Solutions for Chapter 5 1

The Chemistry Maths Book

Erich Steiner

University of Exeter

Second Edition 2008

Solutions

Chapter 5. Integration

5.1 Concepts
5.2 The indefinite integral
5.3 The definite integral
5.4 The integral calculus
5.5 Uses of the integral calculus
5.6 Static properties of matter
5.7 Dynamics
5.8 Pressure–volume work

© E Steiner 2008
Solutions for Chapter 5 2

Section 5.2
Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

By Table 5.11,

1.
∫ 2 dx = 2x + C
∫
1
2. x3 dx = x 4 + C
4

x (2 3) +1
∫
3
3. x 2 3 dx = + C = x5 3 + C
(2 3) + 1 5

x −3+1
∫x ∫
dx 1 1
4. = x −3 dx = + C = − x −2 + C = − 2 + C
3
−3 + 1 2 2x

x − (1 3) +1
∫
3
5. x −1 3 dx = + C = x2 3 + C
−(1 3) + 1 2

∫ sin 4x dx = − 4 cos 4x + C
1
6.

∫e 3x 1
7. dx = e3 x + C
3

∫e −2 x 1
8. dx = − e −2 x + C
2

∫ x −1 = ln ( x −1) + C = ln A(x −1) , with ln A = C .

dx
9.

∫
dx A
10. = − ln (3 − x) + C = ln , from type 5 in Table 5.1 with a = −1, b = 3 .
3− x 3− x

Evaluate the indefinite integrals subject to the given conditions:

11. y =
∫x 2
dx ; y = 0 when x = 3

We have y=
∫x 2
dx = x3 3 + C

Then y = 0 when x = 3 → 0 = 33 3 + C → C = −9

Therefore y = x3 3 − 9

© E Steiner 2008
Solutions for Chapter 5 3

12. y =
∫ cos 4x dx ; y = 0 when x = π 4

∫
1
We have y= cos 4 x dx = sin 4 x + C
4

1
y = 0 when x = π 4 → 0 = sin π + C = 0 + C → C = 0
4

1
Therefore y= sin 4 x
4

13. I =
∫ (5x + 2x + 3) dx ; I = 4 when x = 2
4

x5 x2
I=
∫ (5 x 4 + 2 x + 3) dx = 5 ×
5
+ 2 × + 3x + C
2
= x5 + x 2 + 3x + C

I = 4 when x = 2 → 4 = 32 + 4 + 6 + C = 42 + C → C = −38

Therefore I = x5 + x 2 + 3x − 38

3x 2 + 2 x + 1
14. I =
∫ x2
dx ; I = 3 when x = 1

3x 2 + 2 x + 1
∫ ∫ ∫ x dx + ∫ x
1 1
I= 2
dx = 3 dx + 2 2
dx
x
1
= 3 x + 2 ln x − +C
x

I = 3 when x = 1 → 3 = 3 + 0 − 1 + C → C = 1

1
Therefore I = 3x + 2 ln x − +1
x

∫ ⎜⎝ −4 + 4 cos 2x − 2 e
⎛ 1 2x ⎞
15. I = ⎟ dx ; I = 0 when x = 0
⎠

∫ ⎜⎝ −4 + 4 cos 2x − 2 e
⎛ 1 2x ⎞ 1 2x
I= ⎟ dx = −4 x + 2sin 2 x − e + C
⎠ 4

1 1
I = 0 when x = 0 → 0 = 0 + 0 − + C → C =
4 4

1 1
Therefore I = −4 x + 2sin 2 x − e 2 x +
4 4

© E Steiner 2008
Solutions for Chapter 5 4

Section 5.3.

Evaluate the definite integrals:

+1
+1 ⎡ 2 x3 3x 2 ⎤
16.
∫−1
2
(2 x + 3 x + 4) dx = ⎢
⎢⎣ 3
+
2
+ 4x⎥
⎥⎦ −1

⎛2 3 ⎞ ⎛ 2 3 ⎞ 28
= ⎜ + + 4⎟ − ⎜ − + − 4⎟ =
⎝3 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3 2 ⎠ 3

∫
5
17. dx = ⎡⎣ x ⎤⎦ = 5 − 3 = 2
3
3

2 2

∫
du ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ 1 1 3
18. 3
= ⎢− 2 ⎥ = ⎜ − ⎟ − ⎜ − ⎟ = − + =
1 u ⎣ 2u ⎦ 1 ⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 8 2 8

∫ v + 2 = ⎡⎣ln (v + 2)⎤⎦
dv 3
19. = ln 5 − ln 4 = ln 5 4
2
2

5 5

∫
⎡ 1 ⎤ 1 1 1
20. e−3t dt = ⎢ − e−3t ⎥ = − e−15 + e−3 = ⎡e −3 − e−15 ⎤
1 ⎣ 3 ⎦1 3 3 3⎣ ⎦

π 2

∫
π2 π
21. cosθ dθ = ⎡⎣sin θ ⎤⎦ = sin − sin 0 = 1 − 0 = 1
0 2
0

π π

∫
⎡1 ⎤
22. cos 3θ dθ = ⎢ sin 3θ ⎥ = 0 − 0 = 0
0 ⎣ 3 ⎦0

0 0

∫
⎡ 1 ⎤
23. sin 2 x dx = ⎢ − cos 2 x ⎥
−π 4 ⎣ 2 ⎦ −π 4

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 1
= ⎜ − cos 0 ⎟ − ⎜ − cos(− π 2 ⎟ = − + 0 = −
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 2

© E Steiner 2008
Solutions for Chapter 5 5

dx
24. (i) Show that the rate equation of a first-order decomposition reaction = − kx
dt
d ln x
can be written in the logarithmic form = −k .
dt
(ii) Integrate this equation with respect to t over the range 0 to t, and show that

⎡ x( t ) ⎤ − kt
ln ⎢ ⎥ = −kt and x(t ) = x(0)e
⎣ x (0) ⎦

d ln x 1 dx
(i) By the chain rule, = .
dt x dt

dx 1 dx
Therefore = − kx → = −k
dt x dt
d ln x
→ = −k
dt

∫ ∫ dt →
t t
d ln x t t
(ii) We have dt = −k ⎡⎣ ln x ⎤⎦ = −k ⎡⎣t ⎤⎦
dt 0 0
0 0

→ ln x(t ) − ln x(0) = −kt

⎡ x( t ) ⎤
Therefore ln ⎢ ⎥ = −kt
⎣ x(0) ⎦

Then, because eln x = x ,

x( t )
= e − kt → x(t ) = x(0)e − kt
x(0)

25. The Clausius-Clapeyron equation for liquid-vapour equilibrium is

d ln p ΔH vap
= .
dT RT 2
If the enthalpy of vaporization, ΔH vap , is constant in the temperature range T1 to T2 show, by

integrating both sides of the equation with respect to T, that

⎛ p ⎞ ΔH vap ⎛1 1 ⎞
ln ⎜ 2 ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟,
⎝ p1 ⎠ R ⎝ T1 T2 ⎠
where p1 = p (T1 ) and p2 = p (T2 ) .

ΔH vap ΔH vap ⎡ 1 ⎤ T2
∫ ∫
T2 T2
d ln p 1 T2
We have dT = dT → ⎡⎣ln p ⎤⎦ = −
T1 dT R T1 T2 T1 R ⎢⎣ T ⎥⎦ T
1

ΔH vap ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ p2 ΔH vap ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
Therefore ln p2 − ln p1 = ⎢ − + ⎥ → ln = ⎢ − ⎥
R ⎣⎢ T2 T1 ⎦⎥ p1 R ⎢⎣ T1 T2 ⎦⎥

© E Steiner 2008
Solutions for Chapter 5 6

Find the average values in the given intervals:

26. 2 x 2 + 3 x + 4; − 1 ≤ x ≤ +1

+1 +1
⎡ 2 x3 3 x 2 ⎤
∫ 2 28
We have (2 x + 3x + 4) dx = ⎢ + + 4x⎥ = (Exercise 16)
−1 ⎢⎣ 3 2 ⎥⎦ −1 3

+1
and
∫ −1
dx = 2

Therefore 2 x 2 + 3 x + 4 = (28 3) 2 = 14 3

27. cos 3θ ; 0 ≤ θ ≤ π 2
π2 π 2 π 2

∫ ∫
⎡1 ⎤ 1 π
We have cos 3θ dθ = ⎢ sin3θ ⎥ =− , dθ =
0 ⎣3 ⎦0 3 0 2

Therefore cos 3θ = (−1 3) (π 2) = − 2 3π

28. 1; 3 ≤ x ≤ 5

⎡ ⎤
∫ ∫
b b
We have 1= ⎢ dx dx ⎥ = 1 for all intervals
⎢⎣ a a ⎥⎦

Demonstrate and sketch a graph to interpret:

3 1 2 3
29.
∫ 0
e− x dx =
∫ 0
e− x dx +
∫
1
e− x dx +
∫e 2
−x
dx

= A + B + C in Figure 1 Figure 1

∫
b b
We have e− x dx = ⎡ −e− x ⎤ = e− a − e−b
a
⎣ ⎦a

Therefore

1 2 3

∫ 0
e− x dx +
∫ 1
e− x dx +
∫e 2
−x
dx = (e0 − e−1 ) + ( e−1 − e−2 ) + ( e −2 − e−3 )

3
= 1 − e−3 =
∫e
0
−x
dx

© E Steiner 2008
Solutions for Chapter 5 7

3 6 6
30.
∫ 2
e x dx =
∫ 2
e x dx −
∫e
3
x
dx

∫
b b
We have e x dx = ⎡ e x ⎤ = eb − ea
a
⎣ ⎦a

6 6
Therefore
∫ 2
e x dx −
∫e 3
x
dx = ⎡ e6 − e2 ⎤ − ⎡ e6 − e3 ⎤ = e3 − e 2
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

Figure 2

π 2 π
31. (i) Show that
∫
0
cos x dx = −
∫π 2
cos x dx .

0 π 2 π
(ii) Calculate
∫
−π
cos x dx ,
∫−π
cos x dx ,
∫ −π
cos x dx .

(iii) Sketch a graph to interpret these results.

∫ cos x dx = sin b − sin a . Therefore

b
We have
a

π 2
(i)
∫ 0
cos x dx = sin π 2 − sin 0 = 1 − 0 = 1 A 3 in Figure 3

∫ π 2
cos x dx = sin π − sin π 2 = 0 − 1 = −1 A4

π 2
=−
∫ 0
cos x dx

0
(ii)
∫ −π
cos x dx = sin 0 − sin(− π) = 0 − 0 = 0 A1+ A2 in Figure3

π 2

∫ −π
cos x dx = sin π 2 − sin(− π) = 1 − 0 = 1 A1 + A2 + A3

∫ −π
cos x dx = sin π − sin(− π) = 0 − 0 = 0 A 1+ A 2 + A 3 + A 4

© E Steiner 2008
Solutions for Chapter 5 8

(iii) Figure 3

Evaluate and sketch a graph to interpret:

⎪⎧ x + 2
+3 2
if x < 1
32.
∫−1
f ( x) dx where f ( x) = ⎨
⎪⎩ x
2
if x ≥ 1

We have

+3 +1 3

∫−1
f ( x) dx =
∫
−1
( x 2 + 2) dx +
∫ x dx
1
2

+1 3
⎡1 ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤ 14 26 40
= ⎢ x3 + 2 x ⎥ + ⎢ x3 ⎥ = + =
⎣3 ⎦ −1 ⎣ 3 ⎦ 1 3 3 3

Figure 4
+1
if x > 0
∫
⎧ x
33. f ( x) dx where f ( x) = ⎨
−1 ⎩− x if x ≤ 0

+1 0 +1

∫−1
f ( x) dx =
∫
−1
(− x) dx +
∫ 0
x dx

0 1
= ⎡ − x 2 2⎤ + ⎡+ x 2 2⎤ = 1 2 + 1 2 = 1
⎣ ⎦ −1 ⎣ ⎦0

Figure 5
+a ⎧⎪ e − x if x > 0
34.
∫−a
f ( x) dx where f ( x) = ⎨
⎪⎩ −e
+x
if x ≤ 0

+a 0

∫ ∫ ∫e
a
−x
f ( x) dx = (−e x ) dx + dx
−a −a 0

0 a
= ⎡ − e x ⎤ + ⎡ −e − x ⎤
⎣ ⎦ −a ⎣ ⎦0

= ( −1 + e − a ) + ( −e − a + 1 )

=0 Figure 6

© E Steiner 2008
Solutions for Chapter 5 9

∫ ln x dx .
d
35. (i) Show that ( x ln x − x) = ln x , (ii) evaluate
dx 0

d 1
(i) x ln x = x × + 1× ln x = 1 + ln x (product rule)
dx x

d
Therefore ( x ln x − x) = (1 + ln x) − 1 = ln x
dx

1 1
(ii)
∫0
ln x dx = lim
ε →0 ε ∫ ln x dx
1

∫
d
= lim ( x ln x − x) dx (by (i))
ε →0 ε dx
1
= lim ⎡⎣ x ln x − x ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣ −1⎤⎦ − lim ⎡⎣ε ln ε − ε ⎤⎦
ε →0 ε ε →0

= −1

Evaluate:

∞ b

∫ ∫
⎡ 1 ⎤
b
36. e−3t dt = lim e−3t dt = lim ⎢ − e −3t ⎥
0 b →∞ 0 b →∞ ⎣ 3 ⎦0

⎡ 1 ⎤ 1 1
= lim ⎢ − e −3b ⎥ + =
b →∞ ⎣ 3 ⎦ 3 3

∫ ∫
b b
37. e − x 2 dx = lim e− x 2 dx = lim ⎡ −2e− x 2 ⎤ = 2
0 b →∞ 0 b →∞ ⎣ ⎦0

1 1 1
38. By partial fractions = − .
x( x − 1) x − 1 x

∞ ∞

∫ ∫
dx ⎛ 1 1⎞
Therefore = ⎜ − ⎟ dx
2 x( x − 1) 2 ⎝ x −1 x ⎠
b
⎡ x − 1⎤ ⎡ b − 1⎤ 1
= lim ⎢ ln = lim ln − ln
b →∞ ⎣ x ⎥⎦ 2 b →∞ ⎢⎣ b ⎥⎦ 2

1
= ln1 − ln = ln 2
2

© E Steiner 2008
Solutions for Chapter 5 10

1 1 1 1
39. By partial fractions = − + .
x( x − 1) 2
x x − 1 ( x − 1) 2

∞ ∞ ∞

∫ ∫ ∫
dx ⎡1 1 ⎤ dx
Therefore 2
= ⎢ x − x − 1 ⎥ dx +
2 x( x − 1) 2 ⎣ ⎦ 2 ( x − 1) 2
= − ln 2 (by Exercise 38)
∞
⎡ 1 ⎤
+ ⎢− ⎥
⎣ x − 1⎦ 2

= − ln 2 + 1

For each function, state if it is an even function of x, an odd function, or neither. If neither, give the
even and odd components.

40. sin 2 x = − sin( −2 x); odd

41. cos 3x = + cos( −3 x); even

42. sin x cos x = − sin(− x) cos(− x); odd × even = odd

43. x = −(− x); odd

44. x 4 = + (− x) 4 ; even

45. 3x 2 + 2 x + 1 ≠ ± ⎡3(− x) 2 + 2(− x) + 1⎤ ; neither (except when x = 0)

⎣ ⎦

The function has even component 3x 2 + 1 = + ⎡3(− x)2 + 1⎤

⎣ ⎦
odd component 2 x = −2(− x )

46. e − x ≠ ±e − ( − x ) ; neither (except when x = 0)

1 ⎡ −x
The function has even component e + ex ⎤
2⎣ ⎦
1 ⎡ −x
odd component e − ex ⎤
2⎣ ⎦

47. (3x 2 + 2 x + 1) e − x = ⎡(3x 2 + 1) + (2 x) ⎤ × ⎡ 12 (e− x + e x ) + 12 (e − x − e x ) ⎤

⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
1⎡ 2
= (3 x + 1) × (e − x + e x ) + ( x) × (e − x − e x ) ⎤ (even × even) + (odd × odd) = even
2⎣ ⎦
1
+ ⎡ (3x 2 + 1) × (e − x − e x ) + ( x) × (e − x + e x ) ⎤ (even × odd) + (odd × even) = odd
2⎣ ⎦

© E Steiner 2008
Solutions for Chapter 5 11

Section 5.4

48. The equation of an ellipse with centre at the origin is

x2 y2
+ =1
a2 b2
where, if a > b , a is the major axis and b the minor axis (if a = b , we have a circle). Use Method 1
in Example 5.11 to find the area of the ellipse.

In the first quadrant (Figure 7),

x2 y2 b 2
2
+ 2
=1 → y = a − x2
a b a

An approximate value of the area of the strip between x and

x + Δ x is

b 2
Δ A ≈ yΔ x = a − x2 Δ x
a
Figure 7
and the total area in the first quadrant is

b π a 2 π ab
∫ ∫
a a
b
A= y dx = a 2 − x 2 dx = × =
0 a 0 a 4 4

The total area of the ellipse is therefore 4 A = π ab .

49. Find the length of the curve y = 12 x3 2 between x = 0 and x = 1 .

By equation (5.38), the length of the curve is

12
1 ⎡ ⎛ dy ⎞ 2 ⎤ 1 12

∫ ∫
⎡ 9 ⎤
s= ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ dx = ⎢1 + 16 x ⎥ dx
0 ⎢⎣ ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎥⎦ 0 ⎣ ⎦

2
∫ (1 + ax)
12
Now dx = (1 + ax)3 2 .
3a

1
⎡ 2 16 ⎛ 16 ⎞3 2 ⎤ 32 ⎡125 ⎤ 61
Therefore s = ⎢ × × ⎜1 + x ⎟ ⎥ = − 1⎥ =
⎢⎣ 3 9 ⎝ 9 ⎠ ⎥ 27 ⎢⎣ 64 ⎦ 54
⎦0

© E Steiner 2008
Solutions for Chapter 5 12

Section 5.6

50. Three masses, m1 = 1, m2 = 2 and m3 = 3 , lie on a straight line with m1 at x1 = −4 , m2 at x2 = −1

and m3 at x3 = +4 with respect to a point O on the line. Calculate (i) the position of the centre of
mass, (ii) the moment of inertia with respect to O, and (iii) the moment of inertia with respect to
the centre of mass.

Figure 8

(i) The total mass is M = 6 , and the centre of mass lies at

1 1
X =
M
∑ mi xi = 6 [1× (−4) + 2 × (−1) + 3 × 4] = 1
i

(ii) I (0) = ∑ mi xi 2 = 1× (−4) 2 + 2 × (−1) 2 + 3 × 42 = 66

i

(iii) I ( X ) = ∑ mi (xi − X ) 2 = 1× (−5) 2 + 2 × (−2) 2 + 3 × 32 = 60

i

51. The distribution of mass in a straight rod of length l is given by the density function

ρ ( x ) = x 2 ; 0 ≤ x ≤ l . Find (i) the total mass, (ii) the mean density, (iii) the centre of mass, (iv) the
moment of inertia with respect to an arbitrary point x0 on the line, (v) the moment of inertia with
respect to the centre of mass. (vi) Show that the moment of inertia has its smallest value when
computed with respect to the centre of mass.

∫ ∫ x dx = l
l l
2 3
(i) M = ρ ( x) dx = 3
0 0

(ii) ρ = M l = l2 3

l4 l3
∫ ∫
l l
1 1
(iii) X = x ρ ( x) dx = x3 dx = = 3l 4
M 0 M 0 4 3

∫ ∫ (x − 2x x + x
l l
(iv) I ( x0 ) = ( x − x0 ) 2 ρ ( x) dx = 2
0 0
2
) x 2 dx
0 0

5 4 2 3
= l 5 − x0 l 2 + x0 l 3

(v) I ( X ) = l 5 5 − X l 4 2 + X 2l 3 3

= l 5 5 − 3 l 5 8 + 16 = l 5 80

© E Steiner 2008
Solutions for Chapter 5 13

d d ⎡5
(vi) I ( x0 ) = l 5 − x0 l 4 2 + x0 2l 3 3⎤ = − l 4 2 + 2 x0l 3 3
dx0 dx0 ⎣ ⎦

= 0 when l 2 = 2 x0 3, x0 = 3l 4

The moment of inertia has minimum value when x0 = 3l 4 ; that is, when computed with

respect to the centre of mass X = 3l 4 .

Section 5.7

52. A body moves in a straight line with velocity v = 3t 2 at time t. Calculate the distance travelled in
time interval (i) t = 0 → 1 , (ii) t = 1 → 2 , (iii) t = 3 → 4 .

∫
t2
dx
We have v= = 3t 2 → x = v dt = ⎡t23 − t13 ⎤
dt t1
⎣ ⎦

Therefore

(i) t1 = 0, t2 = 1 → x = 1− 0 = 1

(ii) t1 = 1, t2 = 2 → x = 8 −1 = 7

(iii) t1 = 3, t2 = 4 → x = 64 − 27 = 37

53. A body of mass m moves in a straight line (the x-direction) under the influence of a force F = kx.
What is the work done on the body between x = xA and x = xB ?

B xB

∫ ∫
k
WAB = F dx = k x dx = ( xB 2 − xA 2 )
A xA 2

© E Steiner 2008
Solutions for Chapter 5 14

54. A body of mass m moves in a straight line (the x-direction) under the influence of a force F = kx ,
where k is positive (see Exercise 53). (i) Find the potential energy V ( x) (choose V (0) = 0 ). The

body is released from rest at x = 1 . (ii) Find (a) the total energy E and (b) the kinetic energy T ( x)

as functions of x. (iii) Sketch a graph showing the dependence of V ( x) , T ( x) , and E on x.

(iv) Use the graph to describe the motion of the body. (v) What would be the motion if the body
were released from rest at (a) x = −1 , (b) x = 0 ?

(i) By Exercise 53 and Equation (5.56), the work done by the force is

k
WAB = ( xB 2 − xA 2 ) = V ( xA ) − V ( xB )
2
1
Therefore V ( x) = − kx 2
2

(ii) The constant total energy is the sum of kinetic and potential energies, E = T ( x) + V ( x) . The

body is at rest when x = 1 . Therefore T (1) = 0 and

1 1
(a) E = V (1) = − k , (b) T ( x) = E − V ( x) = k ( x 2 − 1)
2 2
(iii)

Figure 9

(iv) The body moves to the right with increasing speed.

As in Figure10a it “falls down” the parabolic
potential energy surface.
Figure 10a
(v) (a) The body would move to the left with increasing speed:

Figure 10b

(b) The body should remain at rest at the top of the

potential surface:

Figure 10c

© E Steiner 2008
Solutions for Chapter 5 15

55. Repeat Exercise 54 with F = −kx

k
(i) WAB = − ( xB 2 − xA 2 ) = V ( xA ) − V ( xB )
2

1 2
Therefore V ( x) = kx
2

1 1
(ii) (a) E = V (1) = k (b) T ( x) = E − V ( x) = k (1 − x 2 )
2 2

(iii) Figure 11

(iv) The body undergoes simple harmonic motion. As in Figure 12a,

it moves back and forth between x = +1 and x = −1
inside the parabolic potential energy surface.

Figure 12a

(v) (a) Like case (iv), as in Figure 12b.

Figure 12b

(b) The body would remain at rest at the bottom of the potential surface:

Figure 12c

© E Steiner 2008
Solutions for Chapter 5 16

Section 5.8

56. A slightly imperfect gas obeys the van der Waals equation of state
⎛ n2 a ⎞
⎜⎜ p + 2 ⎟⎟ (V − nb) = nRT
⎝ V ⎠

Find expressions for the work done by the gas in expanding reversibly from volume V1 to volume
V2 at (i) constant pressure, and (ii) constant temperature (assume a and b are constant).

(i) At constant p ,
V2
W=p
∫V1
dV = p(V2 − V1 )

(ii) At constant T,

nRT n2 a
p= − 2
V − nb V

V2 V2 V

∫ ∫ ∫
2
dV dV
W= p dV = nRT − n2 a
V1 V − nb
2
V1 V1 V

⎡ V − nb ⎤ 2 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
= nRT ln ⎢ 2 ⎥+n a⎢ − ⎥
⎢⎣ V1 − nb ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V2 V1 ⎥⎦

© E Steiner 2008