypothetical concentration of the refined
element in the steel phase in equilibrium with the actual
concentration in the refining phase.
One disadvantage of using equation (1) is that the
interfacial area is highly underestimated if it is assumed
to be a horizontal and flat interface area between the

ß 2008 Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining

Published by Maney on behalf of the Institute
Accepted 25 February 2005
DOI 10.1179/174328108X318914 Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2008 VOL 35 NO 8 575
Ekengård et al. Distribution of metal droplets in top slags during ladle treatment
1 Process flow at Scana Steel Björneborg and Ovako Steel
slag and metal. During stirring, the interface between
slag and steel is often not flat, but rather folded or wave
shaped. This results in a larger contact area between the
slag and steel. In addition, strong stirring (gas primarily)
can result in the dispersion of metal droplets in slag and
vice versa as discussed earlier. This, of course, results in
an even greater contact area between the slag and steel.
If data could be obtained on the distribution of steel
droplets in the slag and the slag droplet distribution in
the steel for typical stirring conditions and slag
compositions, the two film theory could then be
employed to predict the refining rate of, for example,
sulphur with greater accuracy. This would require
reliable sampling methods. Today, it is possible to
sample a slag sample using a scoop and from that
determine the steel droplet distribution in the bulk slag.
However, it is difficult to take samples along a steel/slag
interface to determine slag dispersion in steel in stirred
ladles. Lachmund et al.8 measured the size distribution
of slag droplets under the slag/steel interface in a gas
stirred ladle. It should also be noted that Solhed et al.9
reported that it is possible to use the MISS method
developed by MEFOS to sample at the steel/slag
interface in a tundish.
In this investigation, the distribution of steel droplets in
ladle slags during ladle treatment was determined through
a process of sampling and analysis with light optical
microscopy and classification based on an international
standard. To the authors’ knowledge, no previous
publications have presented results of metal droplets in
ladle production samples. Neither has a statistical
determination of size distribution of metal droplets in
ladle slags been presented in the open literature.
576 Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2008 VOL 35 NO
In the first part of the paper, the theory for kinetics of
reactions between slag and steel is covered. Thereafter,
the procedures for obtaining the investigation samples at
the Scana Steel and Ovako Steel plants are presented,
along with information on how the droplet size
distributions, slag properties and contact areas between
the slag and steel were determined. Next, the primary
results of droplet size distributions, slag compositions
and steel compositions are given, followed by a section
on parameters determined from calculation of this data
such as slag–metal contact areas, slag properties and
possible reactions between slag and steel. Finally, the
results are considered in discussing why metal droplet
distributions in ladle slags vary during ladle treatment.
Procedure
Samples were taken from five heats of different steel
grades at both Scana Steel (Björneborg) and Ovako
Steel (Hofors) in Sweden. The following section
describes the plant processes and the procedure followed
for sampling and sample analysis in this investigation.
Plant process descriptions
This section describes the processes used at the two
plants as well as the process parameters focused on in
this study.
Scana Steel Björneborg AB
Scana Steel Björneborg produces tailor made steel
components for defence, energy, marine, machinery
and offshore applications. It has a scrap based steel
plant in its facility at Björneborg, Sweden. A schematic
process flow can be seen in Fig. 1, where x denotes heat
8
 Ekengård et al.
number (1–5). The scrap is melted in an electrical arc
furnace (EAF) and is after melting predeoxidised with
aluminium and ferrosilicon and then tapped into a ladle.
Slag raking and synthetic slag additions are performed if
necessary. Deoxidants like aluminium and silicon are
added and the steel is processed further in a ladle
furnace. The studied heats were alloyed mainly with
carbon and manganese. Graphite electrodes are used in
the furnaces to compensate for heat loss and argon gas is
introduced via a single porous plug for stirring the steel
in the ladle. When the steel composition and tempera-
ture are at the desired levels, the ladle is transported to a
tank based vacuum degassing station where vacuum
degassing with vigorous argon stirring through two
porous plugs is performed to remove hydrogen, non-
metallic inclusions as well as to homogenise the steel
before casting. The degassing time is about 25–30 min
and the average heat size for the heats in this study was
y50 tons. The steel is then cast in 4–70 t ingots using
uphill teeming.
Ovako Steel AB
Ovako Steel produces steel grades for rolling bearings
and other specialty steel grades for engineering applica-
tions. The main products are seamless tube, bar, wire
and rolled rings. Ovako Steel has a scrap based steel
plant in Hofors, Sweden, with a 100 t oval bottom
tapped EAF. The schematic process flow is shown in
Fig. 1. The steel is melted in the EAF and thereafter
bottom tapped into a ladle. During tapping, the steel is
predeoxidised with silicon and aluminium. After tap-
ping, the EAF furnace slag is removed using a slag rake.
Next, the steel is transferred to an ASEA-SKF ladle
furnace station where synthetic slag is added and melted.
For the heats sampled in this investigation, the main
alloying elements were carbon and chrome, and
aluminium was used as a deoxidiser. The ladle at
Ovako is stirred electromagnetically (induction stirring)
during melting of the synthetic slag. When the tempera-
ture, steel composition and inclusion characteristics are
at the desired levels, the ladle is transferred to the
vacuum degassing station where degassing for y20 min
is performed with gas stirring through two porous plugs
in addition to the induction stirring. The steel is then
heated and stirred to homogenise the melt and separate
inclusions before casting.
The selected steel grades, one at each plant, both had
relatively low alloying levels. It was therefore possible to
use the dilute solution model in the thermodynamic
calculations and thereby reduce the number of factors
affecting the results.
Sampling
Five heats from each plant were studied more in detail.
The samples from Ovako Steel were obtained as part of
an earlier study10 focused on sulphur refining during
vacuum degassing. Sampling was carried out before and
after degassing and also after the heating and stirring
period before casting. At Scana Steel, samples were
taken at three time points: at the beginning of ladle
treatment and before and after vacuum degassing. On
each sampling occasion at both plants, a 12 mm thick
lollipop type steel sample11 was taken and temperature
measurement was carried out using automatic sampling
equipment. In addition, a slag sample was taken with a
slag sampling scoop. Various process parameters were
Distribution of metal droplets in top slags during ladle treatment
also logged using the computer system in the respective
plant. A schematic figure of the sampling sequence for
each company is shown together with the process flow in
Fig. 1.
Analysis
Since the steel and slag samples were analysed at their
respective plants, slightly different equipment and
procedures were employed. Details regarding analysis
of the samples are given in the following sections.
Slag analysis
Scana Steel Björneborg
The collected slag sample was ground and thereafter
analysed using an X-ray fluorescence method. This
procedure determined the oxide compositions of the
various samples. The apparatus used was an ARL 9800
X-ray fluorescence analyser. The relative analysis accu-
racy was ¡0?5%. The analysis results are given in Table 1.
Ovako Steel
Nearly the entire amount of collected slag was ground
and divided into portions for the analysis. Metallic iron
particles were removed from the ground slag with a
magnet and the sample portions were then analysed
using an X-ray fluorescence method (Siemens SRS 303)
in order to determine the oxide compositions. The
relative analysis accuracy was ¡3%. These slag samples
were also analysed for sulphur using a melting and
combustion technique (Rosemount CSA 5003). For the
sulphur content, the relative analysis accuracy was also
¡3%. The slag analysis and basicity for the different
heats are shown in Table 1.
Steel analysis
Scana Steel Björneborg
The steel samples were polished and then analysed with
an ARL 3460 Metals analyser spectrometer for all
relevant elements except carbon and sulphur. The
carbon and sulphur concentration data were analysed
using a Leco CS400 melt analyser. The relative analysis
accuracy was ¡3% for carbon, ¡1?4% for manganese,
¡3?5% for silicon, ¡3% for aluminium and ¡8% for
sulphur. The results are summarised in Table 2.
Ovako Steel
The steel samples were analysed by optical emission
spectroscopy (Bausch & Lomb, ARL OES 3560). For
aluminium, chromium, manganese and silicon, the
relative analysis accuracy was ¡5%. Carbon and
sulphur contents were determined using the fusing
method (Leco CS-244). For carbon, the relative analysis
accuracy was ¡0?7% and for sulphur, it was ¡5?4%. In
Table 2, the steel analysis results and corresponding
sampling temperatures are provided.
Determination of metal droplet size distribution
The distribution of metal droplets in the slag was
determined using a modified Swedish standard
SS111116.12 The standard was originally intended to
be used to statistically determine amounts of non-
metallic inclusions in steel. The surface of each steel
sample is analysed using optical microscopy to deter-
mine the shapes and distribution of different sizes of
non-metallic inclusions in a worked metal sample. The
standard defines four inclusion shapes, namely, A (ductile),
B (brittle), C (brittle–ductile) and D (undeformed or
Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2008 VOL 35 NO 8 577
Ekengård et al. Distribution of metal droplets in top slags during ladle treatment

Table 1 Slag analysis results

Al2O3, CaO, MgO, SiO2, FeOz*, MnO, FeOzMnO, Basicity

Sample wt-% wt-% wt-% wt-% wt-% wt-% wt-% S, wt-% (CaO/SiO2)

SC1-1 12.13 44.06 13.92 24.63 1.79 3.34 5.13 0.13 1.79
SC1-2 15.40 43.06 15.93 22.98 1.27 0.96 2.24 0.39 1.87
SC1-3 21.88 39.43 18.88 18.24 0.67 0.34 1.01 0.57 2.16
SC2-1 13.30 48.19 6.80 14.27 10.07 7.15 17.21 0.23 3.38
SC2-2 18.85 48.17 12.70 18.19 0.97 0.93 1.91 0.19 2.65
SC2-3 24.82 44.52 16.05 13.77 0.22 0.19 0.41 0.43 3.23
SC3-1 9.55 44.37 10.10 19.08 8.61 8.15 16.76 0.14 2.33
SC3-2 13.23 47.17 12.57 24.01 0.92 1.90 2.82 0.19 1.96
SC3-3 15.72 46.58 13.57 23.05 0.31 0.40 0.71 0.37 2.02
SC4-1 9.87 44.43 13.95 19.56 5.63 6.44 12.07 0.13 2.27
SC4-2 13.47 46.09 15.58 22.45 0.98 1.17 2.15 0.25 2.05
SC4-3 16.58 45.13 15.98 21.16 0.36 0.36 0.72 0.43 2.13
SC5-1 9.61 36.16 19.78 26.71 1.48 6.16 7.64 0.10 1.35
SC5-2 12.55 36.10 21.21 26.66 1.79 1.45 3.24 0.24 1.35
SC5-3 16.63 35.66 21.84 24.84 0.26 0.58 0.83 0.20 1.44
0V1-2 28.77 55.71 8.07 5.74 0.99 0.30 1.29 0.43 9.71
0V1-3 31.99 48.21 9.63 7.26 0.84 0.10 0.94 1.97 6.64
0V1-4 32.37 47.82 9.49 7.31 0.85 0.09 0.94 2.06 6.54
0V2-2 29.12 51.08 9.97 8.45 0.59 0.18 0.77 0.62 6.05
0V2-3 30.28 47.64 9.26 8.44 1.86 0.14 2.01 2.38 5.64
0V2-4 30.85 48.19 9.77 8.63 0.39 0.11 0.50 2.06 5.58
0V3-2 40.52 43.05 6.07 6.86 2.64 0.28 2.92 0.59 6.28
0V3-3 43.02 41.02 6.92 7.11 0.55 0.12 0.67 1.26 5.77
0V3-4 42.69 40.04 6.95 7.63 1.37 0.17 1.54 1.15 5.25
0V4-2 35.94 47.73 5.62 9.09 1.03 0.29 1.32 0.29 5.25
0V4-3 41.25 43.05 7.57 6.02 0.54 0.07 0.61 1.49 7.15
0V4-4 41.55 42.66 7.74 6.01 0.53 0.07 0.61 1.44 7.10
0V5-2 41.28 45.76 4.28 6.20 1.80 0.26 2.06 0.41 7.38
0V5-3 42.57 41.06 7.59 7.18 0.36 0.07 0.43 1.16 5.72
0V5-4 42.68 40.62 7.67 7.18 0.64 0.08 0.72 1.13 5.66
*z: may include iron droplets.

Table 2 Steel analysis results and measured temperatures

Sample Al, wt-% C, wt-% Cr, wt-% Mn, wt-% S, wt-% Si, wt-% Temperature, uC

SC1-1 0.089 0.350 0.209 0.359 0.020 0.215 1632

SC1-2 0.056 0.390 0.221 0.692 0.014 0.246 1656
SC1-3 0.019 0.440 0.223 0.687 0.011 0.262 1576
SC2-1 0.152 0.210 0.090 0.183 0.011 0.234 1630
SC2-2 0.092 0.260 0.111 0.675 0.009 0.215 1667
SC2-3 0.025 0.430 0.115 0.679 0.003 0.250 1570
SC3-1 0.080 0.300 0.149 0.268 0.013 0.210 1628
SC3-2 0.050 0.350 0.176 0.736 0.011 0.189 1659
SC3-3 0.015 0.440 0.180 0.762 0.007 0.182 1576
SC4-1 0.089 0.320 0.135 0.268 0.015 0.197 1632
SC4-2 0.058 0.380 0.154 0.726 0.012 0.198 1663
SC4-3 0.020 0.450 0.163 0.746 0.007 0.203 1583
SC5-1 0.102 0.270 0.271 0.493 0.016 0.199 1647
SC5-2 0.068 0.290 0.278 0.648 0.014 0.235 1669
SC5-3 0.013 0.440 0.284 0.655 0.012 0.255 1575
0V1-2 0.071 0.540 1.392 0.280 0.025 0.103 1606
0V1-3 0.036 0.960 1.390 0.280 0.009 0.100 1545
0V1-4 0.034 0.960 1.390 0.280 0.008 0.100 1534
0V2-2 0.060 0.520 1.392 0.280 0.029 0.264 1602
0V2-3 0.036 1.030 1.390 0.290 0.010 0.262 1537
0V2-4 0.034 1.030 1.380 0.280 0.009 0.256 1536
0V3-2 0.064 0.590 1.397 0.278 0.020 0.290 1576
0V3-3 0.047 1.031 1.387 0.277 0.014 0.291 1516
0V3-4 0.044 1.044 1.386 0.278 0.015 0.289 1533
0V4-2 0.065 0.590 1.409 0.287 0.020 0.261 1618
0V4-3 0.024 1.002 1.395 0.289 0.009 0.281 1552
0V4-4 0.035 1.009 1.398 0.287 0.008 0.278 1544
0V5-2 0.043 0.502 1.403 0.256 0.017 0.241 1600
0V5-3 0.022 1.045 1.394 0.259 0.013 0.245 1535
0V5-4 0.030 1.074 1.398 0.260 0.014 0.243 1533

578 Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2008 VOL 35 NO 8

 Ekengård et al. Distribution of metal droplets in top slags during ladle treatment

a b

c d

e f
2 a light optical microscopy (LOM) picture of metal droplets in slag from SC2-1 (before degassing) sample, b LOM pic-
ture of metal droplets in slag from SC2-2 (before degassing) sample, c LOM picture of metal droplets in slag from
SC2-3 (after degassing) sample, d LOM picture of metal droplets in slag from OV3-2 (before degassing) sample, e LOM
picture of metal droplets in slag from OV3-3 (after degassing) sample and f LOM picture of metal droplets in slag from
OV3-4 (after heating/stirring) sample

spherical). The SS111116 standard was adapted in
the present work for determining steel droplet numbers
in slag samples. Since virtually all of the steel droplets
in the slag samples were spherical, the D type grading
applicable to non-deformed inclusions in steel was
used to classify the steel droplets. The steel droplets
were graded as thin (DT), medium (DM), heavy (DH)
or particular (DP). The size ranges were computed
using the WinPCMic13 software, which was developed
to assess inclusions using the SS111116 standard.
The steel droplets were classified in the size ranges
as: 4?7 mm(DT,9?3 mm; 9?3 mm(DM,18?7 mm;
18?7 mm(DH,37?3 mm; DP>37?3 mm.
The analysis was performed at 6200 magnification
and a field of view of 1?32 mm diameter for all the
samples. The WinPCMic program13 uses statistical
analysis as described in the standard12 to compute
quantitative parameters for the inclusions such as area
percentage and number per mm2. Typical microscope
views are shown in Fig. 2.
Slag properties
In order to evaluate the effect of slag viscosity on droplet
statistics, the KTH slag model14 was used to calculate
the slag viscosities with the software ThermoSlag.15 The
KTH slag model is primarily for liquid slags, so

Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2008 VOL 35 NO 8 579

Ekengård et al. Distribution of metal droplets in top slags during ladle treatment
apparent viscosities for slags with precipitated phases of
MgO were calculated with the IRSID slag model16 using
the software ThermoCalc.17 Apparent slag viscosity me
was estimated using the Roscoe viscosity model18 with
the following equation
: average radius of the droplets. Equation (4) is actually
me ~m(1{1:35e){2 5
where m is the viscosity of the liquid slag (in this work
calculated using the KTH slag model14). The calcula-
tions were made for normalised slag composition data
for the four component system Al2O3–CaO–MgO–SiO2
at each specific sampling temperature. The model data
used in the calculations were from the lower order
(binary and ternary) systems.
Contact area between slag and metal
As discussed earlier, it is of interest to determine the
contact area between the steel droplets and the slag in
order to, for example, estimate refining rates using the
two film theory (equation (1)). In order to determine the
contact area, it was necessary to make some assump-
tions to estimate the slag volume:
(i) at Scana Steel, the slag amount in the ladle was
estimated to be y1400 kg for the studied
heats.19 The slag is transferred from the EAF
and reduced with CaC2 before tapping from the
EAF. In some heats, the slag is raked and that is
done manually
(ii) at Ovako Steel, the slag from the EAF is always
raked with special mechanical equipment and
new synthetic slag was added. The average slag
volume estimated for the Ovako Steel heats was
based on the assumption that the amount of
CaO added before degassing remained constant
throughout the degassing process
(iii) for both cases, i.e. the Scana Steel and Ovako
Steel heats, the density rslag was approximated
with a model based on the molar volumes of the
respective slag components taken from Slag
Atlas20
X Mi xi
rslag ~ (3)
Vi
where Mi, xi and V - i represent the molar weight, molar
fraction and molar volume respectively, of the respective
slag component i (Al2O3, CaO, MgO and SiO2). The
calculated densities agreed well with plotted data for
similar slag compositions in the Slag Atlas.20
It was also necessary to make some assumptions to
estimate the total drop surface area in the respective slag
volume. The metal droplet data were divided into two
size classes. To simplify the calculation, the size classes
were assigned an average drop diameter value, for DT
droplets, 7 mm and for DM droplets, 14 mm. This
assumption will induce an error since the classes of
DT and DM droplets also have size distributions.
However, the size distribution determination method
SS111116 does not consider this and therefore, the
assumption of an average drop diameter was necessary.
The droplets were also assumed to be spherical and
distributed evenly in the samples. The data of number
per mm2 (area) from the statistical droplet analysis were
recalculated to number per mm3 (volume) by a
simplification from Modin and Modin,21 namely
580 Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2008 VOL 35 NO
NA
NV ~ (4)
2r
where NV is the number of droplets per volume unit, NA
is the number of droplets per area unit and r is the
(2) only valid if the droplets are of the same size and
spherical and further, the basic data (i.e. number of
detected droplets) have to be sufficient. Since it was
assumed that the droplet diameter in the size class could
be represented by the average drop diameter, equa-
tion (4) will here only be an approximation of the
number of droplets per mm3.
The number of droplets per mm3 in each slag sample
was multiplied by the calculated surface area of each
droplet. The total droplet surface area per mm3 slag was
then multiplied by the estimated slag volume and
compared with the projected contact area between the
slag and steel in the corresponding ladle. The diameters
of the cylindrical ladles at Scana Steel and Ovako Steel
are 3?2 and 3?0 m respectively.
Results
The results were divided into primary and secondary
results, with primary results being the raw analysis data
and secondary results referring to parameters calculated
from the raw data such as slag–metal contact area, slag
properties and correlations between these parameters.
Primary results
This section covers the slag and metal compositions and
droplet size distributions as well as the main trends
observed.
Slag and metal compositions
As can be seen in Tables 1 and 2, the compositions of
slag and metal differ between the two plants, as can be
expected due to the differences in the steel grades
produced. The temperature falls drastically during
vacuum degassing due to heat loss. During degassing,
the alumina content in the slag increases while the
aluminium content in the steel decreases. The increase in
Al2O3 in the slag is most likely due to separation of
alumina inclusions during degassing. It could also stem
from reoxidation at the slag/steel interface (during e.g.
sulphur refining)
2½Al
metal z3½O
metal ~(Al2 O3 )slag (5)
The sulphur content in the slag increases during
degassing more significantly in the Ovako Steel case
than in the Scana Steel case. It can also be seen that this
sulphur increase in the slag corresponds to a sulphur
decrease in the steel during the process. Here it should be
noted that the basicity is higher for the slags at Ovako
Steel, which favours sulphur refining. It should also be
mentioned that the heat loss during degassing was
between 80 and 97uC for the Scana Steel heats and
between 60 and 66uC for the Ovako Steel heats. This
would have an influence on all reactions that take place.
On the whole, it can be deduced from the information in
Tables 1 and 2 that there are considerable reactions
taking place under the conditions during the vacuum
operation in both plants.
8
 Ekengård et al. Distribution of metal droplets in top slags during ladle treatment

Table 3a Percentage of metal droplets in examined slag sample surface areas

DT (4.7–9.3 mm) DM (9.3–18.7 mm) DH (18.7–37.3 mm) DP (.37.3 mm) Fields found Fields found

Sample Area, % Area, % Area, % Area, % DH DP

SC1-1 0.0029 0.0056 0.0057 0.0167 11 8

SC1-2 0.0107 0.0164 0.0067 0.0042 11 2
SC1-3 0.0052 0.0042 0.0010 0.0053 2 3
SC2-1 0.0032 0.0088 0.0101 0.0141 14 6
SC2-2 0.0214 0.0173 0.0110 0.0156 21 8
SC2-3 0.0029 0.0033 0.0009 0.0125 3 3
SC3-1 0.0008 0.0020 0.0028 0.0064 9 3
SC3-2 0.0155 0.0101 0.0067 0.0245 12 7
SC3-3 0.0077 0.0049 0 0 0 0
SC4-1 0.0009 0.0039 0.0062 0.0014 24 2
SC4-2 0.0125 0.0162 0.0086 0.0153 15 3
SC4-3 0.0093 0.0063 0.0057 0.0025 10 1
SC5-1 0.0012 0.0040 0.0061 0.0198 18 10
SC5-2 0.0108 0.0102 0.0048 0.0064 10 3
SC5-3 0.0035 0.0043 0.0027 0.0263 7 4
OV1-2 0.0081 0.0114 0.0053 0.0172 9 5
OV1-3 0.0021 0.0057 0.0043 0.0188 11 5
OV1-4 0.0149 0.0195 0.0120 0.0541 13 7
OV2-2 0.0051 0.0084 0.0057 0.0215 8 8
OV2-3 0.0105 0.0354 0.0235 0.0157 32 8
OV2-4 0.0017 0.0026 0.0029 0.0215 10 12
OV3-2 0.0153 0.0151 0.0053 0.0093 10 4
OV3-3 0.0015 0.0024 0.0010 0.0373 7 16
OV3-4 0.0179 0.0138 0.0043 0.0131 9 8
OV4-2 0.0133 0.0068 0.0020 0.0030 5 3
OV4-3 0.0009 0.0012 0.0006 0.0046 5 8
OV4-4 0.0126 0.0141 0.0058 0.0528 13 9
OV5-2 0.0069 0.0062 0.0014 0 3 0
OV5-3 0.0013 0.0014 0.0008 0.0018 5 3
OV5-4 0.0038 0.0028 0.0011 0.0116 4 4

Table 3b Number/mm2 of metal droplets in examined slag sample surface areas

Sample DT (4.7–9.3 mm), no./mm2 DM (9.3–18.7 mm), no./mm2 DH (18.7–37.3 mm), no./mm2 DP (.37.3 mm), no./mm2

SC1-1 0.8339 0.40406 0.10316 0.06878

SC1-2 3.10564 1.1918 0.12179 0.0174
SC1-3 1.49627 0.30447 0.0174 0.0261
SC2-1 0.93952 0.63505 0.18268 0.06089
SC2-2 6.20258 1.2527 0.20008 0.06959
SC2-3 0.83039 0.23804 0.01661 0.01661
SC3-1 0.23125 0.14337 0.05087 0.01387
SC3-2 4.49752 0.73074 0.12179 0.06089
SC3-3 2.2352 0.35247 0 0
SC4-1 0.25134 0.27926 0.11171 0.00931
SC4-2 3.6363 1.1744 0.15659 0.0261
SC4-3 2.70803 0.45564 0.10316 0.0086
SC5-1 0.3566 0.28645 0.11107 0.05846
SC5-2 3.12304 0.73944 0.08699 0.0261
SC5-3 1.00912 0.31317 0.04872 0.02784
OV1-2 2.3401 0.82643 0.09569 0.06089
OV1-3 0.60496 0,41329 0.07787 0.02995
OV1-4 4.33224 1,41798 0.21748 0.07829
OV2-2 1.47867 0.61038 0.10316 0.06878
OV2-3 3.03605 2.56629 0.42626 0.06959
OV2-4 0.49292 0.18593 0.05189 0.04756
OV3-2 4.44533 1.09611 0.09569 0.0348
OV3-3 0.43363 0.17399 0.01874 0.05353
OV3-4 5.18477 1.00042 0.07829 0.06089
OV4-2 3.87363 0.49662 0.03547 0.02128
OV4-3 0.26405 0.08597 0.01023 0.01433
OV4-4 3.66761 1.02303 0.10439 0.06959
OV5-2 2.00953 0.44841 0.02491 0
OV5-3 0.38583 0.09938 0.01461 0.00877
OV5-4 1.09611 0.2007 0.02058 0.02058

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Ekengård et al. Distribution of metal droplets in top slags during ladle treatment

(a)

(b)
3 a number per mm2 of size DT and DM metal droplets in beginning of ladle treatment and before and after vacuum
degassing, Scana Steel, and b number per mm2 of size DT and DM metal droplets before and after vacuum degassing
and after final stirring, Ovako Steel

Droplet size distributions In Fig. 2, micrographs of steel droplets in slag

The droplet data for area percentage and number per
mm2 are shown in Tables 3a and b respectively. There
were at least 30 fields of view found in each sample with
droplets from each size range, e.g. DT and DM. Thirty
is the minimum number of fields from each size range for
the classification standard to be considered accurate.
For the larger size ranges, the number of fields found is
provided in Table 3a in order to assess the determined
values accuracy. Owing to insufficient data for the size
ranges DH and DP, these area percentage values should
be seen only as roughly approximate values.
samples are presented for one example heat from each
plant before and after degassing. A source of error in the
statistical analysis was the human factor, and it can be
seen from these pictures that only an experienced
technician can correctly distinguish, for example, a large
DT droplet from a small DM droplet.
Figure 3a shows the number per mm2 of DT and DM
sized metal droplets in the studied slags corresponding
to the beginning of ladle treatment and before and after
vacuum degassing for the samples obtained at Scana
Steel Björneborg. The Scana Steel heats are denoted in

582 Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2008 VOL 35 NO 8

 Ekengård et al. Distribution of metal droplets in top slags during ladle treatment

this report as: SCx-1: beginning of ladle treatment, SCx-
2: before degassing and SCx-3: after degassing, where x
represents the heat number.
The main trend identified for all of the five heats
(SC1–SC5) was that there were consequently more
droplets before degassing than both in the beginning
of ladle treatment and after vacuum degassing for both
DT and DM droplets.
Figure 3b shows the number per mm2 of DT and DM
metal droplets in the analysed slag samples before and
after vacuum degassing and also after the final stirring
for the samples taken at Ovako Steel. The Ovako Steel
heats were denoted as: OVx-2: before degassing, OVx-3:
after degassing, OVx-4: after final stirring.
The main trend for the heats OV1–OV5 was the same
as for the Scana Steel heats: more droplets before than
after vacuum degassing for both DT and DM sized
droplets. Furthermore, the number of droplets increased
after the final stirring. One exception to this was heat
OV2 which in fact showed the opposite behaviour. No
clear explanation for this has been found.
Samples from the two plants had roughly the same
number of droplets in the analysed slag samples. For DT
sized droplets before degassing, the Scana Steel samples
had a slightly larger number of droplets than the Ovako
Steel samples and in the DT droplets after degassing,
both plants had about the same number. For the DM
droplets before degassing, the Scana samples contained
a slightly larger number of droplets than the Ovako
samples, and after degassing, the two plants had about
the same number except for the OV2 heat. Finally, it can
clearly be seen from Fig. 3 that there were more DT
than DM sized droplets.
Secondary results
The secondary results are further usage of the primary
results to investigate probable correlations between
different parameters like slag–metal contact area, slag
properties and main trends in reactions between slag and
steel.
Slag–metal contact area
As mentioned above, it would be of interest to determine
the contact area between the droplets and the slag to
estimate the potential reaction area between steel droplets
and slag. Therefore, an estimation of the droplets’ surface
area was made. In Table 4, the calculated total droplet
surface area in the slag for DT and DM droplets is
presented together with the approximated total slag
volume and total volume of droplets in the slag for the
different heats before and after degassing. Despite the fact
that the total volume of the metal droplets is negligible in
comparison with the total slag volume, the total surface
area of the droplets in the Scana Steel case before
degassing is 7?6–14 times larger than the projected contact
area between slag and steel in the ladle. After degassing,
the corresponding number is 2–6?3 times the projected
contact area. In the Ovako Steel case, the corresponding
numbers are 3–8?4 times larger before degassing and 0?5–
9?9 times larger after degassing. In Fig. 4, the ratio
between the droplet surface area and the projected ladle
area is plotted. For the Ovako Steel calculations after
degassing, this means that the projected contact areas in

Table 4 Calculated metal droplet surface area and volume in ladle slags and ratio of droplet surface area to projected
slag/steel interface area

Droplet surface
Total droplet area)/projected Volume of droplets
surface area ladle surface area in the ladle slag Approximated
Heat (DTzDM), m2 (DTzDM) (DTzDM), dm3 total slag volume, dm3

SC1-1 24.71 3.07 0.043 684

SC1-2 60.91 7.57 0.102 505
SC1-3 28.53 3.55 0.043 616
SC2-1 29.40 3.66 0.054 605
SC2-2 108.98 13.55 0.164 569
SC2-3 16.69 2.08 0.027 581
SC3-1 7.47 0.93 0.014 656
SC3-2 87.92 10.93 0.128 671
SC3-3 42.45 5.28 0.061 656
SC4-1 11.62 1.44 0.023 652
SC4-2 86.40 10.74 0.140 656
SC4-3 50.99 6.34 0.074 641
SC5-1 14.72 1.83 0.028 720
SC5-2 71.23 8.86 0.110 704
SC5-3 24.32 3.02 0.039 676
OV1-2 24.76 4.02 0.041 282
OV1-3 10.44 1.70 0.019 332
OV1-4 52.73 8.56 0.086 335
OV2-2 18.70 3.04 0.032 315
OV2-3 60.82 9.88 0.116 339
OV2-4 6.37 1.03 0.011 335
OV3-2 51.59 8.38 0.080 353
OV3-3 6.39 1.04 0.011 372
OV3-4 60.60 9.84 0.090 384
OV4-2 35.30 5.73 0.050 330
OV4-3 3.41 0.55 0.006 356
OV4-4 45.10 7.32 0.071 359
OV5-2 21.39 3.47 0.033 335
OV5-3 4.85 0.79 0.008 377
OV5-4 12.57 2.04 0.019 382

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Ekengård et al. Distribution of metal droplets in top slags during ladle treatment

fact are larger than the total droplet surface area in two of
the Ovako Steel heats after degassing. Despite this, the
results from the Scana Steel heats and the Ovako Steel
heats before degassing show that this is an area to consider
when, for example, calculating impurity removal rates. In
considering equation (1), the equation for determining
removal rates using the two film theory, the interfacial
area A is of critical importance. If this area should be five
times larger, the removal rate would subsequently be five
times higher. And in this case, only DT and DM droplet
sizes are considered. If the larger as well as the smaller
droplets would be taken into account, the surface reaction
area would be increased even more and hence also the
removal rate. This reasoning is valid if it is assumed that
the droplets are replaced with new droplets continuously
throughout the process, which could be expected since the
mixing during the degassing process is intensive.
In the above discussion, the droplets contribution to
the surface reaction area was compared to a flat surface.
During stirring, the slag/steel surface is not flat but more
wave shaped. This also increases the value of the area for
surface reaction in equation (1). Overall, it is clear that
both the non-flat surface shapes of the slag/steel inter-
face as well as the droplet surfaces largely contributed to
an increased reaction area and thus improved kinetic
conditions.

Slag properties during vacuum degassing

4 a ratio of droplet surface area to projected flat ladle In seven of the Scana Steel slags and four of the Ovako
area, Scana Steel (droplet size: 4?7–18?7 mm) and b Steel slags, the actual (measured) temperature and slag
ratio of droplet surface area to projected flat ladle area, composition data were used to determine that a solid
Ovako Steel (droplet size: 4?7–18?7 mm) phase precipitation would take place. These calculations

Table 5 Slag sample precipitated phases (IRSID slag model), calculated viscosities (KTH model) and apparent viscosities
(Roscoe model)

Precipitated Weight Calculated Apparent

phase at precipitated viscosities using KTH viscosities using Roscoe’s
Sample sampling T phase, wt-% model,13 Pa s model,17 Pa s

SC1-1 0.079
SC1-2 0.056
SC1-3 MgO 4.125 0.086 0.095
SC2-1 0.045
SC2-2 MgO 0.585 0.049 0.050
SC2-3 MgO 6.265 0.099 0.117
SC3-1 MgO 0.156 0.064 0.064
SC3-2 0.069
SC3-3 MgO 0.371 0.102 0.103
SC4-1 MgO 4.253 0.072 0.079
SC4-2 MgO 2.099 0.061 0.064
SC4-3 MgO 3.562 0.094 0.103
SC5-1 0.082
SC5-2 0.056
SC5-3 MgO 0.716 0.092 0.094
0V1-2 MgO 1.789 0.065 0.068
0V1-3 MgO 2.115 0.116 0.123
0V1-4 MgO 1.962 0.129 0.137
0V2-2 MgO 2.178 0.072 0.076
0V2-3 MgO 1.678 0.114 0.120
0V2-4 MgO 2.209 0.128 0.136
0V3-2 0.146
0V3-3 0.296
0V3-4 0.257
0V4-2 0.093
0V4-3 0.184
0V4-4 0.199
0V5-2 0.132
0V5-3 0.248
0V5-4 0.232

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 Ekengård et al. Distribution of metal droplets in top slags during ladle treatment

the measured temperatures for all heats. The figure

shows the expected tendency of a higher temperature
leading to a lower viscosity. In comparing the two plants
results, the calculated viscosity values from the Ovako
Steel heats vary significantly more than do the corre-
sponding values from the Scana Steel heats.

Effect of slag viscosity on droplet data

5 Calculated apparent slag viscosity as function of sam-
pling temperature
were made as described earlier with ThermoCalc.17 In
Table 5, the precipitated phases in the slags and
apparent slag viscosities are given. In three of the
Ovako Steel heats, the slag was fully liquid both at the
start and end of degassing. These were experimental
heats, in comparison with the first two that were
reference heats, and therefore had a different slag
composition.
The viscosity is naturally affected by a solid phase in
the liquid matrix. In Fig. 5, the apparent slag viscosities
of the different slag samples were plotted as function of
In Fig. 6, the numbers of metal droplets per mm2 in the
size ranges of DT and DM have been plotted against the
calculated apparent viscosities of the slag samples from
both plants. The difference among the heats is greater
before than after degassing and this could be explained
by the fact that the slag should be more homogeneous
after than before degassing. The general pattern
observed is that before degassing, there are more
droplets and lower viscosities than after degassing.
Slag viscosity is one of several important parameters
that affect the amount of metal dispersed into the slag
phase.4 In this particular study, one explanation of the
results could be that when the temperature decreases
during degassing, both the slag and the steel viscosity
increase. The effects of other parameters such as gas
flow and interfacial tension on the droplet data were not
investigated in this work.
It should also be noted that the Ovako Steel heats in
Fig. 6b and d, where the slag was completely liquid both
before and after degassing (OV3–OV5), were found to
have the lowest number of DT and DM droplets per mm2

6 a number of metal droplets in size range 4?7–9?3 mm in slag as function of slag viscosity (Scana Steel), b number of
metal droplets in size range 4?7–9?3 mm in slag as function of slag viscosity (Ovako Steel), c number of metal droplets
in size range 9?3–18?7 mm in slag as function of slag viscosity (Scana Steel) and d number of metal droplets in size
range 9?3–18?7 mm in slag as function of slag viscosity (Ovako Steel)

Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2008 VOL 35 NO 8 585

Ekengård et al. Distribution of metal droplets in top slags during ladle treatment

after degassing for both the DT and DM size categories.

This can also be seen in Fig. 3b. The relative decrease in
the number of DT and DM droplets for these Ovako heats
was about 80–90%. Results from only one single Scana
Steel heat (SC2) showed a relative decrease in DT and DM
droplets during degassing of the same degree.
Reactions between steel and slag
In order to investigate whether reactions between slag
and steel can promote the formation of steel droplets in
the slag, the study’s steel and slag analyses were used to
determine which reactions occur. In Table 6, the trends
regarding changes in the FeO and MnO contents in the
top slags and aluminium and sulphur concentrations in
the steel melts are presented. An arrow pointing
downwards indicates a decrease and one forwards
indicates no change. To identify the process steps when
discussing these results, they are denoted with A, B
and C as (see also Fig. 1): A: beginning of ladle
treatmentRbefore degassing (samples 1–2); B: degassing
period (samples 2–3); C: end of degassingRafter final
stirring (samples 3– 4).
It can be seen in Table 6 that a significant amount of
reactions take place in process step A in the Scana case
and process step B in both cases. The FeO and MnO
contents in the top slag, as well as aluminium and
sulphur concentrations in the steel bulk, decrease during 7 Average number of droplets per mm2 for five heats
vacuum degassing (period B). The decrease in sulphur sampled at each plant: considered droplet size range
can be expected since the vacuum degassing operation was 4?7–18?7 mm
intentionally is carried out partly to remove sulphur.
From the results in Tables 1 and 2, it can also be seen
that the decrease in dissolved aluminium is partly due to
the reduction of the FeO and MnO oxides. Note also in the top slag is at its maximum and therefore, the
that during the heating and stirring, period C, in the strongest driving forces exist at the interface for the
Ovako Steel case, there are practically no exchange overall reoxidation reactions
reactions taking place between steel and slag. During 3(FeO)slag z2½Al
metal ~3Femetal z(Al2 O3 )slag (6)
this period, only induction stirring is used, which is
known not to create a large mixing between steel and
3(MnO)slag z2½Al
metal ~3½Mn
metal z(Al2 O3 )slag (7)
slag. Furthermore, the slag data in Table 1 show that the
sum of the easily reducible oxides FeO and MnO is as with corresponding Gibbs free energy values
low as 0?5–2?0 wt-% after vacuum degassing, which
means that the driving force for the reaction with DG6o ~{788 388z218:01T½J mol{1
22;23
aluminium dissolved in the steel is not so high.
It should also be mentioned that findings from DG7o ~{377 736z35:631T½J mol{1
2224
investigations carried out by Riboud and Lucas5 suggest
that when oxygen is transferred from the slag phase to Chung and Cramb,25 similarly to Riboud and Lucas,5
the metal/slag interface, the surface tension between the also observed that high reaction rates result in sponta-
slag and metal phases is reduced to approximately zero neous emulsification between slag and steel. The former
and therefore, a great amount of emulsification should also suggested that low viscosity slags should be more
occur between slag and metal. This could be an sensitive to emulsification. Observations in this work
explanation to the greater number of droplets in the seem to confirm their suggestions since the low viscosity
samples taken before vacuum degassing, since more slag samples taken before degassing show a greater
reoxidation takes place during the alloying and stirring quantity of metal droplets in the slag. One explanation
phase A than during the rest of ladle treatment. During to the results of this study is that the reoxidation
periods A and B, the sum of the FeO and MnO contents reactions in equations (6) and (7) are exothermic in
nature and therefore, a local temperature rise would
Table 6 Trends regarding changes in amounts of result in a localised lowering of viscosity and surface
important slag and metal components tension, thereby promoting emulsification.
Scana Steel Ovako Steel
Discussion
A B B C
In Fig. 7, the average numbers of droplets of size 4?7–
FeO Q Q Q R 18?7 mm in each process step are plotted for the two
MnO Q Q Q R plants’ samples. The overall observation that can be
[Al]metal Q Q Q R made is that in the A and C process steps, the number of
[S]metal R Q Q R
droplets increases, while in the B process step, the

586 Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2008 VOL 35 NO 8

 Ekengård et al.
number of droplets decreases for both plants. The
possible reasons for this are addressed in detail below.
Number of droplets
Alloying, heating and stirring (A)
In process step A at Scana Steel, the increase in the
number of droplets could be explained by three main
parameters: electrode heating, exchange reactions
between slag and metal, and gas stirring. Electrode
heating should, according to Alexis,26 cause high
velocities at the slag/metal interface and shear forces,
which could affect the formation of steel droplets in
the slag phase. Owing to alloying with deoxidants,
strong reactions take place between slag and steel,
which lower the interfacial tension between the phases
and contribute to emulsification of the steel into the
slag phase, as discussed earlier. Furthermore, vigorous
argon bubbling during the alloying and stirring
process1–4 in the Scana Steel practice could result in
a greater amount of droplets after process step A. This
has been investigated extensively in experimental
setups using both liquid systems like water and oils
or mercury and more recently, with actual steel and
slag systems.1,2 Mechanisms based on the breakdown
of metal film around the argon bubble as it passes
through the slag/metal interface or in pulling up a jet
of metal into the slag layer as the bubble passes
through the interface have been proposed based on
observations. However, this parameter is hard to
measure. There are flowmeters in the gas stirring
system, but due to leakages and clogging in the system,
these values are not reliable enough to be useful in this
discussion.
Vacuum degassing (B)
During the vacuum degassing step, a decrease in the
number of droplets could be related to any of these
parameters:
(i) vacuum pressure
(ii) gas stirring (Scana Steel) or combined gas and
induction stirring (Ovako Steel)
(iii) temperature loss
(iv) exchange reactions between slag and steel.
The vacuum pressure would probably, because of the
low pressure in the vacuum tank, contribute consider-
ably to the mixing of the slag and metal. Together with
gas stirring, the vacuum pressure would increase the
number of droplets in the slag. But why is the amount
of droplets then decreasing? One explanation may be
that the vigorous mixing of the two phases enhances
the effect of the density differences between the phases
so that the droplets fall back into the steel. Another
explanation may be that because of the temperature
loss, the slag becomes more viscous and the mixing
between the two phases decreases. It is also likely that
the amount of exchange reactions decreases during the
end of the degassing step and therefore, the phases
stabilise and become more homogeneous. Finally, it
should be noted that this is the only process step in
which electrode heating is not used. That could
indicate the importance of electrode heating in metal
droplet formation in slags.
Heating and stirring (C)
In the last process step before casting, for the heats at
Ovako Steel, the electrode heating combined with
Distribution of metal droplets in top slags during ladle treatment
electromagnetic stirring probably has the greatest effect
on the increase in metal droplets. In this process step,
there is no effect of exchange reactions between the slag
and steel as in the earlier process steps as the results in
Table 6 indicate and as discussed earlier. Also as
mentioned earlier, the electrode heating could give rise
to shear forces at the slag/steel interface, which could
affect the formation of steel droplets in the slag phase.26
Since there are very few reactions taking place and no
gas stirring, this would indicate that electrode heating
mainly causes the increase in droplets in the slag during
process step C.
Drop surface area
As explained earlier, the calculation of the removal rate
of impurity elements using the two film theory (equa-
tion (1)) requires an estimation of the interfacial area
between the slag and steel. So far, previously published
studies have used the projected contact area based on
the geometry of a plant ladle when using this theory for
industrial conditions. Note that several authors have
based on physical modelling pointed out that the
interfacial area is larger than the projected area.
Rhamdhani et al.27 determined the size distribution of
metal droplets in slag during the deoxidation reaction
with aluminium in laboratory scale. They found that the
increase in the interfacial area between slag and metal
was more than 300% of the original value during the
reaction. However, to the authors’ knowledge, this is the
first time an interfacial area between metal drops in ladle
slag has been determined statistically for industrial
slag samples. The results from this work show that the
determined interfacial area is larger than the projected
area for the great majority of the samples. In some cases,
the area was 14 times larger than the projected area.
It should also be noted that in this study, only the
metal droplets in slag samples have been determined.
Lachmund et al.8 determined the interfacial area
between dispersed slag droplets and metal in a gas
stirred 185 t ladle and found that the total area was
173 m2. Taking the dimensions of the ladle into account,
the interfacial slag droplet/metal area would then be 20
times larger than the projected slag/metal area. This
means that in the worst scenario, namely, in the samples
taken before vacuum degassing, the interfacial area in
the Scana Steel case would be 27–34 times larger than
the projected area, of which the metal droplet/slag
interfacial area constitutes 35–70%. The interfacial area
in the Ovako Steel case would be 20–30 times larger than
the projected area, of which the metal droplet/slag
interfacial area constitutes 0–50%.
From a practical point of view, this line of reasoning
indicates that it is only possible to use the two film
theory for industrial conditions if the interfacial area can
be determined reliably. Note that the interfacial area
varies between different plants, slag compositions, etc.
Conclusions
A novel study was carried out to determine the metal
droplet distribution in slag samples taken from different
steps of the ladle refining process at Ovako Steel and
Scana Steel. The droplet distributions were determined
using optical light microscopy and the droplets were
classified into different sizes using the Swedish SS111116
Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2008 VOL 35 NO 8 587
Ekengård et al. Distribution of metal droplets in top slags during ladle treatment

standard. The most important specific findings of this Steel for their assistance in the research conducted at the
study are listed below. plants.
1. For both plants, the samples found to contain the
largest amounts of metal droplets were taken at the end References
of process step A (before degassing). The lower 1.
calculated viscosities, higher temperatures, significant 2.
slag–metal interactions as well as strong shear forces at 3.
the steel/slag interface due to electrode heating are 4.
5.
believed to contribute to this result.
2. A large decrease in the amount of metal droplets 6.
was found in the samples taken after vacuum degassing
(process step B) for both plants. A reduction in 7.
temperature (and thereby an increase in viscosity) and 8.
decrease in reaction rates at the end of degassing are two
possible explanations for the decrease. 9.
3. During process step C at Ovako Steel, when only
10.
induction stirring is used and no reactions occur,
electrode heating is believed to be responsible for the 11.
large increase in the number of metal droplets dispersed 12.
in the slag.
4. The number of metal droplets in the slag increased 13.
when electrode heating was used (process steps A and
C), but decreased when no electrode heating was used 14.
(process step B).
15.
5. The total surface area of metal droplets is 3–14
times larger than the projected contact area between slag 16.
and steel in the slag samples taken before vacuum
degassing.
17.
Finally, it is of interest to note that if one assumes that
the interfacial area between slag droplets in steel is 18.
roughly the same as the interfacial area between steel 19.
droplets in slag, the total surface of metal droplets in
20.
slag and slag droplets in steel would be at least 20–34
times greater than the projected slag/metal interfacial 21.
area. This would lead, according to the two film theory,
to a high removal rate. Research on this topic is planned 22.
23.
for the near future.
Acknowledgements 24.
The authors wish to thank the Swedish Steel Producers’ 25.
Association (Jernkontoret) for financial support of this 26.
study and the members of the JK2340 Committee for 27.
their input throughout the course of this work. Many
thanks to the personnel at Scana Björneborg and Ovako
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