REVIEW OF SOIL

MECHANICS
Chapter 1
Content
 Flow of Water In Soil
 Effective Stress Concept
 Stresses in a Soil Mass
 Stresses due to Surface Loads
 Compressibility of Soil
 Shear Strength of Soil
FLOW OF WATER IN SOIL
SOIL
assemblage of solid particles with
interconnected voids through which water can flow
from a point of high energy to a point of low energy.

Significance:

Estimation of the quantity of

underground seepage

Planning of pumping of water for

underground construction

Stability analysis of earth dams and

retaining structures subject to
seepage forces
 Hydraulic Head

For a very porous medium such as soil…

Relationship between Pressure,
Elevation and Total Head
The headloss between
point A and B is given by:
Hydraulic Gradient
Nature of variation of velocity with
hydraulic gradient

In most soils, flow of water is within the laminar zone : vai

Darcy’s Law
EFFECTIVE STRESS CONCEPTS

Significance:

Compressibility
Bearing Capacity
Stability of Embankments
Lateral Earth Pressures on Retaining
Structures
Stress in Saturated Soil Without
Seepage
QUESTION:

WHAT IS THE TOTAL STRESS

AT POINT A?
TOTAL
STRESS
EFFECTIVE STRESS
Portion carried - the sum of the vertical components of
the forces develop at the points of contact
by water in the
of the solid particles per unit cross
void spaces sectional area.

Portion carried
by the soil solids
at their points of
contact
Effective Stress

P1(V )  P2(V )  P3(V )    PN

 '
A

where: P1(V) … PN(V) – the vertical component of P1 … PN

A – cross-sectional area of soil mass
 Total Stress Formulation

Let
as - fraction of the unit cross-sectional area
occupied by the solid-to-solid contact

Such that
as = as1 + as2 + as3 + … + an

Then
(1-as) - the fraction of the space occupied by water
 Total Stress Formulation
Expressing the total stress in terms of effective stress and
pore water pressure,
   '  u 1  as 

For practical problems, the value of as is very small and can be

neglected,

 '  u
Effective Stress Formulation

 '  u

Manipulating these equations,

 '  H A  H  ( SAT   W )
 Height of soil column  '
Variation of σ, σ’ and u with depth for a
submerged soil layer without seepage…
Variation of σ, σ’ and u with depth for a
submerged soil layer without seepage…
Stress in Saturated Soil With Seepage
Case 1: UPWARD SEEPAGE
Stress in Saturated Soil With Seepage
Case 1: UPWARD SEEPAGE
Stress in Saturated Soil With Seepage
Case 1: UPWARD SEEPAGE
Stress in Saturated Soil With Seepage
Case 2: DOWNWARD SEEPAGE

At any point C,
 Seepage Force
Effect of
Effective Effective
Case Seepage
Stress Force
Force
No Seepage
P1A = zγ’A
zγ’

Upward Seepage Decrease

P2A = in total
zγ’- izγW force by:
( zγ’- izγW)A
izγWA

Downward Seepage Increase in

P2A = total force
zγ’+ izγW
( zγ’+ izγW)A by:

izγWA
PROBLEM I
Calculate the total stress, pore water pressure and effective
stress at points A, B and C.
PROBLEM 2
A 20-ft thick layer of stiff saturated clay is underlain by a layer
of sand. The sand is under artesian pressure. Calculate the
maximum depth of cut H that can be made in the clay to
maintain its stability.
STRESSES IN A SOIL MASS

Principles of estimation of vertical stress increase in soil caused

by various types of loading

Importance:
Calculation of Settlement
Normal and Shear Stress on a Plane
Principal Stresses
Solving for θ so that τN becomes zero, we obtain the following:
Special Case
PROBLEM
Problem
STRESSES DUE TO SURFACE LOADS

Assumptions:
Semi-infinite
Homogeneous
Linear
Isotropic
Elastic
Stresses due to Point Loads
Stresses due to Point Loads
Stresses due to Point Loads
Stresses due to Point Loads
Vertical Stress Distribution
PROBLEM
Consider a point load P = 5 kN. Calculate
the vertical stress increase(Δσz) at z = 0, 2
m, 4 m, 6 m, 10 m, and 20 m. Given x = 3 m
and y = 4m.
Stresses due to Line Loads
Stresses due to Uniformly Loaded Areas

Uniformly loaded Circular

Area

Note:
Soil element is at a point directly below the
center of the uniformly loaded circular area.
Stresses due to Uniformly Loaded Areas
Uniformly loaded Rectangular Area

Note:
Soil element is at a point directly below a corner
of the uniformly loaded rectangular area.
PROBLEM
Determine the increase of stress at point A
due to two line loads on the surface.

Ans. 15.15 lb/ft2

A soil element10ft below point D is initially subjected to the lateral, vertical
and shear stresses as shown in the first figure. Point loads of magnitude 2000,
4000, and 6000 lb is then applied at A, B, and C, respectively. Failure occurs
20° clockwise from the horizontal plane after the load application.
Assuming that the loads has no effect on the lateral stress of the soil
element only,

1. Determine the increase in vertical stress at a depth of 10 ft below point D

using Boussinesq’s equation.
2. Determine the normal stress and the shear stress on the failure plane.
COMPRESSIBILITY OF SOIL

Types:

1. Elastic Settlement (Immediate Settlement)

 elastic deformation of soil without any change in the
moisture content

2. Primary Consolidation Settlement

 volume change in saturated cohesive soils because of
expulsion of the water that occupies the void spaces

3. Secondary Consolidation Settlement

 plastic adjustment of soil fabrics in saturated cohesive soil
Time-Dependent Deformation of Soil
Primary Consolidation
Change in volume

Also,
Recall

For a constant volume of soil solids:

Recall
Primary Consolidation Settlement
Void Ratio vs. Effective Overburden
Pressure
Normally Consolidated Soil
 present effective overburden pressure is
the maximum pressure that the soil was
subjected to in the past
For thicker soil layers:
Overconsolidated Soil
 present effective overburden pressure is
less than that which the soil experienced
in the past
Total settlement can be computed using
one of these equations

Note that these equations do not give the

relationship of primary
consolidation with time
Problem
Time Rate of Consolidation
Assumptions:
◦ Saturated clay-water system is homogenous
◦ Saturation is complete
◦ Compressibility of water is negligible
◦ Compressibility of soil grains is negligible
◦ Flow is in one direction (in the direction of
compression)
◦ Darcy’s law is valid
 Hdr - length of
maximum drainage
path

Increase pore Squeezing out

Increase in
water of water into
pressure, Δσ
pressure at A the sand layers
Soil element at point A
Recall: Darcy’s Law

Substituting vz :
Recall: Void Ratio
Change in volume of soil element = Change in volume of voids

Assuming soil solids are incompressible,

Manipulating these equations:
Coefficient of Compressibility, av
Change in void ratio  Increase in effective stress
(decrease in pore water pressure)

Assuming a linear relationship between the two:

Coefficient of Volume Compressibility, mv

Substituting to
Coefficient of Consolidation, cv
Rearranging the equation such that:

( basic differential equation of

Terzaghi’s consolidation theory )
Applying the following boundary conditions:
• at z = 0, u = 0
• at z = 2Hdr, u = 0
• at t = 0, u = uo where uo is the initial excess pore water pressure
 Degree of Consolidation
Consolidation progresses with the dissipation of pore water pressure.

The degree of consolidation at a distance z at any time t is given by:

Also, the average degree of consolidation for the entire depth of the clay at any
time t can be estimated by:
PROBLEM 1
A soil profile is shown. A
surcharge load of 2500 lb/ft2 is
applied on the ground surface.

a. How high will the water

rise in the piezometer
immediately after the
application of the load?

b. What is the degree of

consolidation at point A
when h = 20 ft?

c. Find h when the degree of

consolidation at A is 60%.
PROBLEM 2
A clay layer in the field is 15 ft thick and is drained at the top only. Under
a given surcharge, the estimated consolidation settlement is 12.21 in.

a. What is the average degree of consolidation for the clay layer when
the settlement is 3 in?

b. If the average value of cv for the pressure range is 0.003 cm2/sec, how
long will it take for 50% consolidation to occur?

c. If the 15-ft clay layer is drained on both sides, how long will it take for
the 50% consolidation to occur?
PROBLEM 3 & 4
A 3-meter thick layer (double drainage) of saturated clay under a
surcharge loading underwent 90% primary consolidation in 75 days. Find
the coefficient of consolidation of clay for the pressure range.
For a 30-mm thick undisturbed clay specimen as described in previous
question, how long will it take to undergo 90% consolidation in the
laboratory for a similar consolidation pressure range? The laboratory test
specimen will have two-way drainage.
PROBLEM 5
A 10-ft thick clay layer in the field under a given surcharge will undergo 7
in. of total primary consolidation settlement. If the first 4 in. of
settlement takes 90 days, estimate the time required for the first 2 in. of
settlement.
PROBLEM 6
For a normally consolidated clay,

The hydraulic conductivity, k, of the clay for the loading range is 2.0 x 10-
4 ft/day. How long (in days) will it take for a 12-ft thick layer (drained on
one side) in the field to reach 60% consolidation?
SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL

“… internal resistance per unit area that the soil mass

can offer to resist failure and sliding along any plane
inside it.”

- Braja Das, Principles of Geotechnical Engineering

Failure Envelope

Material failure occurs at a critical combination of

normal and shear stress and not necessarily at
maximum normal or shear stress.
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
Inclination of the Failure Plane
caused by Shear
Relationship Between σ1, σ3 and ϕ
Relationship Between σ1, σ3 and ϕ

In trigonometry,

(for effective stress)

(for total stress)

Laboratory Tests for Shear Strength
Determination
Direct Shear Test
Limitations of Direct Shear Test
 Soil is not allowed to fail along the
weakest plane but is forced to fail along a
predetermined plane (plane of split of
shear box)

 Shear stress distribution over the shear

surface of the sample is not uniform
Tri-axial Shear Test
Tri-axial Shear Tests
 shear failure plane of the specimen are not
predetermined

 shear strength depends on the pore water

pressure generated during test. Pore water
pressure dissipates with drainage. In the field,
shear strength depends on the rate of application
of the load and drainage
Consolidated-Drained Test
 Pore water pressure is completely dissipated:
 Total and effective confining stress
σ3 = σ3’
 Total and effective axial stress at failure
σ3 + (Δσd)f = σ1 =σ1’
Consolidated-Undrained Test
 Soil is in worst water content
Unconsolidated-Undrained Test
 added axial stress at failure is almost
equal irrespective of the confining
pressure

 undrained shear strength (Cu) is equal to

the radius of the Mohr’s circle
Unconfined Compression
Tri-axial Test
PROBLEMS