Name : Mhd.

Ricky Karunia Lubis

Student Identity Number : 1201112489
Department : International Relations
Title : Definition and History of Political Development
Lecturer : Dr. Alimin Siregar, M.Si
Subject : Intoduction to Political Science

DEFINITION AND HISTORY OF POLITICAL

DEVELOPMENT

Chapter I

Preface

This paper is aimed at analysing the definition of politics and how politics develops
through its history. Political scientists and scholars have sumbitted their perspective and
research for viewing the outstanding analysis on this focus. As what have been observed by
the experts, political science and states exactly had been existing in 450 B.C, introduced by
two philosophers, Plato and Aristotle. Political science, however, always keeps a record by
undergoing changes time to time through its rapid development. Understandably, this seems
to have been unavoidable because of the necessity of each state to generate and stand for their
well-living and prosperity. As a result, terms for each state seems unduly ironic and
eventually gave way to the more genuine connotations of First World, Second World
(despite being ambiguous), and Third World, teherby industrialized, economic, and social
gap among them as well dynamic political discrimination become greatly harsh. This paper
will also endeavour to describe what impacts that occured in accordance with the axpansion
of political development in this modern era.

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 Chapter II

A. Definition of Political Science

Centuries ago, political science had been introduced and applied by the historian,
Herodotus and two philosophers, Plato and Aristotle in 450 B.C. Yet, this discipline has been
changing based upon political scientists and scholars’ methodologies concentrated on this
issue. In several western states, such as Germany, Austria, and France, this discipline were
greatly influenced by law science in the 18th and 19th century. Law science is thought to refer
to states, thereby political science is merely about constitution and government and how the
constitution and government work in a state. 1

Generally defined, political science is divided into two points; systematically and
traditionally.2
Systematically, political science is a study of governance by teh application of
empirical and generaly specific methods of analysis. This approach is used to analyse the
focus of governance and how government is able to organise the system and pursue their
goal. While traditionally, political science examines the state and its organs or institutions.
The contemporary discipline, however, is considerably broader than this, encompassing
studies of all the social, cultural, and psychological factors that mutually influence the
operation of governance.

Political scientists and sociologists studying politics of Asia, Africa, and Latin
America have grappled with definition. They invented new theories and debated the adequate
methodologies for a specification. Definition of politics seems to be ambiguous and
confusable. Hence, the experts attempted to find out the most comprehensive meaning of this
focus.

1
Miriam Budiarjo, “Dasar-Dasar Ilmu Politik”, Jakarta, PT Gramedia (2008), p.5

2
www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/467721/political-science/247902/historical-
development
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 Political scientists and sociologists studying politics of Asia, Africa, and Latin
America have grappled with definition. They invented new theories and debated the adequate
methodologies for a specification. Definition of politics seems to be ambiguous and
confusable. Hence, the experts attempted to find out the most comprehensive meaning of this
focus. They also have been encouraged by intellectual curiosity, idealism, and their
involvement in policy-making by government and institution. The core of this contention is
whether their methodologies are acceptable and potentially applied for comprehending the
profound changes that have occured in developing countries over the past two decades. 3

Generally, politics is indeed an effort to be well living by which this term is generated
to achieve civil wellness and adequate life. If it is defined as a relevancy of state, there are
four points of matter.

1. Power
Power is defined as a group or a person’s ability to affect someone’s behaviour in
accordance with the actor’s willingness. W.A.Robson, in “The University Teaching of Social
Sciences” stated that political science is concerned with the study of power in a society, either
its nature basis, processes, scope, and results. The focus on the interest of political scientist
concentrates on the struggle to gain or maintain power, to strengthen power and affect on
others, or even to resist the possibility of all the aspects. Politics does not completely tend to
law science as politics centres its focus on power in a society and how to seize the power and
control the bill or the system.

2. Decision Making

Decision making is a result of making choices among several alternatives. The term of
decision making points at a process as the basic theory of politics concerned with decisions
taken collectively and manage society. The decisions are taken to obtain civil goal. Joyce
Mitchell, in his book “Political Analysis and Public Policy” mentioned that politics is
collective decision making or the making of public policies for an entire society. Then, Karl
W. Deutsch steted his concise argument. “Politics is the making of decisions by public
means.” It means decision making is greatly responsible for public sector.
__________________________________________________________________________

3
Myron Weiner & Samuel P Huntington, “Understanding Political Development” (1987), p.3
3
 3. Public Policy

Policy can be defined as a group of decisions taken by actors or politicians to strive

for their goal and how the methods are set to obtain the goal. Political life concerns a variety
of activity that can influence authoritative policy taken for a society. People are supposed to
involve in this practice in which eventually policy are executed for public means.

4. Distribution or Allocation

Scholars emphasize that distribution or allocation are thought to distribute values

systematically. Ironically, this distribution is not always fair and cause a conflict. In social
science, a value is said to be innocent and true. But, in political science, this value can be
designed at one time and influence all aspects. David Easton, in his book “A System Analysis
of Political Life” proposed that a political system can be designated as those interactions
through which values are authoritatively allocated for a society.

Speaking about politics, the definition still seems to be vague and ambiguous. In a
relatively similar perception, Harry Truman, Ex-president of United States, said “Politics is a
fascinating game, because politics is government and it is the art of government.

Looking up the definition in Webster Dictionary, it is explained that political science

concerned chiefly with the description and analysis of politics, particularly governmental
institutions and processes. This academic discipline concerned with the empirical study of s
roots government and politics. Political scientists have investigated the nature of states, the
functions performed by government, voter behavior, political parties, political culture,
political economy and public opinion. And in the earliest emergence, political science has
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roots in the political science in the philosophers of Plato and Aristotle.

To summarise, politics identically concern with government and state. Politics is a

method for government to reach their goal in a state. Up to now, the detailed explanation and
definition of politics do not succeed in reaching any agreement.
___________________________________________________________________________
4
http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definitions/political+science

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 Specifically, the definition of politics can be divided into three appoaches, i.e : 5

1. Institutional approach

This approach forms politics as an academic discipline that objectively investigate

political institutions, such as state, government, parlement, council, embassy, and so forth.
Wilbur White forms politics as the study of formation and processof the states and
government. 6

A number of scholars from institutional group particularly insists on states as a

political instituton and reforms political science as a discipline to supervise and investigate
states. A swiss political scholar, Johan Kaspar Bluntschli suggested that politics is the
science which is concerned with the state, which endeavours to understand and comprehend
the state in its conditions, in the essential nature, its various forms of manifesto and its
development. 7

Commonly, political scholars acknowledge that the definition of political science is

the same as the definition of state. Yet, this defining approach is gradually discarded and
displaced by functional approach and the approach of political nature due to its enormous
development.

2. Functional approach

This method seems not to acknowledge the institutional approach that completely
concentrates on political institution. Functionalism sophisticatedly investigates political
institution and considers this focus as a dynamic thing, rather than discarded institution. The
scholars of this group recommended that the factors of real power, such as pressure group,
lobbying, and public opinion are less than the structure and the documents of law from the
political institution.

5
Isjwara F, “Pengantar Ilmu Politik”, Binacipta (1992), p.38

6
Wilbur White, “White’s Political Dictionary”, The World Publishing Company (1947), p.220

7
J.K.Blunschli. “The Theory of The State”, Oxford (1935), p.1 5
 The scholars of this group have to notice the other political factors that influence the
implementation of functionalism and activity from those political institution, such as
demographic, psychological, cultural, and economic factor. These people claim that to assess
the meaning of a political institution is based on the real basis to effectively reach the
prosperity of a society, rather than the simple basis of bill or the other documents of law.
These people also emphasize the goal of a state. Therefore, this approach is often called as a
pragmatic and teleodogic method of defining.

3. The approach of political nature

“What is the nature of politics ?” The scholars answered “Power.” Politics is a struggle to
“strive for power”, “the methods of running power”, “the problems of carrying out and
contolling power”, or “formation and use of power.” Joseph roucek suggested that Politics is
the quest for power and political relationship are power relationships, actual or potential. 8

This approach is typically called the interpretation of politics based upon power. The
observation is started by power, and ended by power too. The approach of political nature is
divided into three classes :

a. The first class is delegated by Catlin and their approach which is familiarly called
postulational approach. To them, politics is a discipline to investigate human
attempting to get the power, the same as economics investigate human in their effort
to reach the prosperity.

b. The second class is delegated by Lasswell and Schuman. They apply psychological
approach to analyse people’s flexibility and background that potentially trigger to a
desire of power.

c. The third class is delegated by Charles Merriam and Lord Russel. These actors
implement an approach called sociological approach. These persons analyse the
power as a social phenomena revolving around a society. It is thought that power
should be used as a means to describe people’s condition where the power exists.

8
Joseph S. Roucek, Introduction : The Essense of Politics, p.4

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 B. HISTORY OF POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT

Ancient Influences

The earliest analysis of politics emerged in ancient cultures in works by various

thinkers, including Plato and Aristotle, Confucius (551-479 B.C) from China, and Kautilya
(300 B.C) from India. Wrtitings by historian Herodotus (450 B.C) and Ibn Khaldun (1332-
1406) in North Africa have sharply influenced the study of politics in the Arabic-speaking
world. But, the fullest explications of politics has been introduced in the west by Plato (428-
348 B.C) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C) with the empirical observation into the study of politics
to be this discipline’s true founder.

The emergence of politics is begun when Aristotle’s students assembled descriptions

of 158 Greek city-states which Aristotle used to formulate his well-known sixfold typology
of political systems. He was encouraged by the legitimation of a government, which system
would be the best to a state.The systems included Monarchy (ruled by one), aristocracy (ruled
by few), polity (ruled by many), oligarchy and democracy. Aristotle persistently noted that a
polity system functions best if the middle class is huge, a point confirmed by modern
empirical discovery. Aristotle’s classification is still applied and still helpful in understanding
politics.9

Political Development Theory

James Coleman found general statistical support for political development theories,
with certain striking deviations, for the perspective which social and economic development
were combined with increasing democratic tendencies in the countries. 10

9
www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/467721/political-science/247902/historical-development

10
James Coleman, “Nigeria: Background to Nationalism”, University of California, Berkeley (1958), p.538

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 An american political scientist, Gabriel Almond, and Powell introduced a new theory
that they believed it would make it possible to show how political development was reflected
and how it is performed in its environment. 11

They pointed to five main ‘capabilities’. The ‘extractive’ capability described the
system’s ability to draw material and human resources from its environment. The ‘regulative’
capability referred to its control over the behaviour of a person or a group. The ‘distributive’
capability determined its baility to distribute and allocate goods, services, honours, status, and
the other variety of triumph in a society. ‘Symbolic’ was the forth, meaning the system’s
effectiveness and efficiency in corresponding severely such outputs as the display of flags,
military ceremony, and national anthems. The last one was responsive capability, describing
the relationship between inputs and outputs thouroughly. These five capabilities enable us to
distinguish and compare each system and assess the most sensible one towards its system.

Though Almond has explained the accuracy of his observation with a vivid
description, he did not monopolise the field. Many writers who elaborately offered alternative
versions espoused several form of structure-functional systems framework. As Huntington
points out, two other main methods of approach were pursued to issues of political
development. The first one, he calls the ‘social process’ approach, which took typical social
processes, such as urbanisation and the spreadwide of literacy.

11
Vicky Randall and Robin Theobald, “Political Change and Underdevelopment: A Critical Introduction to
Third World Politics”, London, Macmillan (1985), p.28

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 Today Political Development

World War get started unexpectedly in 1939 until 1945. The most extreme tragedy
was going on and threatening people simultaneously. Devastation, murder, explosion, and
massive war erupted and overwhelmed the world peace. However, regardless of all the
tragedies, today political development was begun after the war. Scholars and Political
scientists discovered the latest political strategy over the responsibility for the maintenance of
their state. Before World War II exploded, the powerful states dominated the major part of
the world. Most areas in Asia, Africa, and Latin America were either directly controlled by
one of the major powers, or fell within their respective sphere of influences. 12

World War II has shattered the international system. In its wake, a new system
appeared the differed from the old in three critical ways. Understandably, scholars,
journalists, and statesmen in the West then looked upon the states of Asia, Africa, and Latin
America as inferior, undeveloped, even underdeveloped. Terms of First World, Second
World and Third World simultaneously emerged. The First World is thought to refer to the
wealthy democracies of the West. The Third World, ironically, is said to be the poor states of
Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Confusably, term of the Second World is still ambiguous.
Presumably, it referred to the states of Communist bloc.

The stark reality is indeed a truth for a classification. The citizens of the First World
are well fed, well housed, well educated, thereby they liive long, have good lifespan and
generally enjoy the highest standard of living available in the world today. Absolutely, then
“Big Seven” democracies (United States, United Kingdom, West Germany, France, Italy,
Canada, and Japan) consitute less than 14 percent of the world’s population. But, they
consume 42 percent of energy, generate 51 percent of its exports, and enjoy 53 percent of its
goods and services.

12
Monte Palmer, “Dilemmas of Political Development : An Introduction to the Politics of the Developing
Areas”, Florida, Peacock Publishers, fourth edition (1989), p.1

13
Ibid, p.2

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 By contrast, most of the states of the Third World are minimally industrialised. They
mostly rest upon their primary exported products such as oil, cotton, rubber, and the other
kinds of raw materials to the industrial centres of the First World. Most of their standard
living are relative perilous. Except for a small elite, their populations are poorly fed, poorly
housed, and afflicted by a large amount of illness. It indicates thet the First World and the
Third World are interchangable in economic and standard living sector.

Fortunately, the poverty, instability, and vision of the Third World were not the
matters of stark contention to the states of the industrial core. While unfortunately, the
matters of the Third World were indicated by the unavoidable outcome of their
underdevelopment. Moereover, the Third World that still remained docile (easily controlled
by others) and the exchange of cheap raw materials for the accomplished products in the
West caused for alarm. The low-standard technologies and human resource also became the
trigger of this underdevelopment.

The cold war between United States and Soviet Union end swiftly the Western
arrogancy towards the Third World. In 1949, the Chinese Communist party led by Mao Ze-
Dong claimed victory in the war-ravaged Chinese mainland, evicting Kai-Sek and his
nationalist from the state and eventually occupied the island of Taiwan. Afterwards,
approximately one-fourth of humanity fell under the sway of the Communist bloc. The
triumph of Chiang Kai-shek in China was merely the first of several victories for Soviet
Union in the Third World.

As the development of coup d’ etat and revolutions, the diseemination of anti-

westernism and social economic philosophy was highly visible. While Western allies were
collapsing, China, Cuba, and Egypt claimed their stability. In addition, they became the cores
for the export of revolution. The Western alliance, however, felt anxious that the instability of
the Third World would unevitably lead to Soviet dominance in Asia, Africa, or even Latin
America. This would cause the anxiety of the Western due to their decreased dominance in
the world.

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 Though the cold war has ended, terms of First and Third World do not blur yet and
still exist. This is to labell the level of states how the economic and industrialised sector is
operated for the superiority of a state. Threat over peace potentially occurs anytime if this is
still carried out. That is what is going on in the Middle East, in developing areas, and
underdeveloping areas due to the West complacency.

Chapter III

Conclusion

Political science seems to be highly changable and unstable. Based upon its
development, political science is no longer thought as a study of government, but it has been
applied to economic and industrialised sector as an attempt to sustain the flexibility of a state.
The modern politics emerged after world war II, thereby terms of each group of states are
undeniable; the First World, the Second World, and the Third World. Nevertheless, the
comprehension of political science as institution is still recognised as the basic focus of
politics came from government and state.

Through its rapid development, political science becomes a crucial study of

individual, group, government, and states. It is necessary for every state to stay prosperously
and retain their state from the possibility of threats done by others. To analyse for a long
period of time, political science will be existing during the desire of being the most powerful
among others is unavoidable. In short, political science or politics is the need to remain
sophisticated and to compete against others for an amount of desire.

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 Bibliography

Blunschli, J.K. The Theory of the State. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1935.

Budiarjo, Miriam. Dasar-Dasar Ilmu Politik. Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama,

2008.

Coleman, James. Nigeria: Background to Nationalism. University of Oxford:

Berkeley, 1958.

Isjwara, F. Pengantar Ilmu Politik. Bandung: Binacipta, 1999.

Palmer, Monte. Dilemmas of Political Development: An Introduction to the Politics of

the Developing Areas. fourth edition. Florida: Peacock Publishers, 1988.

Randall, Vicky and Theobald, Robin. Political Change and Underdevelopment:

A Critical Introduction to Third World. London: Macmillan, 1985.

Roucek, Joseph. Introduction: The Essence of Politics. New York: Crowell, 1964.

Weiner, Myron and Huntington, Samuel. Understanding Political Development.

Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1987.

White, Wilbur. White’s Political Dictionary. The World Publishing Company, 1947.

www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/467721/political-science/247902/historical-
development

www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definitions/political+science

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