Steel Mechanical Properties and Uses

Engineering Encyclopedia
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Steel Mechanical Properties And Uses
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CONTENTS PAGES
EFFECTS OF TENSILE AND YIELD STRENGTH ON USE.................................. 1
Tensile Test ..................................................................................................... 2
Modulus Of Elasticity .......................................................................... 5
Yield Strength ...................................................................................... 6
Ultimate Tensile Strength .................................................................... 6
Percent Elongation ............................................................................... 7
Percent Reduction In Area ................................................................... 7
EFFECTS OF CREEP STRENGTH AND STRESS-RUPTURE ON

USE............................................................................................................................. 8
Stress-Rupture ................................................................................................. 8
EFFECTS OF HARDNESS ON USE....................................................................... 10
Effects of Impact (Toughness) Properties on Use ......................................... 12
GENERATION OF DESIGN CODES FROM PROPERTY DATA ........................ 14
Matrix Of Mechanical Properties And Their Uses ........................................ 16
REFERENCES.......................................................................................................... 18
GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................. 19
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EFFECTS OF TENSILE AND YIELD STRENGTH ON USE
Engineering materials are selected for various applications on the basis of the physical
properties of the materials. In construction, two of the most important properties that determine
whether a material is appropriate for an application include tensile strength and yield strength.
Design engineers compare the rated tensile strength and yield strength of candidate materials to
the expected loads on the structural members of the projects they design. The material ratings
must exceed the calculated loads with sufficient safety margins before they can be selected.
Some of the methods for rating materials are described in this section.
The tensile strength and ductility of a metal can be determined by the tensile test. Using a
sample machined to certain dimensions, a unidirectional load is applied to elongate or lengthen
the sample at a constant rate. The load is usually applied until the sample fractures. The force
or load to elongate the sample to failure is continuously measured during the test.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

Tensile Test
Figure 1 shows a modern mechanical testing device.
Figure 1. Modern Mechanical Testing Device

The tensile test is primarily used to determine the tensile strength of metals and alloys, although
other useful mechanical property data can be obtained, as indicated below. A schematic
illustration of tensile specimen loading is shown in Figure 2. The test is usually completed
within a relatively short period of time, normally 15 minutes or less.
Load Cell
Specimen
Moving
Crosshead
Figure 2. Loading of Tensile Specimen

The instrument shown in Figure 1 plots the force (load) on the sample versus strain on chart
paper. The strain data is determined using an extensometer attached to the sample. By
converting the plotted force (load) data to engineering stress, engineering stress-strain curve
can be developed. Figure 3 illustrates an engineering stress-strain curve for a high-strength
aluminum alloy.
Yield point
T.S.
Break
Y.P.
Stress
Strain
Carbon Steel
Figure 3. Engineering Stress-Strain Diagram

Tensile tests are normally conducted at room temperature, but can be performed at elevated
temperatures. High temperature testing is used to determine how the strength of a metal
decreases with increasing temperature. Hot tensile tests are made in the conventional manner
by elongating the specimen at a constant rate. The test takes only a few minutes to complete. It
is commonly used by researchers to determine the relationship between metal strength and
temperature.
The procedures and definitions for tensile and other mechanical testing are covered by
ASTM A-370 and ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code SA-370, as shown in the Appendix,
page 1 (Source: Reference No. 1, ASME Boiler and Pressure Code, Section II).
Tensile tests can provide important design information for metals and alloys on the following
mechanical properties:
• Modulus of elasticity
• Yield strength on 0.2 percent offset proof stress.
• Ultimate tensile strength
• Percent elongation at fracture
• Percent reduction in area.
Modulus Of Elasticity
In the initial part of a tensile test the metal is in the elastic region, i.e., no permanent
deformation (strain) occurs as the load is increased (when the load is removed the specimen
returns to its original length). For metals in this region, the maximum deformation (strain) is
less than 0.5 percent. Hooke’s Law illustrates the linear stress-strain relationship for metals and
alloys in the elastic region:
(stress)( units Pa or psi)

E (Modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus) =
e( strain)

Yield Strength
Yield strength is defined as the stress required to cause permanent deformation in a metal or
alloy. Since the stress-strain curves for many materials are smooth, there is no precise point at
which elastic behavior ends and plastic behavior begins. By convention, the yield stress (often
called the “proof stress”) is chosen as the stress corresponding to 0.2 percent offset strain on the
engineering stress-strain curve, as shown in Figure 4. In design work, the yield strength of
metals and alloys is of critical importance.
80
0.2% offset yield
500
70 strength
Engineering stress, 1000 psi
60
Engineering stress, MPa

400
50
300
40
30 0.2% offset
construction line 200
20
100
10 0.002 in. x 100% = 0.2%
in.
offset
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0
Engineering strain, in./in.
Figure 4. Yield (0.2% Offset Proof) Strength
Ultimate Tensile Strength
The ultimate strength of a metal or alloy is obtained by drawing a horizontal line from the
maximum point on the stress-strain curve to the vertical stress values on the left. The value
obtained is called the ultimate tensile strength, or just tensile strength. During a tensile test the
material may fracture at this point, or upon further loading the specimen may begin to neck
down resulting in a reduction of tensile load prior to failure. Note how the stress values on the
curve in Figure 3 begin to decrease after reaching the ultimate tensile strength. If the specimen
necks down with a reduction in tensile load, the material is ductile. If little or no necking occurs
prior to failure, the material is brittle and will fracture when the ultimate tensile strength is
reached.

Percent Elongation
The ductility of a metal or alloy is related to the change in specimen length or elongation
during the tensile test.
Elongation is usually expressed as percent elongation and is determined as follows: prior to

performing a tensile test, two lines perpendicular to the specimen axis and separated by 50.8
mm (2 inch) are scribed on the surface of the specimen. This 50.8 mm (2 inch) gage length
represents the initial length and is designated as Li. (Other, smaller, gauge lengths can be used).
After testing, the specimen fracture surfaces are fitted together and the distance between the
scribed lines is measured to determine the final length, Lf. To calculate the percent elongation,
Li and Lf are substituted into the following formula:
final length – initial length

Percent (%) elongation = × 100%
initial length
= L f – L i × 100%
Li
Generally, percent elongation is used to define the ductility of metals and alloys. The greater
the percentage elongation, the greater the ductility (the metal is more deformable). For
example, a commercially pure aluminum sheet (Alloy 1100-C) 1.6 mm (0.0625 in) thick in the
soft condition has 35 % elongation (a relatively high value). A high strength aluminum sheet
(Alloy 7075-T6) of the same thickness in the fully hardened condition has 11 % elongation, a
considerably lower value.
Percent Reduction In Area
Percent reduction in area is another way to define the ductility of a metal or alloy. The initial
diameter of a round test specimen in a typical tensile test is 12.7 mm (0.50 inch). After the test
is complete, the reduced diameter at the fracture is measured and the percent reduction in area
is determined by the following formula:
initial area – final area

Percent (%) reduction in area = × 100%
initial area
Ai – Af
= × 100%
Ai

EFFECTS OF CREEP STRENGTH AND STRESS-RUPTURE ON USE
Materials that are to be used in high temperature environments must be selected on the basis of
special strength characteristics.
Metals and alloys under continuous stress at elevated temperatures may deform by creep.
Figure 5, Typical Creep Curve, shows the relationship between strain versus time for a tensile
specimen under constant load at a constant elevated temperature.
Secondary stage To
steady state creep fracture
Primary Tertiary A
creep creep
Strain
}Elastic strain
Time
Figure 5. Typical Creep Curve
As shown in Figure 5, the three stages of creep are:
• Primary (decreasing strain rate)
• Secondary (constant strain rate)
• Tertiary (strain accelerates to failure).
Materials with low creep strength are not available for use in high temperature applications.
Stress-Rupture
When a material is subjected to stress at elevated temperature it undergoes creep deformation

as discussed above. If the material remains under stress for a very long period of time, it will
eventually fracture. For a specific stress level and temperature, the time-to-rupture is
determined in a stress-rupture test. It is important to recognize that the time-to-rupture is
strongly dependent upon the temperature and stress level of the material. The time-to-rupture
increases as stress or temperature are lowered. Conversely, if the temperature or stress level is
increased, the time-to-rupture decreases.

Stress-rupture data can be presented in either tabular or graphical form. For purposes of
interpolation, a graph is probably more valuable. The data are generated by subjecting a series
of material specimens to stresses at elevated temperature and measuring the times-to-rupture.
The stress and temperature are held constant throughout the duration of the test. To allow
extrapolation of rupture data out to 100.000 hours, tests are usually performed for at least
10,000 hours. Stress-Rupture curves are generated by plotting stress versus rupture time for
each test temperature. The completed graph consists of a series of approximately parallel stress
versus rupture time curves, with each curve representing a different test temperature. A stress-
rupture curve for Incoloy 800HT material is shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Typical Rupture Strength of Incoloy Alloy 800HT

EFFECTS OF HARDNESS ON USE
Engineering materials used in many construction applicaions are subjected to indenting stresses
which could potentially result in structural failures. For these applications, designers evaluate
the hardness of candidate materials to determine whether the materials are suitable for use. The
hardness property of a material is a measure of its ability to resist deformation by an indenter.
Hardness data are often used to assess a material’s ductility. In general, for a given material the
lower the hardness the greater the ductility.
To perform a hardness test, a known load is applied to an indenter (spherical, pyramidal, or

conical) in direct contact with the metal surface. The dimensions of the resulting indentation are
measured and the data converted to provide an indication of hardness. The most commonly
used hardness measurement methods include Brinell, Vickers, Rockwell, Knoop, and Shore. In
some cases, hardness values can be related to tensile strength, as shown in Figure 7.

Rockwell superficial hardness No.

superficial
Brinell hardness No.

3000 kg load.
10 mm ball Rockwell hardness No. Brale indenter
Knoop
A scale. B scale. C scale. D scale. Shore
hardness Tensile
Brinell Tungsten Vickers 80 kg 100 kg 100 kg 100 kg 15 N 30 N 45 M Sclero - Brinell
Standard No. strength
indentation carbide hardness load. load. load. load. scale. 15 scale. 30 scale. 45 scope indentation
ball 500 g load (approx).
diam. mm ball No. Brale 1/16 in. Brale Brale kg load kg load kg load hardness diam. mm
and 1000 psi
indenter diam ball indenter indenter No.
greater
3.85 248 248 261 62.5 (101.0) 24.2 43.2 71.7 45.1 24.5 272 37 120 3.85
3.90 241 241 253 61.8 100.0 22.8 42.0 70.9 43.9 22.8 265 36 116 3.90
3.95 235 235 247 61.4 99.0 21.7 41.4 70.3 42.9 21.5 259 35 114 3.95
4.00 229 229 241 60.8 98.2 20.5 40.5 69.7 41.9 20.1 253 34 111 4.00
4.05 223 223 234 - 97.3 (19.0) - - - - 247 - 107 4.05
4.10 217 217 228 - 96.4 (17.7) - - - - 242 33 105 4.10
4.15 212 212 222 - 95.5 (16.4) - - - - 237 32 102 4.15
4.20 207 207 218 - 94.6 (15.2) - - - - 232 31 100 4.20
4.25 201 201 212 - 93.7 (13.8) - - - - 227 - 98 4.25
4.30 197 197 207 - 92.8 (12.7) - - - - 222 30 95 4.30
4.35 192 192 202 - 91.9 (11.5) - - - - 217 29 93 4.35
4.40 187 187 196 - 90.9 (10.2) - - - - 212 - 90 4.40
4.45 183 183 192 - 90.0 (9.0) - - - - 207 28 89 4.45
4.50 179 179 188 - 89.0 (8.0) - - - - 202 27 87 4.50
4.55 174 174 182 - 88.0 (6.7) - - - - 198 - 85 4.55
4.60 170 170 178 - 87.0 (5.4) - - - - 194 26 83 4.60
4.65 167 167 175 - 86.0 (4.4) - - - - 190 - 81 4.65
4.70 163 163 171 - 85.0 (3.3) - - - - 186 25 79 4.70
4.75 159 159 167 - 83.9 (2.0) - - - - 182 - 78 4.75
4.80 156 156 163 - 82.9 (0.9) - - - - 178 24 76 4.80
4.85 152 152 159 - 81.9 - - - - - 174 - 75 4.85
4.90 149 149 156 - 80.8 - - - - - 170 23 73 4.90
4.95 146 146 153 - 79.7 - - - - - 166 - 72 4.95
5.00 143 143 150 - 78.6 - - - - - 163 22 71 5.00
5.10 137 137 143 - 76.4 - - - - - 157 21 67 5.10
5.20 131 131 137 - 74.2 - - - - - 151 - 65 5.20
5.30 126 126 132 - 72.0 - - - - - 145 20 63 5.30
5.40 121 121 127 - 69.8 - - - - - 140 19 60 5.40
5.50 116 116 122 - 67.6 - - - - - 135 18 58 5.50
5.60 111 111 117 - 65.4 - - - - - 131 17 56 5.60
Figure 7. Approximate Equivalent Hardness Numbers for Carbon

(Source: Reference No. 2, Metals Handbook, Volume II, Eighth Edition)

Effects of Impact (Toughness) Properties on Use
Although a metal may be hard and have high tensile strength, it may not be able to withstand
sudden impact loads. It is important to recognize that some materials are very susceptible to
brittle fracture under conditions of impact loading. A good example of this is cast iron.
Consequently, a very important property of a metal is toughness, which is a measure of its
ability to absorb energy and deform plastically prior to fracture.
Even though the area under the stress-strain curve gives an indication of toughness, the speed at
which the force or load is applied and notch sensitivity must also be considered. Although there
are a number of methods to measure toughness, the Charpy V Notch (CVN) test is one of the
most commonly used. This test is illustrated in Figure 8. Using this machine, the toughness of
the metal can be determined by measuring the energy required to fracture the sample.
Figure 8. Charpy V Notch Testing Machine.

Toughness as determined by impact tests is a very useful property in evaluating whether a

metal will fail in a brittle or ductile mode. The toughness of BCC metals, which include the
ferritic steels, is adversely affected by lowered temperature. As the temperature is reduced, the
toughness of the steel decreases. Further reductions in temperature will cause a change in
fracture characteristics, from ductile to brittle. The temperature at which this change occurs is
known as the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature. To avoid potential brittle fracture
problems in equipment, plots of impact energy vs temperature are generated for the steels used
in fabrication. These Transition Curves are used to verify that the steels have adequate
toughness at the minimum design metal temperature.
Figure 9, Transition Curves for Steels, shows the relationship between impact strength (energy)
versus temperature for various carbon steels.
Figure 9. Transition Curves for Steel

GENERATION OF DESIGN CODES FROM PROPERTY DATA
When designing a new carbon or low-alloy steel pressure vessel or heat exchanger to the
requirements of ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII, Division 1, the
maximum allowable stress values contained in Table UCS-23 are used. It should be noted that
these values are a function of temperature, i.e., the allowable stress decreases as the design
temperature is increased. Excerpts from Table UCS-23 are shown in the Appendix, pages 2 and
3. (Source: Reference No. 1, ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code) The mechanical
properties considered, and the factors applied to establish the maximum allowable stresses are
given below:
At temperatures below the creep range, the maximum allowable stress value for ferrous
materials (Table UCS-23, UHA-23, and UHT-23) amd for nonferrous materials (Table UNF-
23) is the lowest of these:
(1) one-fourth of the specified minimum tensile strength at room temperature;
(2) one-fourth of the tensile strength at temperature;
(3) two-thirds of specified minimum yield strength at room temperature;
(4) two-thirds of yield strength at temperature.
In Table UNF-23 for specific nonferrous alloys and in Table UHA-23 for austenitic materials,
two sets of allowable stress values are provided. The higher values should be used only where
slightly greater deformation is not in itself objectionable. The higher alternative allowable
stresses are identified by a footnote. These stresses exceed two-thirds for nonferrous alloys and
austenitic materials but do not exceed 90% of the minimum yield at temperature. These higher
stresses are not recommended for the design of flanges and other strain sensitive applications.
At temperatures in the creep range, the maximum allowable stress value for all materials shall
not exceed the lowest of the following:
(1) 100% of the average stress for a creep rate of 0.01%/1000 hr.
(2) 67% of the average stress for rupture at the end of 100,000 hr;
(3) 80% of the minimum stress for rupture at the end of 100,000 hr.
Allowable stresses based on the yield or tensile strength (25 % tensile strength or 67 % yield
strength) are usually governing at temperatures up to 371 °C (700 °F). For higher temperatures,
the allowable stresses are based on creep and stress-rupture data. It is important to recognize
that the ASME B & PV Code has specified the lowest value in Table UCS-23.

Elongation requirements are included in ASTM specifications and in the material specifications
contained in the ASME B & PV Code Section II, Parts A and B. An excerpt from SA 516 is
shown in the Appendix, page 4 (Source: Reference No. 1 ASME Boilerand Pressure Vessel
Code).
The ASME B & PV Code also contains requirements for impact testing of materials for low-
temperature service. These requirements will be reviewed further in COE 105.07.

Matrix Of Mechanical Properties And Their Uses
Mechanical Property Information Source Use
Tensile and ASME B&PV Code Used to calculate allowable stresses in

Yield Strength Section II,Parts A&B ASME, Section VIII, Div 1. These are used
to calculate wall thickness of pressure
ASTM Specifications
vessels.
Percent Elongation ASME B&PV Code A qualitative measure of ductility. Data are
and Reduction Section II, Parts A&B used to compare the relative ductility of
of Area
ASTM Specifications several materials. This enables the
designer to select the most suitable material
Tensile Test Data for the particular application.
ASM Metals Handbook
Creep Strength Material Supplier Used to establish allowance stresses for

and Stress-Rupture Mechanical Test Data elevated temperature service when the
material is in the creep range. A good
ASM Metals Handbook
example is furnace tube designs for
high-temperature ethylene pyrolysis and
reformer heaters.
Hardness ASME B&PV Code Used to check the effectiveness of PWHT

Section II, Parts A&B
Materials with high hardness usually exhibit
ASTM Specifications good erosion resistance.
ASM Metals and Low hardness values generally indicate that

Handbook the material has good ductility.
Hardness Test Data Hardness data can be used to estimate a

material’s approximate tensile strength.
Refer to ASTM A370.
Used to ensure that materials meet the

requirements of NACE MR-01-75 when in
sour service.
Toughness ASME, B&PV Code Materials that exhibit superior toughness,

Section II, Parts A&B such as normalized carbon steel, 2 1/2 /
3-1/2 / 9 % nickel steels and the 300 series
ASTM Specifications
austenitic stainless steels are used to
Material Supplier fabricate equipment for cryogenic service.
Mechanical Test Data
Examples of such services include LNG
ASM Metals Handbook Plants, Gas Liquefaction Units, Ethylene
Plants, light olefin units, refrigerated LPG
Impact Test Data (propane), and liquid nitrogen.
Good toughness is needed to prevent

brittle fracture of materials in extremely
cold services.

Equipment Code
Pressure Vessel ASME B&PV code Section VIII Div. 1 or Div. 2

(tower, drum, etc.)
Heat Exchanger ASME B&PV Code Section VIII Div. 1

(shell and tube, airfin, etc.)
Boiler ASME B&PV Code Section I
Steam Piping ASME/ANSI Piping Code B31.1
General Piping ASME/ANSI Piping Code B31.3

REFERENCES
1. ASME Boiler and Pressure Code.
2. American Society for Metals (ASM). Metals Handbook, Eighth edition

Volume II, Metals Park, Ohio, USA.

GLOSSARY
creep strength (1) Constant nominal stress that will cause a specified quantity
of creep (deformation) in a given time at constant temperature.
(2) Constant nominal stress that will cause a specified creep

rate at constant temperature.
elongation (%) The percentage increase in the length of a fractured specimen

when compared to its original length.
hardness A measure of the resistance of a material to penetration by an

indenter.
impact strength The ability of a material to absorb energy and deform

plastically prior to fracture.
strain The change in the dimensions of a material due to the

application of stress. Linear strain is ratio of the change in
length to the original length.
stress-rupture test The test determines the time required to produce rupture in a
material that is subjected to constant load at a constant
elevated temperature.
tensile strength Calculated by dividing the maximum load by the original

cross-sectional area. It is the greatest stress a metal or alloy can
tolerate without breaking apart.
yield strength The stress that causes permanent deformation in a material.

Tthe stress required to cause 0.2 % offset strain is used in
many metals.

Steel Mechanical Properties and Uses

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Steel Mechanical Properties And Uses

EFFECTS OF TENSILE AND YIELD STRENGTH ON USE.................................. 1

Tensile Test ..................................................................................................... 2

Modulus Of Elasticity .......................................................................... 5

Yield Strength ...................................................................................... 6

Ultimate Tensile Strength .................................................................... 6

Percent Elongation ............................................................................... 7

Percent Reduction In Area ................................................................... 7

EFFECTS OF CREEP STRENGTH AND STRESS-RUPTURE ON

EFFECTS OF HARDNESS ON USE....................................................................... 10

Effects of Impact (Toughness) Properties on Use ......................................... 12

GENERATION OF DESIGN CODES FROM PROPERTY DATA ........................ 14

Matrix Of Mechanical Properties And Their Uses ........................................ 16

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

EFFECTS OF TENSILE AND YIELD STRENGTH ON USE

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Figure 1 shows a modern mechanical testing device.

Figure 1. Modern Mechanical Testing Device

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Figure 2. Loading of Tensile Specimen

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Figure 3. Engineering Stress-Strain Diagram

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• Yield strength on 0.2 percent offset proof stress.

• Ultimate tensile strength

• Percent elongation at fracture

• Percent reduction in area.

(stress)( units Pa or psi)

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Engineering stress, MPa

0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0

Engineering strain, in./in.

Figure 4. Yield (0.2% Offset Proof) Strength

Ultimate Tensile Strength

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Elongation is usually expressed as percent elongation and is determined as follows: prior to

final length – initial length

Percent Reduction In Area

initial area – final area

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EFFECTS OF CREEP STRENGTH AND STRESS-RUPTURE ON USE

Figure 5. Typical Creep Curve

As shown in Figure 5, the three stages of creep are:

• Primary (decreasing strain rate)

• Secondary (constant strain rate)

• Tertiary (strain accelerates to failure).

When a material is subjected to stress at elevated temperature it undergoes creep deformation

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Figure 6. Typical Rupture Strength of Incoloy Alloy 800HT

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EFFECTS OF HARDNESS ON USE

To perform a hardness test, a known load is applied to an indenter (spherical, pyramidal, or

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 10

Rockwell superficial hardness No.

Brinell hardness No.

4.05 223 223 234 - 97.3 (19.0) - - - - 247 - 107 4.05

4.10 217 217 228 - 96.4 (17.7) - - - - 242 33 105 4.10

4.15 212 212 222 - 95.5 (16.4) - - - - 237 32 102 4.15

4.20 207 207 218 - 94.6 (15.2) - - - - 232 31 100 4.20

4.25 201 201 212 - 93.7 (13.8) - - - - 227 - 98 4.25

4.30 197 197 207 - 92.8 (12.7) - - - - 222 30 95 4.30

4.35 192 192 202 - 91.9 (11.5) - - - - 217 29 93 4.35