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Lesson Outline
 Flowering Principles -
Objectives
 The Flower and Sexual
Reproduction
 Plants with Perfect Flowers
 Plants can be Monoecious
 Plants can be Dioecious
 Flower Development and Time
 Success in Seed Production
 Flower Structure and
Controlled Crosses
 Flowers and the Plant Breeder
Lesson Media Objects
 Flower structures, Plant
Breeding, Cross Pollination,
Making Crosses
 Flower Parts
(Take Passel Quiz)
Flowering Principles
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Plants with Perfect Flowers
We will start our description of flower structure with perfect flowers. Pe
special organs that, 1) make and distribute the male gametes, 2) make th
male gamete.
The most visual component of the flower is the petal. From a human per
plant is often based on the attractiveness of the petals. Insects are also at
nature, plants can benefit from visiting insects to move pollen within and
structure beneath the petals. Sepals can look like the petal but function a
unopened flower.
The petals.
Image by UNL
Perfect flowers will have structures called stamens that produce the polle
of the anthers where the pollen is made and filaments which support the
the female reproductive structures called the pistil. The three main parts
pollen will land, the style where the pollen will grow and the ovary were
the seed develops. An ovary may have several or many ovules. Each ovu
combines with the pollen to form the seed embryo plus other cells that w
and seed coat. The ovary is supported by the pedicel.

The stamen, anther and filament. The pistil.

Image by UNL Image by UNL

View the Flower parts animation

Complete the activity to see if you are learning the nam
by clicking on the animation 'picture' link

(Flower Parts) Animation Link

Animation by UNL

Why do we call flowers with functional male and female parts perfect? T
everything needed to produce a seed by sexual reproduction. The anther
the ovary in the same flower. If ripe pollen lands on a receptive stigma, t
style and the pollen nucleus with all of the genetic information can trave
the egg in the ovule. The ovary protects and nourishes the zygote and su
endosperm and seed coat of the seed.
 Perfect flower with pollen on stigma. Growing pollen tube.
Image by Patricia Hain Image by UNL

See how the flower parts work together to prod

Click on the animation 'picture' link below then click on

Animation Link
Animation by UNL

The parts of a perfect flower will stay the same but there are many versio
example some perfect flowers have a structure that keeps the stamens se
visits the flower. When a bee, for example, explores the flower for necto
springs the stamen. This showers the insect with pollen, which it will ca
these kinds of flowers promote cross pollination, the pollen from one pla
Other perfect flowers promote self pollination where the anther efficient
mature at the same time. Some plants have perfect flowers but the pollen
from the same plant. These plants have self-incompatible flowers and m
 Oat flowers self pollinate because
Can you spot the pollinator?
of their perfect structure.
Image by Don Lee
Image by Don Lee

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This project was supported in part by the National Research Initiative Competitive Grants CAP
project 2011-68002-30029 from the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture,
adminstered by the University of California-Davis and by the National Science Foundation
(NSF), Division of Undergraduate Education, National SMETE Digital Library Program, Award
#0938034, administered by the University of Nebraska. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or
recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not
necessarily reflect the views of the USDA or NSF.

Copyright Plant and Soil Sciences eLibrary 2017. All Rights Reserved.

2. With or without sepals and petals, a flower that has both stamen and pistil is called a perfect
flower. Thus, all compete flowers are prefect, but not all perfect flowersare complete. In
contrast, flowers that have only stamens or only pistils are calledimperfect flowers.

Flower Types
 Yellow hibiscus flower

The flower is the most distinctive feature of the phylum Anthophyta, commonly referred to as angiosperms
or flowering plants, and is responsible in making them the most dominant, diverse, and widespread of all
groups of plants.

There are already about 250,000 species of flowering plants that have been discovered and named. The
basis for their diversity comes from their incredible reproductive success in a wide variety of habitats.

The success of this group is also reflected by the diversity of their flowers that show astonishing displays
of different forms, sizes, shapes, and colors—all of these to lure pollinators and effect sexual
reproduction.

Flowers are considered as an organ system because they are made up of two or more sets, or whorls, of
leaflike structures. A typical flower is composed of four whorls, which are the sepals, petals, stamens, and
a pistil with one or more carpels. Much of the variation among flowers is based on variation of these basic
parts.

Complete and Incomplete Flowers

A flower that has all four whorls of floral parts is said to be a complete flower (such as the hibiscus and
the lily). An incomplete flower lacks any one or more of these parts (such as those of elms, willows, oaks,
and plantains).

With or without sepals and petals, a flower that has both stamen and pistil is called a perfect flower. Thus,
all compete flowers are prefect, but not all perfect flowers are complete. In contrast, flowers that have
only stamens or only pistils are called imperfect flowers.

Unisexual and Bisexual Flowers

Unisexual flowers are either staminate (bearing stamens only) or pistillate (bearing pistils only) and are
said to be imperfect. Bisexual flowers are perfect because they have both stamens and pistil.

When staminate and pistillate flowers occur on the same individual, the plant is called monoecious
(examples include corn and the walnut tree). When staminate and pistillate flowers are borne on separate
individual flowers, the plant is said to be dioecious (examples include asparagus and willow).

Superior or Inferior Ovaries

 Tulips

The position of the ovary also varies among different flower types. A flower has a superior ovary when the
base of the ovary is located above where the sepals, petals, and stamens are attached. This point of
attachment is referred to as the receptacle or hypanthium, the fused bases of the three floral parts
(tulips and St. John’s wort are examples).

An inferior flower has an ovary below where the sepals, petals, and stamens are attached (as do daffodils
and sabatia). Some flowers show an intermediate type, where the receptacle partly surrounds the ovary;
the petals and stamens branch from the receptacle about halfway up the ovary (as in cherry, peach, and
almond flowers).

Hypogynous, Epigynous, and Perigynous Flowers

The position of the ovary in relation to the attachment of floral parts also varies from superior to inferior
ovaries. Flowers in which the sepals, petals, and stamens are attached below the ovary are called
hypogynous, and the ovaries of such flowers are said to be superior (as in pelargonium and silene).

narcissus flowers

Flowers in which the sepals, petals, and stamens appear to be attached to the upper part of the ovary
due to the fusion of the hypanthium are called epigynous, and the ovaries of such flowers are said to be
inferior (as in cornus and narcissus).

Flowers in which the hypanthium forms a cuplike or tubular structure that partly surrounds the ovary are
called perigynous. In such flowers, the sepals, petals, and stamens are attached to the rim of the
hypanthium, and the ovaries of such flowers are superior.

Fused and Distinct Floral Parts

The parts of a flower may be free or united. Fusion of like parts (such as petals united to petals) is called
connation. When like parts are not fused, they are said to be distinct (one petal is distinct from another
petal).

Fusion of unlike parts (stamens united to petals) is called adnation, and the contrasting condition is called
free (stamens are free from petals). Fused structures may be united from the moment of origin on ward,
or they may initially be separate and grow together as one later in development.

Regular and Irregular Flowers

In many flowers, the petals of similar shape radiate from the center of the flower and are equidistant from
one another. Such flowers are said to have regular or radial symmetry.

In these cases, even though there may be an uneven number of sepals and petals, any line drawn
through the center of the flower will divide it into two similar halves. The halves are either
exact duplicates or mirror images of each other. Flowers with radial symmetry are also called
actinomorphic flowers (examples: stonecrop, morning glory).

Flowers with irregular or bilateral symmetry have parts arranged in such a way that only one line can
divide the flower into equal halves that are more or less mirror images of each other. Flowers with
bilateral symmetry are also called zygomorphic flowers (examples: mint, pea, snapdragon). A few flowers
have no plane of symmetry and are referred to as asymmetrical.
Corolla Shapes

Corolla is the collective term for all the petals of a single flower. This is usually the showy part of the
flower. In fused corollas, any extension of the petal beyond its fused part is called the limb.

The tubelike structure where the petals are united at the bottom of the fused corollas is called the tube.
The opening at the top of the tube in fused corollas is called the throat.

In the following different types of corolla shapes, numbers 1 to 6 are actinomorphic, while numbers 7 to
11 are zygomorphic.
1. Rotate: wheel-shaped with a short tube and large limb (example: bluets).
2. Campanulate: bell-shaped with an extended, flaring tube (example: bellflower).
 3. Funnelform: funnel-shaped with a continuously expanding tube and little flaring (example:
bindweeds).
4. Tubular: an elongated tube with minimal limb (example: trumpet vine).
5. Salverform: an elongated tube with a conspicuous limb, trumpet-shaped
(examples:Russian olive, morning glory).
6. Urceolate: an inflated tubewith a terminal constriction, urn-shaped (example: highbush
blueberry).
7. Bilabiate: two-lipped, usually because of the presence of a landing platform formed by
basal lobes (examples: snapdragon, salvia).
8. Ligulate: petals connate at the margins to form a strap-shaped corolla (example: asters).
9. Galeate: helmet-shaped(example: pedicularis).
10. Spurred: with an extension or spur that often produces nectaries (examples: impatiens,
utricularia).
11. Papilionaceous: like a butterfly with a central standard petal and lateral wing petal
(example: lupines).

Flowers of Monocots and Dicots

Floral variation provides part of the basis for dividing the flowering plants into two major groups: the
dicotyledons and the monocotyledons.

The informal name “dicot” is given to plants having two cotyledons (seed leaves) in each seed; “monocot”
refers to plants that have one cotyledon in the seed. In monocots, the flower parts occur in threes or
multiples of three; for example, three sepals, three petals, six stamens, and a pistil with three carpels.

In dicots, flower parts usually occur in fours or fives or multiples of four or five. Although dicots and
monocots may have other numbers of floral parts, many other features are unique to each group.

Dicots include about 80 percent of all angiosperm species, including many herbaceous plants and all
woody, flower-bearing trees and shrubs. Monocots are primarily herbaceous, but they also include some
trees, such as palms and Joshua trees.

Types of Inflorescence

Flowers may be solitary, or they may be grouped together in an inflorescence, a cluster of flowers. An
inflorescence has one main stalk, or peduncle. It may also bear numerous smaller stalks called pedicels,
each with a flower at its tip.

The arrangement of pedicels on a peduncle characterizes different kinds of inflorescences. Some of the
common types of inflorescences are as follows:
 Spike: The flowers,which are with a very short or with no pedicel, are attached along the elongate
and unbranched peduncle of the inflorescence (examples: plantain, spearmint, tamarisk).
 Raceme: The flowers are with pedicels of about the same length, which are attached along the
elongate and unbranched peduncle of the inflorescence (examples: lily of the valley, snap-dragon,
mustard, currant). The oldest flowers are at the base of the inflorescence and the youngest at the apex.
 Panicle: The flowers are with pedicels, which are attached along the branches arising from the
peduncle of the inflorescence (examples: oats, rice, fescue).
 Corymb: The flowers arewith pedicels of unequal length,which are attached along an
unbranched, elongate peduncle, forming a flat-topped inflorescence (examples: hawthorne, apple,
dogwood).
 Umbel: The flowers are with pedicles, which are all attached at about the same point at the end of
the peduncle—this is specifically called a simple umbel (examples: onion, geranium,milkweed). A
compound umbel is formed when the peduncle produces branches that end at approximately the same
level, forming a flat top, and the ends of these branches arise from a common point (examples: carrot,
dill, parsley).
 Head: The flowers do not have pedicels, and they all cluster tightly on the expanded tip of the
peduncle (examples: sunflower, daisy, marigold). This type of inflorescence is also referred to as
capitulum.
 Cyme:The flowerswith pedicels are located at the ends of the peduncle and lateral branches as
well as along the length of the lateral branches. The youngest flowers in any cluster occur farthest from
the tip of the peduncle (example: chickweed).
 Catkin: The flowers have no pedicels, are unisexual (either staminate or pistillate), and are
attached along the length of the peduncle (examples: hazelnut, willow, birch, walnut). The flowers are
usually very small and fall as a group. This type of inflorescence is also referred to as ament.
 Spadix: The flowers have no pedicels and are attached along the length of the thickened or fleshy
peduncle, which is enveloped by a conspicuously colored bract called a spathe (example: philodendron,
anthurium).

Some types of inflorescences characterize different groups of plants. For example, nearly all members of
the carrot family (Apiaceae) have compound umbels. All members of the sunflower family (Asteraceae)
have heads, including chrysanthemums, zinnias, marigolds, and dandelions. All members of the arum
family (Araceae) have a spadix inflorescence.

3.

Petal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Petal (disambiguation).

Diagram showing the parts of a mature flower. In this example the perianth is separated into a calyx (sepals)
and corolla (petals)

Petals are modified leaves that surround the reproductive parts of flowers. They are often brightly
colored or unusually shaped to attract pollinators. Together, all of the petals of a flower are called
a corolla. Petals are usually accompanied by another set of special leaves called sepals, that
collectively form the calyx and lie just beneath the corolla. The calyx and the corolla together make
up the perianth. When the petals and sepals of a flower are difficult to distinguish, they are
collectively called tepals. Examples of plants in which the term tepal is appropriate
include genera such as Aloe and Tulipa. Conversely, genera such as Rosa and Phaseolus have
 well-distinguished sepals and petals. When the undifferentiated tepals resemble petals, they are
referred to as "petaloid", as in petaloid monocots, orders of monocots with brightly coloured tepals.
Since they include Liliales, an alternative name is lilioid monocots.
Although petals are usually the most conspicuous parts of animal-pollinated flowers, wind-pollinated
species, such as the grasses, either have very small petals or lack them entirely.

Tetrameric flower of a Primrose willowherb (Ludwigia octovalvis) showing petals and sepals

A Tulip's actinomorphic flower with three petals and three sepals, that collectively present a good example of
an undifferentiated perianth. In this case, the word "tepals" is used.

Contents
[hide]

 1Corolla
 2Variations
 3Genetics
 4Significance of pollination
 5Functions and purposes
o 5.1Function
o 5.2Scent
o 5.3Colour
o 5.4Shape and size
 6Types of pollination
o 6.1Wind pollination
o 6.2Attracting insects
o 6.3Attracting birds
o 6.4Bat-pollinated flowers
 7References
 8Bibliography

Corolla[edit]

Corolla forming a tube with long points (and a separate green calyx tube)

The role of the corolla in plant evolution has been studied extensively since Charles
Darwin postulated a theory of the origin of elongated corollae and corolla tubes.[1]
A corolla of separate tepals is apopetalous. If the petals are free from one another in the corolla, the
plant is polypetalous or choripetalous; while if the petals are at least partially fused together, it
is gamopetalous or sympetalous. In the case of fused tepals, the term is syntepalous. The corolla in
some plants forms a tube.

Variations[edit]

Pelargonium peltatum: its floral structure is almost identical to that of geraniums, but it is conspicuously
zygomorphic
Geranium incanum, with an actinomorphic flower typical of the genus

White pea, a zygomorphic flower

Narcissus pseudonarcissus, showing from the bend to the tip of the flower: spathe, floral cup, tepals, corona

Petals can differ dramatically in different species. The number of petals in a flower may hold clues to
a plant's classification. For example, flowers on eudicots (the largest group of dicots) most frequently
have four or five petals while flowers on monocots have three or six petals, although there are many
exceptions to this rule.[2]
The petal whorl or corolla may be either radially or bilaterally symmetrical (see Symmetry in
biologyand Floral symmetry). If all of the petals are essentially identical in size and shape, the flower
is said to be regular or actinomorphic (meaning "ray-formed"). Many flowers are symmetrical in
only one plane (i.e., symmetry is bilateral) and are termed irregular or zygomorphic (meaning
"yoke-" or "pair-formed"). In irregular flowers, other floral parts may be modified from
the regular form, but the petals show the greatest deviation from radial symmetry. Examples
of zygomorphic flowers may be seen in orchids and members of the pea family.
In many plants of the aster family such as the sunflower, Helianthus annuus, the circumference of
the flower head is composed of ray florets. Each ray floret is anatomically an individual flower with a
single large petal. Florets in the centre of the disc typically have no or very reduced petals. In some
plants such as Narcissus the lower part of the petals or tepals are fused to form a floral cup
(hypanthium) above the ovary, and from which the petals proper extend.[3][4][5]
Petal often consists of two parts: the upper, broad part, similar to leaf blade, also called
the blade and the lower part, narrow, similar to leaf petiole, called the claw, separated from each
other at the limb. Claws are developed in petals of some flowers of the family Brassicaceae, such
as Erysimum cheiri.[6]
The inception and further development of petals shows a great variety of patterns.[7] Petals of
different species of plants vary greatly in colour or colour pattern, both in visible light and in
ultraviolet. Such patterns often function as guides to pollinators, and are variously known as nectar
guides, pollen guides, and floral guides.

Genetics[edit]
The genetics behind the formation of petals, in accordance with the ABC model of flower
development, are that sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels are modified versions of each other. It
appears that the mechanisms to form petals evolved very few times (perhaps only once), rather than
evolving repeatedly from stamens.[8]

Significance of pollination[edit]
Pollination is an important step in the sexual reproduction of higher plants. Pollen is produced by the
male flower or by the male organs of hermaphroditic flowers.
Pollen does not move on its own and thus requires wind or animal pollinators to disperse the pollen
to the stigma (botany) of the same or nearby flowers. However, pollinators are rather selective in
determining the flowers they choose to pollinate. This develops competition between flowers and as
a result flowers must provide incentives to appeal to pollinators (unless the flower self-pollinates or is
involved in wind pollination). Petals play a major role in competing to attract pollinators. Henceforth
pollination dispersal could occur and the survival of many species of flowers could prolong.

Functions and purposes[edit]

Petals have various functions and purposes depending on the type of plant. In general, petals
operate to protect some parts of the flower and attract/repel specific pollinators.
Function[edit]
This is where the positioning of the flower petals are located on the flower is the corolla e.g. the
buttercup having shiny yellow flower petals which contain guidelines amongst the petals in aiding the
pollinator towards the nectar. Pollinators have the ability to determine specific flowers they wish to
pollinate.[9] Using incentives flowers draw pollinators and set up a mutual relation between each other
in which case the pollinators will remember to always guard and pollinate these flowers (unless
incentives are not consistently met and competition prevails).[10]
Scent[edit]
The petals could produce different scents to allure desirable pollinators[citation needed] or repel undesirable
pollinators.[citation needed] Some flowers will also mimic the scents produced by materials such as
decaying meat, to attract pollinators to them.[11]
Colour[edit]
Various colour traits are used by different petals that could attract pollinators that have poor smelling
abilities, or that only come out at certain parts of the day. Some flowers are able to change the
colour of their petals as a signal to mutual pollinators to approach or keep away.[12]
Shape and size[edit]
Furthermore, the shape and size of the flower/petals is important in selecting the type of pollinators
they need. For example, large petals and flowers will attract pollinators at a large distance or that are
large themselves.[12] Collectively the scent, colour and shape of petals all play a role in
attracting/repelling specific pollinators and providing suitable conditions for pollinating. Some
pollinators include insects, birds, bats and the wind.[12] In some petals, a distinction can be made
between a lower narrowed, stalk-like basal part referred to as the claw, and a wider distal part
referred to as the blade. Often the claw and blade are at an angle with one another.

Types of pollination[edit]
Wind pollination[edit]
Main article: Anemophily

Wind-pollinated flowers often have small dull petals and produce little or no scent. Some of these
flowers will often have no petals at all. Flowers that depend on wind pollination will produce large
amounts of pollen because most of the pollen scattered by the wind tends to not reach other
flowers.[13]
Attracting insects[edit]
Flowers have various regulatory mechanisms in order to attract insects. One such helpful
mechanism is the use of colour guiding marks. Insects such as the bee or butterfly can see the
ultraviolet marks which are contained on these flowers, acting as an attractive mechanism which is
not visible towards the human eye. Many flowers contain a variety of shapes acting to aid with the
landing of the visiting insect and also influence the insect to brush against anthers and stigmas
(parts of the flower). One such example of a flower is the pōhutukawa (Metrosideros excelsa) which
acts to regulate colour within a different way. The pōhutukawa contains small petals also having
bright large red clusters of stamens.[12]Another attractive mechanism for flowers is the use of scent
which is highly attractive towards humans such as the rose, but some are very fragrant within
attracting flies as they have a smell of rotting meat. Dark is another factor in which flowers have
grown to adapt these conditions so colour lacks vision at night therefore scent is the solution for
flowers which are pollinated by night flying insects such as the moth.[12]
Attracting birds[edit]
Flowers are also pollinated by birds and must be large and colorful to be visible against natural
scenery. Such bird –pollinated native plants include: Kōwhai (Sophora species), flax (Phormium
tenax, harakeke) and kākā beak (Clianthus puniceus, kōwhai ngutu-kākā). Interestingly enough,
flowers adapt the mechanism on their petals to change colour in acting as a communicative
mechanism for the bird to visit. An example is the tree fuchsia (Fuchsia excorticata, kōtukutuku)
which are green when needing to be pollinated and turn red for the birds to stop coming and
pollinating the flower.[12]
Bat-pollinated flowers[edit]
Flowers can be pollinated by short tailed bats. An example of this is the dactylanthus (Dactylanthus
taylorii). This plant has its home under the ground acting the role of a parasite on the roots of forest
trees. The dactylanthus has only its flowers pointing to the surface and the flowers lack colour but
have the advantage of containing lots of nectar and a very strong scent. These act as a very useful
mechanism in attracting the bat.[14]

References[edit]
1. Jump up^ L. Anders Nilsson (1988). "The evolution of flowers with deep corolla
tubes". Nature. 334 (6178): 147–149. Bibcode:1988Natur.334..147N. doi:10.1038/334147a0.
2. Jump up^ Soltis, Pamela S.; Douglas E. Soltis (2004). "The origin and diversification of
angiosperms". American Journal of Botany. 91 (10): 1614–
1626. PMID 21652312. doi:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1614.
3. Jump up^ Simpson 2011, p. 365.
4. Jump up^ Foster 2014, Hypanthium.
5. Jump up^ Graham, S. W.; Barrett, S. C. H. (1 July 2004). "Phylogenetic reconstruction of the evolution
of stylar polymorphisms in Narcissus (Amaryllidaceae)". American Journal of Botany. 91 (7): 1007–
1021. PMID 21653457. doi:10.3732/ajb.91.7.1007. Retrieved 25 October 2014.
6. Jump up^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Flower". Encyclopædia Britannica. 10: Evangelical Church
– Francis Joseph I. (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
7. Jump up^ Sattler, R. 1973. Organogenesis of Flowers. A Photographic Text-Atlas. University of
Toronto Press.
8. Jump up^ Rasmussen, D. A.; Kramer, E. M.; Zimmer, E. A. (2008). "One size fits all? Molecular
evidence for a commonly inherited petal identity program in Ranunculales". American Journal of
Botany. 96 (1): 96–109. PMID 21628178. doi:10.3732/ajb.0800038.
9. Jump up^ Cares-Suarez, R, Poch, T, Acevedo, R.F, Acosta-Bravo, I, Pimentel, C, Espinoza, C, Cares,
R.A, Munoz, P, Gonzalez, A.V, Botto-Mahan, C (2011) Do pollinators respond in a dose-dependent
manner to flower herbivory?: An experimental assessment in Loasa tricolor (Loasaceae). Gayana
Botanica, Volume 68, Pages 176-181
10. Jump up^ Chamberlain S.A; Rudgers J.A (2012). "How do plants balance multiple mutualists?
Correlations among traits for attracting protective bodyguards and pollinators in cotton
(Gossypium)". Evolutionary Ecology. 26: 65–77. doi:10.1007/s10682-011-9497-3.
11. Jump up^ More, M, Cocucci, A.A, Raguso, R.A (2013). "The importance of oligosulfides in the
attraction of fly pollinators to the brood-site deceptive species Jaborosa
rotacea(Solanaceae)". International Journal of Plant Sciences. 174: 863–876. doi:10.1086/670367.
12. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Science Learning Hub. (2012). The University of Waikato. "Attracting pollinators".
Date Retrieved: August 2013. [1]
13. Jump up^ Donald R. Whitehead (1969). "Wind Pollination in the Angiosperms: Evolutionary and
Environmental Considerations". Evolution. 23 (1): 28–35. doi:10.2307/2406479.
14. Jump up^ Physics.org (2012). University of Adelaide. "Flightless parrots, burrowing bats helped
parasitic Hades flower". Date Retrieved August 2013. [2]

Bibliography[edit]
 Simpson, Michael G. (2011). Plant Systematics. Academic Press. ISBN 0-08-051404-9.
 Foster, Tony. "Botany Word of the Day". Phytography. Retrieved 27 November 2014.
 Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Petals.

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 Vacuole

 Meristem

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 Vascular bundle

Tissues Ground tissue

 Mesophyll

 Cork

 Wood
y
 Storage organs
)

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Vegetative
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Reproductive Flower development

(Flower) Inflorescence
 Umbel
 Raceme

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  Gynandrium

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structures Stoma

 Nectary

 Trichome

 Prickle

 Nutrition

 Photosynthesis

 Chlorophyll

 Plant hormone

y Transpiration

s Turgor pressure

 Bulk flow

 Aleurone

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 Sugar

 Sap
 Starch
 Cellulose

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t

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n

n
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y
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Sepal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Diagram showing the parts of a mature flower. In this example the perianth is separated into a calyx (sepals)
and corolla (petals)

Tetramerous flower of Ludwigia octovalvis showing petals and sepals.

After blooming, the sepals of Hibiscus sabdariffa expand into an edible accessory fruit
In many Fabaceae flowers, a calyx tube surrounds the petals.

A sepal (/ˈsɛpəl/ or /ˈsiːpəl/)[1][2][3] is a part of the flower of angiosperms (flowering plants). Usually
green, sepals typically function as protection for the flower in bud, and often as support for
the petals when in bloom.[4] The term sepalum was coined by Noël Martin Joseph de Necker in 1790,
and derived from the Greek σκεπη (skepi), a covering.[5][6]
Collectively the sepals are called the calyx (plural calyces),[7] the outermost whorl of parts that form a
flower. The word calyxwas adopted from the Latin calyx,[8] not to be confused with calix, a cup or
goblet.[9] Calyx derived from the Greek κάλυξ (kalyx), a bud, a calyx, a husk or wrapping, (cf
Sanskrit kalika, a bud)[10] while calix derived from the Greek κυλιξ (kylix), a cup or goblet, and the
words have been used interchangeably in botanical Latin.[11]
After flowering, most plants have no more use for the calyx which withers or becomes vestigial.
Some plants retain a thorny calyx, either dried or live, as protection for the fruit or seeds. Examples
include species of Acaena, some of the Solanaceae(for example the Tomatillo, Physalis
philadelphica), and the water caltrop, Trapa natans. In some species the calyx not only persists after
flowering, but instead of withering, begins to grow until it forms a bladder-like enclosure around the
fruit. This is an effective protection against some kinds of birds and insects, for example in Hibiscus
trionum and the Cape gooseberry.
Morphologically, both sepals and petals are modified leaves. The calyx (the sepals) and the corolla
(the petals) are the outer sterile whorls of the flower, which together form what is known as
the perianth.[12]
The term tepal is usually applied when the parts of the perianth are difficult to distinguish,[13] e.g. the
petals and sepals share the same color, or the petals are absent and the sepals are colorful. When
the undifferentiated tepals resemble petals, they are referred to as "petaloid", as in petaloid
monocots, orders of monocots with brightly coloured tepals. Since they include Liliales, an
alternative name is lilioid monocots. Examples of plants in which the term tepal is appropriate
include genera such as Aloe and Tulipa. In contrast, genera such as Rosa and Phaseolus have well-
distinguished sepals and petals.[citation needed]
The number of sepals in a flower is its merosity. Flower merosity is indicative of a plant's
classification. The merosity of a eudicot flower is typically four or five. The merosity of
a monocot or palaeodicot flower is three, or a multiple of three.
The development and form of the sepals vary considerably among flowering plants.[14] They may be
free (polysepalous) or fused together (gamosepalous).[15] Often, the sepals are much reduced,
appearing somewhat awn-like, or as scales, teeth, or ridges. Most often such structures protrude
until the fruit is mature and falls off.
Examples of flowers with much reduced perianths are found among the grasses.
In some flowers, the sepals are fused towards the base, forming a calyx tube (as in
the Lythraceae family,[16] and Fabaceae). In other flowers (e.g., Rosaceae, Myrtaceae)
a hypanthium includes the bases of sepals, petals, and the attachment points of the stamens.

References[edit]
1. Jump up^ From French sépale, from New Latin sepalum, blend of sep- from Greek skepē, "a covering"
and -alum from New Latin petalum, "petal", influenced by French pétale "petal".
2. Jump up^ "Oxford dictionary".
3. Jump up^ "Collins dictionary".
4. Jump up^ Beentje, Henk (2010). The Kew Plant Glossary. Richmond, Surrey: Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew. ISBN 978-1-84246-422-9, p. 106
5. Jump up^ Stearn, William T. (2000). Botanical Latin, 4th ed.: 38-39. ISBN 0-88192-321-4
6. Jump up^ Necker, N.J. de (1790). Corollarium ad Philosophiam botanicam Linnaei 18, 31
7. Jump up^ Shorter Oxford English dictionary, 6th ed. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. 2007.
p. 3804. ISBN 0199206872.
8. Jump up^ Jackson, Benjamin, Daydon; A Glossary of Botanic Terms with their Derivation and Accent;
Published by Gerald Duckworth & Co. London, 4th ed 1928
9. Jump up^ John Entick, William Crakelt, Tyronis thesaurus, or, Entick's new Latin English dictionary.
Publisher: E.J. Coale, 1822
10. Jump up^ Tucker, T. G. (1931). A Concise Etymological Dictionary of Latin. Halle (Saale): Max Niemeyer Verlag.
11. Jump up^ Stearn, William T. (2000). Botanical Latin, 4th ed.: 38
12. Jump up^ Davis, P.H.; Cullen, J. (1979). The identification of flowering plant families, including a key to those
native and cultivated in north temperate regions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 106. ISBN 0-521-
29359-6.
13. Jump up^ Beentje 2010, p. 119
14. Jump up^ Sattler, R. 1973. Organogenesis of Flowers. A Photographic Text-Atlas. University of
Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-1864-5.
15. Jump up^ Beentje 2010, pp. 51 & 91.
16. Jump up^ Carr, Gerald. "Lythraceae". University of Hawaii. Archived from the original on 2008-12-05.
Retrieved 2008-12-20.

See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Sepals.

 Plant morphology

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Botany
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Plant cells
y  Plastid
)  Plasmodesmata

 Vacuole

Tissues
 Meristem
  Vascular tissue

 Vascular bundle

 Ground tissue

 Mesophyll

 Cork

 Wood

 Storage organs

 Root

 Rhizoid

 Bulb

 Rhizome

 Shoot

 Stem
Vegetative
 Leaf

 Petiole

 Cataphyll

 Bud

 Sessility

 Flower development

 Inflorescence

 Umbel

 Raceme

Reproductive Bract

(Flower) Pedicellate

 Flower

 Whorl
 Floral symmetry
 Floral diagram

 Floral formula

 Receptacle

 Hypanthium (Floral cup)

 Perianth

 Tepal

 Petal

 Sepal

 Sporophyll

 Gynoecium

 Ovary

 Ovule

 Stigma

 Archegonium

 Androecium

 Stamen

 Staminode

 Pollen

 Tapetum

 Gynandrium

 Gametophyte

 Sporophyte

 Plant embryo

 Fruit

 Fruit anatomy

 Berry
 Capsule
  Seed

 Seed dispersal

 Endosperm

 Epicuticular wax

 Plant cuticle

Surface Epidermis

structures Stoma

 Nectary

 Trichome
 Prickle

 Nutrition

 Photosynthesis

 Chlorophyll

 Plant hormone

 Transpiration
y
 Turgor pressure
s
 Bulk flow

 Aleurone

 Phytomelanin

 Sugar

 Sap

 Starch

 Cellulose

 Secondary growth

 Woody plants

t Herbaceous plants

 Habit

 Vines

 Lianas
 Shrubs

 Subshrubs

 Trees

 Succulent plants

 Alternation of generations

 Sporangium

 Spore
 Microsporangia

 Microspore

 Megasporangium

 Megaspore

n

 Pollination
n
 Pollinators
y
 Pollen tube

 Double fertilization

 Germination

 Evolutionary development

 Evolutionary history

 timeline

 Hardiness zone

 History of plant systematics

y Herbarium
 Biological classification

 Botanical nomenclature
 Botanical name

 Correct name

 Author citation

 International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN)

 - for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)

 Taxonomic rank

 International Association for Plant Taxonomy (IAPT)

 Plant taxonomy systems

 Cultivated plant taxonomy

 Citrus taxonomy

 cultigen

 cultivar

 Group

 grex

 Agronomy

e Floriculture

 Forestry

 Horticulture

 Botanical terms

 Botanists
s by author abbreviation
s

 Botanical expedition

 Category

 Commons

 Portal

 WikiProject
Categories:
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
4.

No 1 perigonium -
un . collective term for the outer parts of a flower consisting of the calyx and coroll
aand enclosing the stamens and pistils
chlamys, floral envelope, perianth, perigone
covering, natural covering, cover -
a natural object that covers or envelops; "under acovering of dust"; "the fox w
as flushed from its cover"
blossom, flower, bloom -
reproductive organ of angiosperm plants especially onehaving showy or colorf
ul parts
corolla -
(botany) the whorl of petals of a flower that collectively form an inner floral envelope or layer of the
perianth; "we cultivate the flower for its corolla"
calyx -
(botany) the whorl of sepals of a flower collectively forming the outer floral envelope or layer of thep
erianth enclosing and supporting the developing bud; usually green
falls - the petals or sepals of a flower that bend downward (especially the outer perianth of an iris)
plant organ - a functional and structural unit of a plant or fungus

perigonium (plural perigonia)

1. (botany) The sterile parts of a flower; collectively, the sepals and petals (or tepals);
the perianth.
 2. (botany) The modified leaves around the antheridia in a bryophytic plant.
3. (dated, zoology) The wall of the sporosac in a hydroid.

https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=what+makes+a+flower+perfect&oq=what+makes+a+flower+
p&aqs=chrome.1.69i57j0l5.6999j0j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8
http://passel.unl.edu/pages/informationmodule.php?idinformationmodule=1087230040&topicorder=
3&maxto=9
http://lifeofplant.blogspot.com/2011/04/flower-types.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tepal

http://www.thefreedictionary.com/perigonium
https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/perigonium