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Reseearch Papers
P
Advancingg know
wledge iin FM
PRO
OMOTING IN
NNOV
VATION IN FM
F
Marcch 2014
ISB
BN/EAN 978-94-906
694-06-7
www
w.eurofm
fm.org

Research Papers
Advancing knowledge in Facilities Management:
PROMOTING INNOVATION IN FM ISBN/EAN 978-94-90694-06-7
ISSN 2211-4467.67
Editor:
Professor Keith Alexander, CFM, Manchester, UK
Copyright © EuroFM
March 2014
Published by the European Facility Management Network (EuroFM)
ISBN: 978-94-90694-06-7
ISSN: 2211-4467.67
DOI: 10.14606/
(pdf: available at www.eurofm.org and http://www.efmc-conference.com)
EuroFM Publications
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Telephone: +31 35 694 27 85
Email: eurofm@eurofm.org
www.eurofm.org
All reasonable care and attention has been taken in compiling this publication.
The author and the publishers regret that they cannot assume responsibility
for any error or omission contained herein.
All rights reserved. This publication may not be reproduced, re-used, re-
purposed, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without
the prior permission of the publishers.
A EuroFM Publication
EUROFM RESEARCH PAPERS
Advancing knowledge in FM
PROMOTING INNOVATION IN FM
March 2014
Organising Committee
Prof Keith Alexander (Chair) CFM, Manchester UK
Prof Michael May HTW University of Appl. Sciences, Berlin Germany
Scientific Committee
Prof Keith Alexander Centre for Facilities Management UK
Prof Per Anker Jensen CFM Realdania, DTU Denmark
Prof Mark Mobach Wageningen University Netherlands
Dr Susanne Nielsen CFM Realdania, DTU Denmark
Prof Lukas Windlinger Zurich University of Applied Sciences Switzerland
Review Panel
Prof Torben Bernhold University of Applied Sciences Muenster Germany
Dr Knut Boge Oslo & Akershus Univ Coll of App Sci Norway
Prof Siri Hunnes Blakstad NTNU, Trondheim Norway
Dr Inês Flores-Colen IST, TU Lisbon Portugal
Dr Brenda Groen Saxion University of Applied Sciences Netherlands
Prof Keith Jones University of Greenwich UK
Assoc Prof Antje Junghans NTNU, Trondheim Norway
Prof Kunibert Lennerts Karlsruhe Institute of Technology Germany
Assoc Prof Göran Lindahl Chalmers University, Gothenburg Sweden
Dr Margaret-Mary Nelson University of Bolton UK
Dr Suvi Nenonen Aalto University, Helsinki Finland
Dr Theo Van Der Voordt Delft University of Technology Netherlands
Dr Matt Tucker Liverpool John Moores University UK
Prof Thomas Wehrmüller Zurich University of Applied Sciences Switzerland
Moderators
Prof Jan Brochner Chalmers University, Gothenburg Sweden
Prof Tore Haugen NTNU, Trondheim Norway
Prof Ilfryn Price Sheffield Hallam University UK

CONTENTS
Foreword
Ron van de Weerd and Keith Alexander
Welcome to the HTW Berlin

Michael May
Introduction
Promoting innovation in FM 1
Keith Alexander
Section 1: Facilities Management Innovation

Introduction 2
Mark Mobach
Layout mechanisms that stimulate innovative behaviour of employees 5

Rianne Appel-Meulenbroek, Bauke de Vries and Mathieu Weggeman
Facilities Management soft service innovations – “Little bets” as risk reducing strategy 18
Knut Boge
Towards an effective workspace design by end-users’ emancipation 30
Herman Kok, Mark Mobach and Onno Omta
Section 2: Added value of FM

Introduction 40
Per Anker Jensen
Adding Value by FM: an exploration of management practice in the Netherlands and Denmark 41
Theo van der Voordt and Per Anker Jensen
Exploration of added value concepts in facilities management practice:
Learning from financial institutes 52
Feike Bergsma, Brenda Groen and Doranne Gerritse
Identity and image of FM: Two sides of a coin to promote value of FM 64
Daniel von Felten, Manuel Böhm, Christian Coenen and Gregory Meier
Section 3: Sustainability in FM
Introduction 73
Susanne Balslev Nielsen
Introducing the MINDER research project: Daily energy-efficiency reliability 75

Thomas Berker, Helen Jøsok Gansmo and Antje Junghans
The energy management equation 83
Stefan Jäschke and Markus Hubbuch
Sustainable retrofitting of Nordic university campuses 92
Robert Eriksson, Suvi Nenonen, Göran Lindahl, Antje Junghans and Susanne Balslev Nielsen
Section 4: Managing people and organisations

Introduction 104
Matthew Tucker
Capturing meal experience in nursing homes - an exploratory study 107

Hester van Sprang, Ruth Pijls-Hoekstra and Geertje Tonnaer
Workspace 2020 – club, hub and co-work space: Business models for optimal FM support
for office workers in the future 117
Arrien Termaat, Hester van Sprang and Brenda Groen
Contribution of facility management to hospital(ity) issues 129
Brenda Groen
Section 5: Managing infrastructure and space
Introduction
Antje Junghans 139
Selection of Key Performance Indicators for engineering facilities in

commercial buildings: A Focus Group study in Hong Kong 141
Chun Sing Man and Joseph Hung Kit Lai
Maintenance expenditures of technical building facilities in the public sector 152
Jens Helge Bossmann, Carolin Bahr and Kunibert Lennerts
Evidence-based design in learning environments: A practical framework for project briefing 162
Matti Sivunen, Jere Viljanen, Suvi Nenonen and Juho-Kusti Kajander
Section 6: Relationship management in Facilities Management

Introduction 174
Keith Alexander
Discovering the Relationship Lifecycle in FM: Phases and drivers of Client Value Perceptions 177
Christian Coenen and Paul Nwanna
Relationship value and relationship quality in FM-Customers' perspective 191
Ying Ying Cui
The Path to Excellence: Integrating customer satisfaction in productivity
measurement in Facility Management 201
Arno Meerman, Vanessa Lellek and David Serbin
Section 7: Facilities Information Management Systems

Introduction 212
Torben Bernhold
Sustainable Facilities Management through Building Information Modelling 214

Giulia Carbonari and Keith Jones
Usage of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Building Information
Models (BIM) in Facility Management at Botanischer Garten Berlin 224
Markus Krämer and Benjamin Peris
FM knowledge modelling and management by means of context awareness
and Augmented Reality 235
Janek Götze, Daniel Ellmer, Philipp Salzmann, Christian-Andreas Schumann,
Egon Müller and Michael May
EUROFM RESEARCH WORKSHOPS

Research workshops 244
Keith Alexander
Section 8: Advancing knowledge in Facilities Management

Introduction 245
Keith Alexander
Knowledge Map of Facilities Management 247

Suvi Nenonen, Göran Lindahl and Per Anker Jensen
Analysis of FM research subjects: A quantitative investigation of
academic facility management publications between 2006 and 2012 258
Christian Coenen and Viola Läuppi
Competencies for multi-, inter- and transdisciplinary research
in Facilities Management research 271
Suvi Nenonen and Goran Lindahl
Section 9: Higher Education Facilities
Introduction 279
Mark Mobach
Academic Identities and Spatial Narratives 282

Kaisa Airo
Designing a multi-purpose office through Learning by Developing 295
Pauliina Nurkka and Marjo Pääskyvuori
Reporting sustainability in Facility Management 306
Andrea Pelzeter
Section 10: FM Research World

Introduction 316
Per Anker Jensen
Strategic FM procurement: An issue of aligning services to business needs 318

Akarapong Katchamart and Danny Shiem-Shen Then
Post Occupancy Evaluation for improving of main dormitories (Choeng Doi) 329
Tanut Waroonkun and Supuck Prugsiganont
Facility Management in West- and Eastern Europe 339
Alex Redlein and Michael Zobl
Section 11: Research in Progress

Introduction 348
Keith Alexander
Safety and Security matters in FM 350

Daniel Haas and Stefan Jäschke
Facilities Management approach for achieving sustainability
in commercial buildings in Nigeria 361
Olayinka Olaniyi, Andrew Smith, Champika Liyanage and Akintola Akintoye
Facilities planning promoting efficient space use at hospital buildings 366
Emma Zijlstra, Mark P. Mobach, Cees P. van der Schans and Mariët Hagedoorn
Appendix
EuroFM Green Paper: FM Innovation 378
Mark Mobach, Herman Kok, Jennifer Konkol, Guilia Nardelli and Keith Alexander
FORE
EWORD
This yeaar’s theme - ‘Promoting innovation
i inn FM’ - refleects one of thhe major chaallenges for Facilities
F
Managem ment in Euroope, as well as providingg an importaant opportunity for positiioning the prrofession
and induustry. The reesponse to th
his challengee will underrpin recovery y from the llong downtu urn in the
global economy andd the continuiing financiall crisis. All fu
unctions in all
a kinds of oorganisation are
a being
encouragged to find innovative
i solutions in tthe post-receession enviroonment for bbusiness. Once again,
the time has come foor FM to takee the opportuunity and risee to the challlenge.
The pappers presented in this volume, reflectss the work thhat is being carried out bby researcheers across
Europe, usually in collaboration n with partnners in FM practice, to address som me of the keey issues
emerginng in the fielld. The papeers are organnised into th
he main them mes of the ccall, includinng added
value, F
FM innovatioon and sustaainability in FM, and rep present the further
f contrributions to the three
workingg groups. FMM innovation n is the main theme of EF FMC and the research woorkshop, orgaanised by
the RNGG working grroup, is a leading contribuution to the whole
w event..
Once aggain this yearr, the numbeer of abstraccts and paperrs submitted to the Reseaarch Symposium has
increaseed, reinforcinng EuroFM’ss position as a leading org ganisation fo
or the presenntation and diiscussion
of cuttinng edge reseaarch to a glo
obal audiencee. For the firrst time, research workshhops, hosted by HTW
Universiity, have beeen organised d to providee a broader opportunity for academi mics and posttgraduate
studentss to participatte.
EuroFMM continue to strive for world-class staandards of reesearch qualiity and is inddebted for thee support
of an innternationallyy recognised
d team of sccientific reviewers. EuroFM aims too be the auth horitative
voice foor FM knowlledge in Eurrope, and to make this openly accesssible for appplication in education
e
and pracctice.
We thannk all of the reviewers
r an
nd organiserss of this, the 13th EuroFM
M Research Symposium
m for their
tremenddous effort annd wish you all a successsful gathering
g.

Ron vann de Weerd Prof Keitth Alexanderr

Chairmaan EuroFM Convenoor EuroFM R Research Netw
work
WELC
COME TO THE HTW
H BER
RLIN
This yeaar the Germaan Facility Management
M A
Association (GEFMA) acts
a as nationnal host of th
he annual
Europeaan Facility Management
M t Conferencce (EFMC). An important part of the EFCM M are the
contribuutions from the field off FM researrch, which area presented during thee EuroFM Research
R
Workshoops and the EuroFM
E Ressearch Sympoosium.
The Hoochschule füür Technik undu Wirtsch aft (HTW) Berlin is th he host of tthis year’s Research
R
Workshoops. With a student body y of more thhan 13,000, the
t HTW is the t largest U
University off Applied
Sciencess in Berlin. With aroun nd 70 Bacheelor’s and Master’s
M courrses in Engiineering, Economics,
Informattion Technology, Culture and Designn, we provid de a remarkaable range off qualificatio
ons. Both
compactt and practicce-orientated
d, our degreee courses can be supplem mented by iinstruction inn foreign
languagees and key skills.
s Univeersity rankinggs have conssistently estaablished us aas one of thee leading
providerrs of a modeern and proffessional eduucation. Enjoying an ex xcellent acaddemic reputaation, the
HTW Beerlin has receeived many prizes
p for exxceptional inn
novation in the
t universityy sector.
Study, tteaching andd research at the HTW B Berlin are peerformed at two locationns: the Treskowallee
campus in Karlshorrst and the Wilhelminennhof campus in Oberschöneweide, where the Research R
Workshoops take plaace. The Wiilhelminenhoof campus has h a long and a rich traddition as a centre
c of
industriaal innovationn. Located in Berlin's S outh-East, itt played hosst to two fam
mous compaanies, the
Allgemeeine Elektriziitäts-Gesellschaft (AEG)) and the Kab belwerke Oberspree (KW WO).
Among many other topics
t the HT
TW focuses on real estate-oriented sttudy program
mmes, such as
a
 Real Estate Management
M t,
 Building Ennergy and Buuilding Inform
mation Techn
nology,
 Constructionn and Real Estate
E Managgement and
 Facility Mannagement.
Starting as early as 1995 the firsst FM prograamme in Gerrmany was established
e aas a major in
n Applied
Computer Sciences. In 2004 a full fu FM Bachhelor’s and Master’s
M deggree program
mme followed d, so that
we celebbrate in 20114 not only 20 years off HTW but also 10 yeaars of the FM M programm mes. FM
studentss are involvedd not only in
n education aand training but
b also in research projeects.
Some off the FM reseearch areas we
w cover are::
 FM and IT (CAFM/IWM
( MS, GIS, BIMM, IT integraation),
 FM and Auggmented Reaality,
 FM knowleddge transfer technologies
t s,
 Game-basedd learning,
 Benchmarkiing,
 Strategic spaace managem
ment and opttimization,
 Sustainabilitty.
Welcom t Researchh Workshops and Symposium and tthank you to
me to all partticipants of the o all who
contribuute to this impportant FM event.
e
Prof. Drr. habil. Michhael May

HTW Beerlin
13th EuroFM Research Symposium EFMC 2014
Introduction
EuroFM Research Papers
PROMOTING INNOVATION IN FACILITIES MANAGEMENT
Prof Keith Alexander

Chairman, EuroFM Research Network
Centre for Facilities Management, Manchester, UK
As convenor of the research network, it is a privilege to lead the EuroFM research community and to encourage its
contribution to developing new knowledge in this increasingly important area. Ensuring the future of facilities
management as a profession and as an industry and creating an enduring legacy for the next generation is a truly
worthwhile endeavour.
Once again, the general call for papers reminded us that FM is not just support services representing necessary cost
to organizations. FM can provide essential benefits and positive impacts of importance for both for the primary
activities of organizations, for all stakeholders and for society. It is rewarding to work with a network of researchers
and practitioners who believe that FM can make a difference to people’s lives and to the success of private, civil and
social enterprise.
As European economies begin to emerge from a very difficult economic, social and environmental climate, new
challenges and opportunities await and demand new insights and fresh thinking. FM innovation is the focus of the
13th EuroFM research symposium and this volume, contains a diverse set of research papers which address a broad
spectrum of issues.
EuroFM’s newly formed working group on FM Innovation has an interest in the innovation of services and spaces,
as we well as in the managerial and organisational contexts that stimulate innovation for the client organisation. The
group has identified the current state of knowledge and understanding and has laid out an agenda for research effort
in this area.
In all thirty three original papers have been selected for publication, representing new knowledge, relevant to the
focal issues identified in the call for papers. The papers for the research symposium are organised in the themes that
underpinned the call for papers. As such the papers not only represent contributions to the existing working groups,
but stimulate new opportunities for collaboration in advancing knowledge.
Once again EuroFM has organised research workshops, this year hosted by HTW University in Berlin. The
workshops provide opportunities for academics and postgraduate researchers to present and discuss the theoretical
and methodological issues arising from FM research. They also encourage less experienced researchers to discuss
their research in a supportive environment.
This year we have asked three senior, respected academics, to act as moderators and to provide a commentary on our
efforts to advance knowledge in FM. Their views will inform the continuous call for papers, within the three
working groups, to address EuroFM’s intention to be an authoritative voice for FM in Europe, achieving world-class
standards in scientific enquiry.
The research network also recognises the importance of its leading contribution to overall EuroFM objectives to
develop knowledge at the interfaces amongst education, practice and research. To this end, the overall programme
for EFMC again includes a joint session between practitioners and researchers to discuss and debate the importance
of evidence-based practice. Further changes to the format of the Research Symposium are planned for the coming
year, as part of a broader open access publishing initiative.
1
SECTION ONE:
FACILITIES MANAGEMENT INNOVATION
EuroFM WG3
Introduction
FM Innovation
Mark P. Mobach, Convenor, EuroFM WG3 FM Innovation
Hanze UAS Groningen, The Hague UAS,
University of Groningen, Wageningen University
Papers
EuroFM Green Paper (appendix)
Facility Management Innovation
Mark Mobach, Herman Kok, Jennifer Konkol and Guilia Nardelli,
Layout mechanisms that stimulate innovative behaviour of employees

Rianne Appel-Meulenbroek, Bauke de Vries and Mathieu Weggeman.
Facilities Management soft service innovations – “Little bets” as risk reducing strategy
Knut Boge.
Towards an effective workspace design by end-users’ emancipation

Herman Kok, Mark Mobach and Onno Omta.
2
EuroFM WG3: FM Innovation
Introduction
FM INNOVATION
Mark P. Mobach
Hanze UAS Groningen, The Hague UAS,
In addressing and discussing Facility Management Innovation (FMI) many different

interpretations of both FM and of innovation can be expected to emerge.
What exactly is FM?

When may we speak of an innovation?
Are small improvements included or not?
What exactly do organisations do when they say they are working on FM and innovation? What
is the object of innovation?
Is it about digitalization?
About virtual worlds and about open BIM? Or is it about sending out surveys to assess user
satisfaction?
What kinds of innovations are meaningful to facility managers?
The process of innovation or the outcome of it?
Which of these are ground breaking?
Do facility managers appreciate innovation differently for a good reason?
How does this relate to the context of innovation?
For instance, in many European countries facility managers have a technical background or a
background in engineering; while at the same time in other countries FM is about management.
This may lead to totally different approaches in FM and innovation, but where and how can we
connect fruitfully? Can we find accommodations to change and innovate, perhaps even benefit
from differences in nationality, line of business, or organisation? These questions and many
others will be addressed in the working group FMI.
To the FM community it is evident that people and the designs of organisation, infrastructure and
space are strongly connected in practice. Each of these design elements can be viewed as an
environmental condition that influences the way in which people can function effectively. This
observation also implies that organisations may be regarded as an interwoven system of
organisation and space. Innovation relates to the unlocking of the synergetic potentials in both
organisation and space. For instance, the right R&D spaces can stimulate creativity and
innovation, well-considered services and spaces can stimulate patient recovery in hospitals, and
the right workplace innovations can support leadership in changing the culture of the
organisation. But the scientific evidence remains scarce yet.
How exactly are the above designs of services and spaces related?
Where do changes emerge if we intervene in the FM system?
In making what kinds of combinations?
3
What combinations proof strongest?

Which of these are the most effective?
How can we improve the evidence of the above?
And perhaps most importantly, how can the research community involve the FM practice
community into FM research, and in addition, how can we create slack, a mental free zone in
research and practice for ground-breaking experiments?
For this reason, the working group FMI has written a green paper to address some of the above
questions and stimulate further work in the area of Facility Management Innovation. Moreover,
three papers are used as a kick-off for this working group.
In the first paper, Appel-Meulenbroek, De Vries and Weggeman will show us that the added
value of the workplace for innovation remains hard to be proven empirically. They contend that
realistic evaluation of layout mechanisms and the quantitative layout metrics are valid ways in
helping FM to prove how it is adding value to the organisation. Boge, in the second paper,
illuminates how innovations actually take place in the soft service industry. His study has
identified five main mechanisms concerning how FM soft service innovations actually take place
in practice. Kok and his colleagues involve us in their quest for an effective workspace design
process that satisfies different users of the commonly used work environment in the third paper.
They argue that facility managers should operate more closely to the primary process rather than
aligning with the Board.
I believe that these papers help the FM community to better integrate the topics of management
and organisation with spatial topics and will allow us to advance the understanding in our
beautiful discipline.
4
Layout mechanisms that stimulate innovative behaviour of employees

Rianne Appel-Meulenbroek
Eindhoven University of Technology, Real Estate Management & Development
h.a.j.a.appel@tue.nl
+31(0)40-2472092
Bauke de Vries
Eindhoven University of Technology, Design Systems
b.d.vries@tue.nl
Mathieu Weggeman
Eindhoven University of Technology, Organization science
m.c.d.p.weggeman@tue.nl
ABSTRACT
If an organisation aims at stimulating organisational learning and innovation, FM should align by
stimulating innovative behaviour like knowledge sharing. Encouraging employee innovation is the
most important FM strategy focusing more on effectiveness of the organisation, besides the
general focus on efficiency through reducing costs. But the added value of the workplace for
innovation remains hard to be proven empirically. To be able to show added value it is necessary
to have suitable quantitative metrics, and discover the underlying mechanisms for evaluating
office design, like stressed in Realistic Evaluation theory. This paper describes statistical tests on
an R&D based organisation of three different layout mechanisms. We used eight quantitative
layout metrics and several knowledge sharing behaviour metrics (obtained with logbooks from
138 employees) to show how added value is achieved.
The strong influence of context on the working of the mechanisms makes it hard to generalise
results to other organisations. But the findings did prove that different layout mechanisms exist,
and that realistic evaluation and the quantitative layout metrics that were distinguished are a
valid way to study them inside an organisation. They help FM prove how it is adding value to the
organisation. Projecting the results from the case-study on the new layout gave insight in the
knowledge sharing that should take place after a planned renovation program would be
implemented. This helped the FM to discuss his plans with general management and other
stakeholders in his organisation.
Keywords
Innovative behaviour, Layout mechanisms, Added value, Workplace
5
1 INTRODUCTION
Before, Facility Management (FM) decisions were made with no overall strategy in mind or
coordination with other units (Gibler, Black and Moon, 2002). But this is changing, as real estate
is getting more attention from general management. Because Corporate real estate (CRE) is a
costly resource, they often benchmark it with financial input indicators only. But FM can add
value to the organisation with CRE in more ways (Lindholm and Leväinen, 2006), which can be
grouped in:
 Added exchange value (‘Reducing costs’, ‘Increasing the Value of assets’, ‘Increasing
flexibility’).
 Added use value (‘Promoting marketing and sales’, ‘Increasing innovation’, ‘Increasing
employee satisfaction’, ‘Increasing productivity’).
While exchange value lies fully within the expertise field of FM, tuning with other business
functions is necessary to deliver use value (e.g. HRM, R&D, marketing). To be able to
coordinate with other business functions, FM needs to be at the strategic table, which is too often
not the case.
A focus on unit costs and building condition rather than overall costs and effectiveness will keep
FM from capturing full strategic attention (Price, Ellison and MacDonald 2009). But to prove
added value it needs reliable techniques for (pre-occupancy) evaluations of designs or buildings.
Evaluation delivers the power to justify decisions to general management. Realistic Evaluation is
a theory developed by Pawson and Tilley (1997) that tries to perfect methods of evaluation. It
tries to identify mechanisms behind the working of programs (see Figure i). To do that,
quantitative metrics of CRE are necessary, to prove correlation with organisational outcome
metrics.
In the modern world, innovation is key. Although innovation is getting a lot of attention, the
working of the mechanisms underlying the added value of CRE for innovation outcome is not
clear (Steen and Markhede, 2010). Our literature study did suggest, however, that specifically
building design can stimulate innovative behaviour. Especially knowledge sharing behaviour is
important for innovative strength of organisations, and thus the focus of this study. The effect of
building form and layout on behaviour is hard to measure because they are mostly described with
qualitative aspects. With these, FM cannot prove the success of the design to general
management. Therefore, the goal of this exploratory research was to develop and test a list of
suitable quantitative metrics that can prove through which mechanism(s) layout adds value to
knowledge sharing behaviour within a specific context and organisation. This provides FM with
a tool to identify possibilities for increased added value within their own organisational context.
After a review of existing literature, and development of a conceptual model, the research
approach is described. This is followed by our findings, discussion and recommendations.
6
Figure i Causation according to Realistic Evaluation.
2 Literature review
2.1 Knowledge sharing behaviour
Knowledge sharing (KS) is defined as “the application of knowledge for the benefit of oneself or
another person in interaction” (Berends, 2003). There is a common distinction in most
knowledge management literature between explicit knowledge (information) and tacit
knowledge (experiences, skills, attitude). Our definition complies with the practice-based
perspective, which stresses the embeddedness of knowledge in purposeful human activity
(Hislop, 2009). It also emphasizes that ICT cannot replace the necessary face-to-face
communication for tacit KS (Nenonen, 2005), but can only be used to share explicit knowledge.
Many synonyms are used for KS, like collaboration, communication, and integration. But in
general, a distinction is made between (brief) interactions and more time-consuming and
interdependent collaboration (Kahn, 1996). Most (objectivist) research focuses on the first level,
because it is a behaviour that is relatively easy to quantify, measure, and change by management
(planned meetings, document exchange). Collaboration has the same interactive behaviour but
with more interdependence and combines this with attitudinal aspects, which are harder to
measure (they are inside the human mind). Stimulating collaboration therefore remains more of a
lacuna. But as it has a more positive influence on innovation than interaction (Kahn, 1996), it
deserves more attention.
The tacit and explicit knowledge components are not totally inseparable. Similarly, the line
between interaction behaviour and collaboration behaviour is not very clear either, because the
same communication channels and activities can be used. The difference lies more in the
wilfulness of actually wanting to achieve something together (involvement) versus just
exchanging information. Interaction and collaboration can be operationalised with categories of
KS moves identified through observing researchers in different organisations (Berends, 2003).
These moves might also determine the (type of) knowledge that can be shared, based on the
involvement during the cooperation between persons. While interactions have been shown to
help in sharing explicit knowledge, it is assumed that this might not be enough to share tacit
knowledge. Interaction activities are giving descriptions and reporting on explicit information in
either an oral or written form. For more tacit KS collaboration it is deemed necessary, to share
knowledge through activities involving proposals, evaluations, questions and engaged actions.
7
2.2 Layout mechanisms

The literature proving a positive influence of layout on any synonym of KS, has been interpreted
in a content analysis to identify in more detail the layout mechanisms that might increase
interaction and/or collaboration (see Table 1). One local workplace mechanism came forward
that stimulates both interaction and collaboration:
• Visual/aural accessibility. Working in visually open layouts enhances face-to-face
interaction through seeing and overhearing. If people can see others at their workstations,
they can collaborate, share tasks and ideas more easily and provide assistance, because
they are more aware of other people’s need for help.
For the building as a whole, two mechanisms could be identified of which only the first one has
been shown to influence both interaction and collaboration:
• Centrality. Spaces that are centrally located and have connections to many other places
enhance unplanned interaction because of their connection to well-trafficked pathways.
Also it is easier (faster) to walk over to colleagues to share knowledge.
• Exposure. Layout controls the flows of people on a floor and who get to know each other.
Because of exposure, employees sitting close to the flows of movement interact more.
Table 1 Literature on layout mechanisms

Mechanisms Accessibility Centrality Exposure
Inter- Collabo Inter- Collabo Inter- Collabo
Sources action -ration action -ration action -ration
Allen, 1977 X
Grajewski, 1992 X
Becker, Quinn and X
X X
Tennessen, 1995
Covi, Olson and Rocco, 1998 X X
Spiliopoulou and Penn, 1999 X X
Penn, Desyllas and Vaughan, X X X
X
1999
Becker and Sims, 2001 X X
Rashid et al., 2006 X
Markhede and Steen, 2006 X
Markhede and Koch, 2007 X
Wineman and Adhya, 2007 X
Sailer et al., 2007 X X X X
Brown, 2008 X
Toker and Gray, 2008 X X
Blakstad, Hatling and
X X
Bygdås, 2009
Steen and Markhede, 2010 no X
Koch and Steen, 2012 X X
If there is one thing that these layout studies point out, it is that people are more inclined to
cooperate when they see each other, whether it is for a long(er) time or when passing by. Others
have referred to this as ‘spatial behaviour’, and distinguished between Co-presence (number of
active and/or inactive people visible) and Movement (number of people moving along a path)
8
from a building/spaces point of view (Steen and Markhede, 2010). Co-presence is the more local
spatial behaviour. The positive influence of visual/aural accessibility can be assigned to this
spatial behaviour. Exposure and centrality within the building relate to the global spatial
behaviour called movement. As in this paper the unit of analyses are the employees of an
organisation and not the spaces itself, movement was renamed into Position in the building,
which regards the movement nearby.
Previous studies that identified mechanisms have several shortcomings in their methodologies,
and do not compare the strength of all the mechanisms. For data on KS, they often use perceived
data from surveys, and/or only communication without taking into account the content of what is
shared. The data collected on the layout, are hard to extend to buildings in general, because they
only studied certain types of spaces or used longitudinal studies without quantifying the design.
It is important, that metrics cannot only describe the layout quantitatively, but are also close to an
intuitive understanding of space. Otherwise, non-real estate people, what general management
usually is, will not understand it.
Therefore, for this study eight such quantitative layout metrics were identified to study the effect
of all three mechanisms on the number of KS meetings of individuals (see the conceptual model
in figure ii). Next, the association of the metrics with several other descriptors of KS were
studied to get more insight in what has happened during the meeting and to distinguish between
interaction and collaboration.
Figure ii Conceptual model.

Co-presence
- accessibility
Density
Location inside the room
Visible workplaces
Compactness Knowledge sharing of

individual
Position in the building # of KS meetings

– exposure
Distance to entrance
Size of workplace
Openness perimeter
- centrality
Average walking distance to
other workplaces
3 Research approach
To obtain the layout metrics, isovist and visibility graph analyses were used. An isovist is
defined as “the set of all points visible from a given vantage point in space and with respect to an
environment” (Benedikt, 1979) (see Figure iii). When isovists are placed on a regular grid, a
9
13th EurroFM Reseaarch Symposium EF
FMC 2014
visibilityy graph cann be deriveed, which iis a “graphh of mutuallly visible loocations in a spatial
layout” (Turner et al., 2001) ((see Figure iv). Isovistss are useful because thhey describee the exact
layout area
a that suppplies visuaal accessibillity (co-pressence). Visiibility graphhs describe the layout
of the flloor as a whhole from thhe viewpointt of exposurre and centrrality. Each nnode can bee seen as a
potentiaal place for another perrson. Depthm map softwarre (version 7.12) was used,u becausse it could
generatee all metricss, and read AAutoCAD ddrawings.
Figure iiii Examplee of isovists at eye-levell from 2 different workkplaces.
To colleect the behaavioural dataa, a logbookk was choseen, because it outperforrms a questionnaire in
validity, and sampple surveys in precisionn of measuurement. Beesides persoonal informaation (e.g.
days prresent at woork, locatioon of desk),, participannts had to fill
f in date, start time, duration,
locationn and converrsation partnners for all face-to-facee meetings dduring whicch work relaated issues
came upp. As planneed meetingss are less likkely to be a result of thhe physical work enviroonment as
unschedduled conversations, thee intentionality of each conversatioon was askeed as well, too filter out
the scheeduled meeetings. It alsso containedd questionss on the KS S activities, the initiatoor and the
issues aaddressed. L
Last, questioons on the ppresence of an alternattive source to acquire tthe shared
knowleddge, and invvolvement oof the other person werre taken up,, to test assuumptions onn tacit and
explicit knowledgee and differeences betweeen interactiion and colllaboration. A test of thhe logbook
showed that the KS S items chosen to studyy the KS prrocess in moore depth w were clear too its users,
and thatt there were no major problems fillling in the loogbook.
4 R
Results
The R& &D buildingg of an industrial researrch organisaation (Océ T Technologiees) was choosen as the
subject of this expllorative studdy. It was bbuilt in 19884 and in neeed of a rennovation. Inn total 269
employeees had a w workplace inn the buildinng, of whichh 138 kept a logbook duuring one w week (51%
responsee rate). Thiis provided us with a database off 1907 KS meetings. The T buildingg has two
floors (ssee Figure vv), and has both large and small rrooms, ranging from sinngle-personn rooms to
open areeas with upp to 29 workkplaces. Sm mall lab areaas without ddaylight aree concentratted around
the corridors.
10
FMC 2014
Figure iiv A visibiliity graph exxample.
Figure v Layout caase buildingg.
4.1 D
Data descriiption
On averrage, participants had 14 KS meeetings this week w with five differeent colleaguues, which
were moostly one-onn-one meetiings and toook place at a workplacce (78%) orr in a lab arrea (14%).
The halllway and coffee machhine might bbe places w where a lot ofo talking taakes place, but not to
share w
work-relatedd knowledge in the w way that waas studied here. Questions were the most
commonn way to shhare knowlledge (56%)), but the other o four K
KS activitiees also tookk place (+
20%). During
D a dayy, an averagge of 45 minnutes was sppent in unplaanned KS m meetings, wiith 80% of
11
the meetings lasting up to 15 minutes. The knowledge that was shared appeared to be very tacit,
because it was often (77%) available through one person only. Most meetings were intentional
(72%) and concerned a problem (89% of which 44% was a shared problem). Involvement in
each other’s problems was generally high (3-5 on a 5-point scale).
An AutoCAD drawing with both floors was imported into Depthmap, and a grid of 0,50 x 0,50
meters was placed over the entire layout to generate the metrics. On average, a participant:
• had 15 m2/workplace,
• saw 7 roommates from behind his/her desk,
• sat 8 meters from the entrance,
• had a visible room size of 168 m2 and
• had an average walking distance of 61 meters to the other workplaces in the building.
Participants were spread over the rooms (so some were in the centre, others at the outskirts). The
group offices provided their inhabitants with a more compact and smaller work area, than the
larger, rectangular, open areas. 63% of the participants was visible from the entrance of the
room.
As the amount of KS meetings was not spread normal, Spearman's correlation had to be used to
test the conceptual model. The five categories of KS activities (descriptions, questions, actions,
proposals, evaluations) and other KS indicators (location, intentionality, initiator, alternative
source, involvement) were visualised and tested with χ2-tests for possible differences in KS
behaviour for certain values of the layout metrics.
4.2 Findings
From the three mechanisms identified from literature, only accessibility and centrality had a
significant association with the amount of KS meetings for this organisation and this context (see
Table 2). Apparently, the exposure mechanism was not triggered at Océ. Looking at the
correlations of the metrics used, the strongest ones belong to the accessibility mechanism.
However, it appears to include two different groups of metrics. In literature, accessibility is also
used sometimes for visibility and sometimes for placement issues. So, it seems better to split
accessibility into these two different mechanisms. Visibility of colleagues appeared to have
increased the amount of KS meetings the most with a correlation of .355 (see also figure vi). The
placement within the room metrics showed that there must be a limit to the visibility mechanism,
because an increase in average walking distance to roommates (and decrease in density) lowered
the amount of KS meetings (correlation = .181). An optimum room size did not come forward.
The centrality metric showed the expected decrease in number of KS meetings with an increase
in distance (correlation = .183).
A closer look at what happened during the KS meetings, showed more significant influence of
the mechanisms for this organisation. Participants with many visible workplaces had
significantly more KS meetings at the coffee machine (χ2(12, N=1880) = 23.683, p < .05). More
visibility also increased the amount of intentional visits (χ2(1, N=1891) = 7.360, p < .01). And
the participants with fewer visible workplaces mentioned more often that another person than the
one they met could have provided the same knowledge (χ2(6, N=949) = 14.319, p < .05), which
makes the knowledge they shared less tacit. Placement within the room significantly influenced
which KS activities were used to share knowledge (χ2(4, N=1379) = 10.972, p < .05). Sitting
closer to each other seemed to increase awareness and prompt people to give more descriptions.
At a distance, it appears necessary to ask things that might otherwise have been clear by
12
overhearing/awareness. The participants at the ‘outskirts’ of an area also seemed to have more
opportunity there to evaluate or perform actions together. Participants in more dense
environments used meeting areas more often; possibly not to disturb the others (χ2(5, N=1758) =
11.412, p < .05). Centrality showed no further differences in KS behaviour. The exposure
metrics had no association with the amount of KS meetings, but did show differences in the KS
activities that were chosen. Participants visible from the entrance used descriptions and actions
significantly more often to share knowledge (χ2(4, 1379) = 16.409, p < .01). Perhaps the visible
participants were consulted more for quick needs for a description or to help with an issue, when
people entered the room.
Table 2 Correlation between layout metrics and amount of KS meetings

Mechanism Spearman’s
rho
correlation
Visibility (accessibility)
 Visible workplaces .355**
 Compactness -.328**
Placement within the room (accessibility)
 Density .181*
 Location inside the room .168*
Centrality in the building
 Average walking distance to all -.183*
workplaces
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
5 Discussion and Recommendations

Overall, the association of layout with the number of KS meetings at the case organisation (Océ)
was not really strong. The strongest association (.355) is still considered ‘moderately strong’ for
Spearman correlations in general. But it does show how FM can add more use value through
considering the influence of the layout on this important organisational process. FM is a
supportive resource, and it cannot be expected to be responsible on its own for a high variance in
the amount of KS. Other context variables (e.g. organisation structure, culture, working on the
same project) will be responsible for the largest part of this variance (hence the use of realistic
evaluation). But even if only 20% of the variance would be explained, this means that FM can
support and improve the primary process of their client organisation significantly, and that is
their main task. The methodology used gave FM insight in the relevance of metrics within their
organisational context and in the current workplace effectiveness.
A face validity test showed the findings to be clear and interesting and Océ could identify with
them. Also, they felt that the layout metrics represented their building correctly. They mentioned
that KS at Océ does indeed take place similarly as the results from the logbooks showed.
Projecting the results from the case-study on the new layout gave insight in the KS that should
take place after the renovation program is implemented. The facility manager was happy with
this, because it helped him show the added value of the new layout to general management.
13
Figure vi Visible workplaces and the # of KS meetings.

40
118
30
95
# of KS meetings
48
20
29
10 24
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
It will be necessary to have a relevant list of (layout) metrics for each different added value as
mentioned in the introduction, to prove in general how real estate interventions trigger the
desired mechanism(s) of an organisation. Each FM department will have to look within their
own ‘black box’ and see how layout mechanisms are best implemented to support the specific
goals of their client. FM will have to cooperate with other business functions on this, to make
sure that the right needs are supported. Results of an internal benchmark with the quantitative
metrics explored in this paper can then be discussed in briefs with architects and other external
parties. They can also be used to compare alternatives, using the actual layout drawings from an
architect. This way the tacit knowledge of architects on how layout influences behaviour can be
made explicit and discussed with clients with less knowledge of building design.
Some metrics were easy to generate and monitor, while others took considerably more time and
effort. Some layout metrics (compactness, centrality) demand an automated approach
(Depthmap) because it was too much work to calculate them manually. A downfall of this is that
only the programmer knows the computer program by heart, so the users might be stuck with the
feeling that they miss the due diligence possibility of manual approaches (Brown, 2008). Océ
indicated that they would only use such metrics for buildings with complicated layouts or if they
would start regularly monitoring many buildings. This is for each FM team to decide, after they
have explored the relevance of metrics and mechanisms for their specific context.
Realistic evaluation emphasizes the influence of context on outcome, and how mechanisms
might or might not be triggered to produce an outcome. The influence of context on the outcome
became clear as not all mechanisms from previous studies were triggered at Océ. So Realistic
Evaluation is a good basis for these types of studies that combine spatial mechanisms and
effectiveness outcomes. Realistic evaluation allows the combination of different methods of data
collection. For this research, the logbooks gave clear data on the questions that were asked, but
in retrospect could have been supplemented by a follow up survey. This could have gone deeper
into the knowledge gathered from the logbook analyses.
14
Many recommendations for further research can be distinguished. This study looked at face-to-
face meetings only. Among CRE practitioners, virtual cooperation still has a very low priority
(Gibler, Lindholm and Anderson, 2010). But there are academics that have studied the use of
technology for remote collaboration (Covi, Olson and Rocco, 1998), like email, phone and all
kind of internet applications. Even some comparisons have been made between face-to-face and
distant communication (e.g. Heerwagen et al, 2004). Studies looking at both forms of
communication showed that ICT cannot replace the necessary face-to-face communication for
KS. It has advantages (more open and democratic), but also disadvantages, for example that
people communicating electronically have a hard time imagining what others are feeling (Sproull
and Kiesler, 1991). It is not possible to share complex information without the feedback
available by the presence of the other person (Allen and Henn, 2007). Studies (Allen and Henn,
2007; Spiliopoulou and Penn, 1999) did find that people mix the media that they use, so people
with more face-to-face communication also communicate more through other media. With the
rise of innovative ICT tools, the ability to virtually share tacit knowledge should be studied
further.
Social networks are also very important for collaboration, as they help structure access to
knowledge and knowledge transformation (Wineman et al, 2013). The tie formation for these
networks is influenced by the layout (Sailer and McCulloh, 2012). But Wineman et al found that
spatial measures and social network measures have individual contributions to innovation
outcomes. It would be interesting to further study their relative impact and how spatial and social
networks can enforce each other.
In this organisation, hardly any unplanned meetings took place in designated meeting areas.
This does not mean that meeting areas are not relevant in other contexts. The case building only
had very standard meeting rooms. To study this mechanism in depth, cases must be sought that
deliberately use a range of meeting places to create certain conditions. Then it can be tested
whether and how this mechanism works. The activity based office concepts related to the trend
of New Ways of Working do have many specifically designed places to incidentally sit down for
a short (or longer) chat. It should be studied how all these types of meeting areas influence (KS)
behaviour. As activity based offices often have large open areas (too large according to our
results), they might show different results for all mechanisms. As these offices are based on non-
dedicated seats, people can use different types of workplaces during the day. This will influence
who they meet, and how they share knowledge with them. Exposure should be studied further as
well to understand the mechanism better in more and less open layouts, and in these activity
based offices. Perhaps then an optimum room size can someday be determined.
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17
Facilities Management soft service innovations – “Little bets” as risk

reducing strategy
Knut Boge
Oslo and Akershus University College of Applied Sciences
knut.boge@hioa.no
Telephone 47-64 84 91 07
ABSTRACT
Purpose: Due to outsourcing, third party service providers produce a significant part of Facilities
Management (FM) soft services at the clients’ premises. Many FM soft service contracts only
last 3 to 5 years. The third party service providers’ operational level employees, turnover rate is
often high. The service providers’ business environment is thus often transparent and highly
volatile. The third party service providers struggle to keep business secrets and maintain their
competitiveness. However, despite these systemic difficulties the FM soft service industry has
been very innovative. This paper investigates four research questions: What are the main
categories of FM soft service innovations? How do such innovations take place? What are the
third party service providers’ yardsticks for innovations? And finally, how do third party service
providers handle risks and uncertainties during innovation processes?
Design/methodology/approach: This is a qualitative explorative empirical study based on
interviews with seven current or former Norwegian FM executives.
Findings: Most FM soft service innovations seem to be incremental, and results of dialogues
between the third party service providers and their clients. Some FM soft service innovations are
results of the service providers’ mergers and acquisitions. The third party service provider’
market research is another source for innovations. The financial and operational upsides are two
of the third party service providers’ most important yardsticks for FM soft service innovations,
and little bets seem to be one of their preferred strategies for managing risks.
Originality/value: Most studies about innovations take place in technology driven industries.
There are relatively few studies about innovations in labour intensive “blue collar” industries
such as FM soft services. This study provides indications about how and why Norwegian third
party service providers innovate.
Keywords
Facilities Management, Soft services, Innovation, Norway.
1 INTRODUCTION
The innovation literature has traditionally been based on the premise that innovations take place
through technological breakthroughs. Such technological breakthroughs often facilitate
development of entire new industries (Lamoreaux & Sokoloff, 2007; Freeman & Soete, 1997).
Typical examples of this development path are the textile, railroad, chemical, electro and power
generating equipment, automotive, aerospace, and recently also the information technology,
communication, computer, life science and green industries. Development of new technologies
often causes well established companies to fail (Christensen, 1997). This is an example of what
18
Joseph A. Schumpeter (1975) described as “creative destruction”, and what Clayton Christensen
(1997) described as “disruptive innovations”; innovations that change entire industries
The traditional innovation literature is also very often based on the premise that innovative
companies protect their innovations and competiveness through patents or secrecy (Lamoreaux
& Sokoloff, 2007; Freeman & Soete, 1997). The Facilities Management (FM) industry is often
far more transparent and volatile than traditional goods producing industries. Services are thus
usually far more difficult to protect than hardware and technology, even if many services are
based on application of numerous kinds of technologies. This is clearly evident for so-called
“Soft FM”; i.e. labour intensive “blue collar” services such as cleaning, catering, security, office
support, front desk, janitor, waste management, landscaping, etc.
Due to outsourcing third party service providers produce a significant part of FM soft services at
the clients’ premises. There are close relations between the third party service providers and their
clients, even if the contracts usually only last three to five years. The third party service
providers’ operational level employees often have a high turnover rate. The combination of
relatively short term contracts and high turnover among the operational level employees often
makes it difficult for third party service providers to keep business secrets and maintain their
competitive edge. However, despite this context, the FM soft service industry has been very
innovative.
There are relatively few academic studies of FM soft service innovations. A search in Emerald’s
database for the keyword innovation identified only 24 articles in Facilities (1992-2014) and 6
articles in Journal of Facilities Management (2006-2012). A search for the keyword services
identified 45 articles in Facilities (1994-2013) and 28 articles in Journal of Facilities
Management (2003-2014). However, a search for articles that included both the keywords
innovation and services identified only 1 article in Facilities (2004) and 2 articles in Journal of
Facilities Management (2006 and 2013). Tomas Mudrak, Andreas van Wagenberg and Emiel
Wubben’s (2004) article address the FM teams’ “innovativity” from a theoretical perspective.
Paula Cardellino and Edward Finch’s (2006) article is an empirical study of service innovations
among 11 third party and in-house service providers. Cardellino and Finch found FM
organisations to be “highly innovative”, and dialogues with clients and end users were important
sources for new ideas. Cardellino and Finch also found that innovation processes often were
informal, and that third party service providers used innovations to differentiate themselves from
competitors. Ada Scupola’s (2012) study is based on 15 interviews with representatives from 14
FM organisations. Scupola found that major third party service providers perceive “innovations
as a strategic activity and see themselves as innovative companies”.
The aim of this paper is to get a better understanding of how and why Norwegian third party
service providers innovate. This paper examines four research questions:
- RQ1: What are the main categories of FM soft service innovations?
- RQ2: How do FM soft service innovations take place?
- RQ3: What are the third party service providers’ yardsticks for FM soft service innovations?
- RQ4: How do third party service providers handle risks and uncertainties during innovation
processes?
2 INNOVATION
Jan Fagerberg (2005, pp. 4-5) makes a distinction between invention and innovation: “Invention
is the first occurrence of an idea for a new product or process, while innovation is the first
attempt to carry it out in practice”. Fagerberg emphasises that innovation is not a single event,
19
but a lengthy process that usually involves numerous interrelated innovations; i.e. there is an
interaction between different kinds of innovations. One innovation may pave the road for several
others, and so forth.
Joseph A. Schumpeter (1983, p. 66), who is often considered the founding father of the field of
innovation research, defines innovation as ”the carrying out of new combinations”, and describes
five categories of innovations, namely 1: Introduction of a “new good”, or “a new quality of a
good”. 2: Introduction of a “new method of production”. 3: “The opening of a new market”. 4:
“The conquest of a new source of supply of raw materials or half-manufactured goods”. 5: “The
carrying out of the new organization of any industry”, for instance through creation of trusts or
monopolies or shattering existing trusts or monopolies. The individuals that carry out the new
combinations are “entrepreneurs”, according to Schumpeter (1983, p. 74).
Chris Freeman and Luc Soete (1997, p. 200) describe innovation as a “two-sided or coupling
activity”, which means “recognition of a need or more precisely, in economic terms, a potential
market for a new product or process” and “technical knowledge”. Market pull or technology
push alone does thus not facilitate innovations. Innovations take place where and when these two
conditions work together. Freeman and Soete (1997, p. 388) distinguish between three categories
of innovations, namely “Radical innovations” “Incremental innovation” and “Diffusion”, ranging
from innovations caused by breakthroughs in basic research, to further development (i.e. better
mouse traps) and industrialization (mass production) entailing scientific breakthroughs.
Table 1 The innovation space

Radical change Product revolution Process re- Strategic New to the
engineering transformation world/New to the
firm
Incremental Product evolution Process Strategic Product line
change change/improvement development extension/Product
improvement
Current (No Market penetration Process efficiency Strategic focus Repositioning
change) (volume)
Product/Service Process Strategic
Source: Ahmed & Shepherd 2010, p. 12 Figure 1.2
Pervaiz K. Ahmed and Charles D. Shepherd (2010) have used strategic mapping to define what
they denote as the innovation space. Their innovation space is shown in Table 1. Ahmed and
Shepherd distinguish between formats of innovation (X-axis); i.e. between product/service
innovations, process innovations and strategic innovations. They similarly distinguish between
the degree of change or newness (Y-axis). This gives us a 3x3 matrix or innovation space.
Product or service innovations are either technology (technology push) or market(ing) driven
(market pull), and manifested through new physical products or services, or combinations
thereof. Examples of product innovations of relevance for the FM industry are cleaning
machines, cleaning robots or new services. Process innovations concern how industries organize
and manage their tasks. The assembly line, flexible production systems, Just-in-Time production,
and Lean production are typical examples of process innovations. Strategic innovations are first
and foremost about changes in business models. One strategic innovation of particular relevance
for the FM-industry is the distinction between primary activities or core business and support
20
activities (Porter, 1985; Prahalad and Hamel, 1990). Recognition of the distinction between
primary and support activities, and emphasis on the core business, has led to outsourcing of
many support activities, hereunder FM soft services. Ahmed and Shepherd’s innovation space is
thus a useful tool for analysing FM innovations. Outsourcing of support activities was for
instance used deliberately as one of the means for comprehensive public sector reforms in
Norway (Boge, 2010). But decisions about whether to outsource or not to outsource support
activities are not always straightforward (Boge, 2012).
Traditional normative models for development of service innovations typically include six to
four linear stages. One example of a six stages model is: 1. Strategy formulation. 2. Idea
generation. 3. Analysis. 4. Service design and process development. 5. Testing, and 6.
Introduction. One example of a four stages model is: 1. Direction. 2. Design. 3. Testing, and 4.
Introduction (Johnson, Scheuing & Gaida, 1985, and Scheuing & Johnson, 1989, in Ahmed &
Shepherd 2010, p. 190-191 Figure 5.17). These models are very similar to the business school
perspective on entrepreneurship (Cf. Fry 1993), which is often based on a linear cause-effect
perspective between (market) research, recognition of business opportunities, establishment of
goals, mobilisation of resources, and implementation of the hopefully successful venture.
Peter Sims (2011), who has been inspired by Saras D. Sarasvathy’s (2008) concept of
“Effectuation”, recommends “little bets” as innovation strategy. The little bets strategy is based
on systematic use of small scale tests or pilot projects; i.e. to try, doing the necessary
adjustments, try again, and so forth. Sims’ recommendation is not to escalate or to increase the
scale until things work properly. Little bets is thus a risk reducing strategy.
3 METHODOLOGY
This exploratory study is an attempt of elucidating a subject that has not been studied that
thoroughly in Norway. The object in most Norwegian studies about innovations have been
technology driven industries, such as ICT, electronics, aerospace, pharmacy, energy, subsea,
manufacturing, sea farming, etc. There are few studies about innovations in labour intensive
“blue collar” industries like FM soft services. An exploratory approach is thus justified.
This paper is based on a case study design. Case studies can, according to Robert K. Yin (1994,
pp. 4-9), be a useful research strategy if the researcher’s aim is to answer “how” and “why”
questions. The aim of this study is to get a better understanding of how and why Norwegian third
party service providers innovate, and this study paves the way for further studies.
Most of the data presented in this paper have been collected through qualitative semi-structured
interviews with seven respondents. Six respondents are current or former executives in major
Norwegian third party FM soft service providers. One respondent is a consultant with a past as a
major purchaser of FM soft services.
These seven respondents were chosen deliberately because of their in depth knowledge about the
Norwegian FM soft service industry. They have inside information about Norway’s major third
party service providers, the FM-industry’s business association and many major clients. This is
an example of what Yin (2011, p. 88, Yin’s emphasis) describe as a “purposive sampling”
strategy, to collect the most “relevant and plentiful” data. A purposive sampling strategy is a
necessary but not sufficient condition for valid research results.
All interviews except one were telephone interviews. The respondents received the interview
guide together with the invitation to participate in the study. Each interview was recorded (with
the respondent’s consent). It was also made field notes, in case of recording problems. The
interview guide served as a conversation guide. Each interview took between 15 and 40 minutes,
21
and each respondent was encouraged to think loud. These supplementary comments clearly
enriched the data. The interview guide included more aspects and questions than what is
discussed in this paper. The interviews were transcribed and analysed through open coding
(initial code or Level 1 code according to Yin 2011, pp. 186 ff.). Open coding was used because
this is an early exploratory phase of the research project. Data from this study are the starting
point for further studies.
4 A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF SOME OF NORWAY’S MAJOR THIRD PARTY

SERVICE PROVIDERS
Sven A. Teichmann (2009), who made a comparative study of FM in Europe, distinguished
between “Pioneer Markets” (more than 56.3 per cent outsourcing), “Developed Markets” (more
than 43.6 per cent outsourcing), “Emerging Markets” (more than 32.5 per cent outsourcing” and
“Pre-Emerging Markets” (more than 17.5 per cent outsourcing). Teichmann considers Norway as
an emerging FM market, because in 2008 approximately 36 percent of the FM services (an
estimated total market of 12.28 billion Euros) was outsourced to service providers. The rest was
provided in house.
The Norwegian market for FM soft services is dominated by a handful of third party service
providers. Other major third party service providers are mainly involved in hard FM. There are
also a large number of third party single service providers, particularly in cleaning and catering.
Table 2 provides an overview of Norway’s major third party FM soft service providers.
Table 2 An overview of some of Norway’s major third party FM soft service providers
Company Estimated revenue in Estimated number of Main business areas
2013 (millions Euro) employees in 2013
A 763 12000 Cleaning, catering, office support, property
maintenance, and integrated FM
B 315 2600 Catering, cleaning, and operation of patient
hotels at hospitals
C 100-125 800 Catering, cleaning and related services
D 100 1500 Cleaning, catering and miscellaneous
related services
E 66 750 Workplace services, property services,
industry services and integrated FM
Sources: Interviews, annual reports and web pages
Six of this study’s seven respondents are currently employed or have been employed by one or
more of the service providers A, B, D or E.
5 FINDINGS
This section present the findings concerning what kind of innovations that have taken place in
the respondents’ companies, how some of the innovations have taken place, what has been the
third party service providers’ yardstick for innovations, and how the third party service providers
have handled risks and uncertainties during their innovation processes.
22
5.1 What are the main categories of FM soft service innovations?

The first respondent mentioned four kinds of innovations of particular importance, namely “new
services or business areas”, “improvements of existing services or service concepts, for instance
through use of new technology or work processes”, “new ways of organizing and managing the
service production”, and finally improved methods for training of new employees, particularly
employees with immigrant background. Introduction of systematic training of new operational
level employees was one of his major achievements as service provider executive. Development
of “new business models” and “new marketing and sales methods” was not on the agenda when
he was in the FM industry.
The second and third respondents emphasised new combinations of services and business
models, and new methods and work processes for producing the services. The second respondent
emphasised that “new services or business models can be innovations, if they represent quantum
leaps with regard to costs, competitiveness, etc., and not merely are improvements of existing
services and business models”. The second respondent does not consider new ways of marketing
and sale to be innovations. The third respondent mentioned “experiments with different contract
formats and various degrees of flexibility”.
”Many kinds of innovation are relevant”, according to the fourth respondent. “Number one is
improvements of existing services. Number two is new combinations of business models and
business areas. Number three is new services and business areas. Number four is new ways of
dialogues with clients and users. Number five is new ways of value creation”.
The fifth respondent told their top three innovations were “client driven”; i.e. use of new
production processes and methods, such as “improved handling of physical mail, better methods
for space management, and improved methods for security and access control to the clients’
premises”. The fifth respondent’s company often import service concepts from the parent
company that has a technology transfer organisation.
The sixth respondent told that “number one is combinations of business areas, services and/or
technology”. “Number two are improvements of existing services through use of new
technology”, for instance more efficient methods for cleaning. “The third is merger and
acquisitions of firms that have developed new technologies or are specialised on a particular kind
of services”. Development of new services often necessitates recruitment of skilled employees,
but few of those who deliver the services have academic level education, according to this
respondent.
The seventh respondent mentioned improvement of existing processes, and development of new
combinations of services, such as “sale of takeaway dinner and high quality food products from
their canteens, so their clients’ employees can save valuable time in the afternoon”.
None of the respondents mentioned any examples of innovations near the calibre of “disruptive
innovations” (Christensen 1997) or “creative destruction” (Schumpeter, 1975). But one example
of a disruptive FM soft service innovation in Norway was the extensive outsourcing of support
services that began in the early 1990s, particularly in many former public administrations (Boge,
2010). This shift can be perceived as a strategic transformation according to Ahmed and
Shepherd’s (2010) innovation space. However, today outsourcing of FM soft services is standard
operating procedure in Norwegian private sector industries, even if in-house production of FM
soft services still is standard operating procedure in most of Norway’s public sector. But the new
non-socialist coalition government that came to power after the 2013 election may change the
rules of the game and thereby facilitate increased outsourcing of FM soft services in the public
sector.
23
How do the respondents’ answers concerning the main categories of FM soft service innovations
fit in with Ahmed and Shepherd’s (2010) innovation space? The majority of the innovations
mentioned are incremental changes of products (product/service innovations), process
change/improvements (process innovations) or strategic development (strategic innovations); i.e.
product line extensions or product improvements. Only a few innovations mentioned are in the
neighbourhood of product revolutions (product or service innovations that are radical changes
and new to the world or to the firm), or near strategic transformations (strategic innovations that
represent radical change and are new to the world or to the firm). One example of a possible
strategic transformation is the combination of new business models and business areas, such as
mentioned by respondent number four. Most innovations mentioned by the respondents are
incremental changes or product line extensions/product improvements. This seems highly
reasonable given the FM soft services industry’s nature, because tough competition makes it very
difficult to maintain permanent competitive advantages in this industry. This finding props up
Cardellino and Finch’s (2006) claim that third party service providers use innovations to
differentiate themselves from competitors.
5.2 How do FM soft service innovations take place?

Many innovations have been based on the existing organisation and services, according to the
first respondent. These innovations were also results of “dialogues with the clients to figure out
their needs and requirements for new services”. Mergers and acquisitions have also “been
important sources for innovations”. The first respondent’s explanation about how FM soft
service innovations take place is very much in line with the traditional perspective on how
innovations take place, such as discussed by Schumpeter (1983).
The second respondent, who does a lot of consultancy and partly see the FM industry from an
outsider’s perspective, considers “systematic analysis of the purchasers’ core business to be one
of the main mechanisms” that explain FM soft service innovations. Another important source or
mechanism “is dialogues with the clients”. The second respondent’s explanation about how FM
soft service innovations take place is very much in line with Johnson, Scheuing and Gaida’s
(1985) and Scheuing and Johnson’s (1989) normative models for development of service
innovations.
The third respondent emphasised competitive bidding approximately every third year as the main
driver for innovations. “To win the contract – you have to look at the contract with fresh eyes”,
and it is “a disadvantage to have the contract”, according to this respondent, because “then you
are stuck with the established work processes and service level”. “Nobody who is into a contract
is permitted to work with the bid package, except in the reviews”, according to this respondent,
“because the tender has to be based on the client’s specification and not on the established
practice”. Service providers that base the tender on established practice will most likely lose the
competition, according to this respondent. The formulation of the service level agreement (SLA)
is crucial for whether competitive bidding facilitate innovations, according to the third
respondent. “SLAs with functional requirements may facilitate innovations, while SLAs with
procedural specifications preserve status quo”, because functional requirements give the service
provider an opportunity to figure out how to provide the services. Procedural specifications
describe how the services are to be provided.
Another important mechanism for innovation, particularly among multinational service
providers, according to the third respondent, is “import of business or service concepts from
24
other countries”. Import of knowhow as route to innovations is clearly in line with Schumpeter’s
(1983) definition of innovations.
Market analysis has so far not been used that much in the FM soft service industry, according to
the fourth respondent. However, systematic market analysis has become more common,
particularly for business sector and market segmentation, and to identify the individual clients’
needs. Market analysis as starting points for FM soft service innovations is clearly in line with
Johnson, Scheuing and Gaida’s (1985), and Scheuing and Johnson’s (1989) normative models
for development of service innovations. The fourth respondent’s company does not hide
innovation projects, because “there is very seldom a big bang in FM”. This respondent’s view
emphasize that most FM soft service innovations are incremental innovations, according to
Ahmed and Shepherd’s (2010) innovation space. Import of concepts from the holding company
“happens, but should be used more frequently”, according to this respondent, because “the
holding company has innovation catalogues, development forums for different services, and
forums for sharing knowledge between similar countries”. This respondent’s advocacy of import
of concepts is clearly in line with Freeman and Soete’s (1997) idea about innovations as a two-
sided or coupling activity. The holding company disseminates knowledge and thus facilitates
coupling of knowledge and services that pave the way for innovations.
Even the fifth respondent told that dialogues with the clients and small scale trials are the main
routes for innovation. This respondent’s company is “very often pilot for their own service
innovations before they are sold to clients”. This approach is clearly in line with Sims’ (2011)
recommendations about small scale trials.
One of the most important paths to innovations, according to the sixth respondent, is
“development of new combinations of existing and new business areas or services in dialogue
with existing clients”. This path is clearly in line with Schumpeter’s (1983) recommendations.
The sixth respondent also emphasized that Norway is very special concerning food and catering.
”Very few food and catering concepts can be imported directly to Norway from US/UK”,
according to this respondent, who has worked for decades in the food and catering industry.
Import of concepts from the holding company is thus not always the easy way to innovations.
The seventh respondent told the company has an annual strategy process, where they discuss
new business areas. “This strategy process is based on market research, hereunder continuous
discussions and frequent client surveys”. Each of this service provider’s innovation projects is
“established as a business case with time and budget”. This highly structured approach is clearly
in line with Johnson, Scheuing and Gaida’s (1985) and Scheuing and Johnson’s (1989)
normative models for development of service innovations.
Freeman and Soete (1997) described innovation as a “two-sided coupling activity”. This
coupling activity was clearly evident in the answers, because six of seven respondents
emphasised dialogues with existing clients as their most important route to incremental
innovations. These findings support Cardellino and Finch’s (2006) findings that dialogues with
clients are important sources for new ideas. The third respondent emphasised competitive
bidding, and competitive bidding may result in more radical innovations, according to Ahmed
and Shepherd’s (2010) innovation space.
Only one of the respondents linked innovations to the service provider’s annual strategy process,
but three respondents mentioned various kinds of market analysis as route to innovations. Three
respondents also mentioned mergers and acquisitions, and import of concepts as alternative
routes to innovations. These findings are in line with Scupola’s (2012) findings that innovations
are strategic activities for third party service providers.
25
5.3 What are the third party service providers’ yardsticks for FM soft service
innovations?
The first respondent’s company had “an offensive approach to innovations, because FM is a
growth case with emphasis on new services and increased sale to existing clients”. This approach
is clearly in line with Schumpeter’s (1983) ideas. This respondent also emphasized that FM is
“an industry with very little risk and money at stake compared to traditional goods producing
industries, where choice of wrong business case or technology literally may result in insolvency
or bankruptcy”.
The yardstick for innovations, according to the second respondent, is usually “the service
provider’s competiveness”. But this respondent considers “the client’s added value and quality
improvements” to be equally important and advocated “a balanced approach” between
competitiveness and concerns for the clients’ wellbeing.
The third respondent told the yardstick for innovations is “growth and the upside”. “In order to
make money, you have to improve half an hour per day per employee”, according to this
respondent.
The “upside” was the yardstick for innovations even for the fourth and the fifth respondent. The
fifth respondent also emphasised that some innovations reduce staff consumption. “Once in a
while you have to implement technologies that reduce the top line”, but these losses are often
offset with sale of other or new services.
The sixth respondent told that “the downside is often the yardstick for innovations”, because lack
of development may result in loss of clients. But this respondent’s company “also considers the
upside”. Even the seventh respondent’s company consider “both the upside and the downside”,
because “new business areas can be rather risky, particularly if they have no experience”.
Six of the seven respondents thus used the upside as a yardstick. Only two of the respondents’
companies considered the downside as a yardstick for innovations. This finding indicates a
business school approach to innovation and entrepreneurship (Cf. Fry 1993) among the
respondents. This seems reasonable, since many of the respondents have business school
educations.
5.4 How do third party service providers handle risks and uncertainties during
innovation processes?
The first respondent told his company “grasped those opportunities they stumbled across”,
because there are strong dynamics in the industry which makes it almost impossible to plan 5
years ahead. “The dynamic in FM is development during the course of actions”. This finding
underlines the FM soft service industry’s volatile and somewhat opportunistic nature.
The second respondent, who partly has an outsider’s perspective on the FM industry, told “the
service industry is not good at handling surprises or unexpected events”. Many of the issues he
has come across when counselling purchasers during termination or renegotiation of contracts or
when negotiating new contracts, is that service providers are “rather good at delivering single
services like front desk, cleaning, catering, etc. […] But management of the service provision is
not as well managed as the FM services”. This is clearly an advice to the FM soft service
industry about emphasizing process innovations and not only product or service innovations.
This second respondent even advocates “small scale trials” to figure out whether innovative
moves are tenable, and to reduce the operational risk. Such an approach is clearly in line with
Sims’ (2011) recommendations about little bets as innovation strategy.
26
The third respondent told there are some “system products” where you maintain the contracts
and “other products where you maintain the flexibility”. The system products are clearly not
subject to much experimentation, according to this respondent. But the products that maintain
their flexibility are obviously possible experimental or innovation arenas. The distinction
between “system products” and “other products” is thus almost a textbook example of risk
reducing measures.
The fourth respondent told “FM is very much about grasping the opportunities”, and the fourth
respondent’s company prefer practical small scale trials at the clients’ premises, and to distribute
these new services or ways of working to other clients with similar contexts. This approach is
clearly in line with Sims’ (2011) recommendations about little bets as risk reducing strategy.
Even the fifth respondent told that the service company “is very opportunity driven, but many
concepts are tested in-house before they are sold to clients”. “Plans are mainly “guidelines” for
development of new concepts and services” according to this respondent.
The sixth respondent told “uncertainty is very often the name of the game in the service sector”.
But most service providers are very flexible and have mainly variable costs and few fixed costs.
Even the seventh respondent told “you have to be agile and flexible and seize the opportunities.
You don’t stick to the 5 years plan if other promising opportunities evolve”.
Thus, the seven respondents emphasised the FM industry’s opportunistic nature; i.e. that you
must be able to grasp opportunities and live with risk and uncertainty. These findings support
Sims’ (2011) recommendations about using “little bets” as a risk reducing strategy. However, the
second respondent emphasised that some FM soft service providers are not good at handling
surprises or unexpected events. This is somewhat surprising given the fact that risk and
uncertainty more or less is the name of the game in FM soft services.
6 CONCLUSION
So what are the main findings in this exploratory study about innovations in a labour intensive
“blue collar” industry such as FM soft services?
First, most of the Norwegian third party service providers’ FM soft service innovations are
incremental. This seems very reasonable given the FM industry’s volatile and opportunistic
nature, with relatively short term contracts, competitive bidding and high turnover among the
operational level employees. None of the respondents mentioned any examples of disruptive FM
soft service innovations. There are few “big bangs” in this industry. The dominant pattern seems
to be a constant stream of incremental service innovations, where the purpose often is to
differentiate the third party service providers from their competitors. This study indicates that
Norwegian third party FM soft service providers’ innovation processes differ significantly from
innovation processes in technology driven industries. This finding is highly important both for
FM practitioners and for those who govern the public funding schemes for research and
development.
Second, most FM soft service innovations seem to be results of dialogues between the third party
service providers and their clients, the service providers’ mergers and acquisitions, and import of
concepts from their holding company. There are also indications of innovations that are results of
the service providers’ own systematic market research. These findings are highly relevant for FM
practitioners, because many of the FM soft service innovations seem to be linked to the third
party service providers’ strategies.
Third, the innovations’ financial and operational upsides are clearly the third party service
providers’ most important yardsticks. However, a strong emphasis almost exclusively on the
27
upside can be somewhat risky. The FM practitioners are also advised to take the innovations’
downside into consideration.
And finally, how do the third party service providers handle risks and uncertainties during
innovation processes? FM soft services are a volatile business and industry. It thus sounds
reasonable that many FM soft service providers have little bets as their preferred strategy for risk
reduction in innovation processes.
This study has provided a rich material, despite few respondents (N=7). But these respondents
have inside information about Norway’s major third party FM soft service providers. Further
research in Norway and preferably also in other European countries is necessary to understand
such a complex phenomenon as FM soft service innovations. Further research about FM soft
service innovations should preferably be based on comparative and longitudinal case studies and
surveys among third party and in house service providers and clients and end users, in order to
facilitate studies across several countries during time, and to facilitate development of causal and
hopefully also more general explanations about how and why FM soft service innovations take
place.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am very grateful to the respondents who took their time and gave valuable insight about the
Norwegian FM soft service industry. Thanks also to the three anonymous referees. Your
comments and suggestions clearly improved this paper.
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(Cost Reductions) to FM 2.20 (Value Creation)”, in Junghans, A. & Jensen, P.A. (Eds.),
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Irwin, Homewood, Il.
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Present, The MIT Press, Cambridge MA.
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teams: a review”, Facilities, Vol. 22, No. 11/12, pp. 290-295.
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Scupola, A. (2012), “Managerial perception of service innovation in facility management
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29
Towards an effective workspace design by end-user emancipation
H.B. (Herman) Kok

Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
herman.kok@wur.nl
+31 (0)317 482 181
M.P. (Mark) Mobach

Wageningen University, Wageningen
Hanze University of Applied Sciences Groningen, Groningen
University of Groningen, Groningen
The Netherlands
mark.mobach@wur.nl
S.W.F. (Onno) Omta

onno.omta@wur.nl
ABSTRACT
Purpose - This paper aims to identify whether employees’ organisational position affect their
perceived quality of the workspace design. By providing possible explanations for the
differences and discussing the implications, we aim to establish an effective workspace design
process that satisfies different users of the commonly used work environment.
Design/methodology/approach – The present paper analyses the results of a national online
survey among members of the Board of Directors (n=17), facility managers (n=76), education
managers (n=211), and lecturers (n=1,755) of 18 Dutch Universities of Applied Sciences, using
Mann-Whitney U tests.
Findings – The results show a clear misfit between the perceived quality of workspace design
between Board members and facility managers on one hand and education managers and
lecturers on the other. This possibly indicates a mismatch between which workspace design the
organisation intends to provide and what users may require or expect.
Practical implications – Based on the research findings, we propose facility managers should
act more closely to the primary process and work to recognize their needs. Therefore, lecturers
and education managers as end-users have to become truly emancipated, involving them
periodically in workspace design improvement and listening and responding to what they say.
Originality/value - This paper finds that the often presupposed support of facility management
to the primary process seems rather weak, at least in the perception of end-users, and that facility
managers should engage in participatory workspace design with end-users and challenge
themselves to be the linking-pin between Board and end-users.
Keywords: Gap analysis, workspace design, facility management, participatory design, higher
education
30
1 INTRODUCTION
Workspaces serve different purposes depending on the ones who occupy them. Whereas in
offices and factories the emphasis is typically on productivity (Friday and Cotts, 1995; Atkin and
Brooks, 2000; Barret and Baldry, 2003; Booty, 2006), hospitals for example have begun to focus
on patients to designing spaces that enable healing (Horsburgh, 1995), and those involved in
school planning and design take up the opportunity to enhance learning outcomes by creating
better learning environments (Blackmore et al., 2011). There is also substantial evidence of the
effects of design features of the work environment on users’ outcomes, including noise
(Treasure, 2011), temperature (Ramsey, 1995), physical structure (Oldham and Brass, 1979;
Baldry, 1999), layout, furniture and seating arrangement, tidiness (Oldham and Fried, 1987;
Martens et al., 2010), privacy (Sundstrom, 1982; Kupritz, 1998), air quality, ventilation (Higgins
et al., 2005; Sundstrom, 1987; Langston et al., 2008), and lighting (Knez, 1995).
In the design process of services and spaces, on the one hand, the actors involved have specific
roles: designer, decision-maker, users and hence different but related interests. On the other
hand, those who occupy buildings typically hold different positions within the organisational
hierarchy, with corresponding functional tasks and responsibilities, that can be at odds with
design interests and hence possibly obstruct an effective design process and design. The pitfall
here is that little communication between those who occupy and run buildings and those who
actually commission and design them, leads to a gap between actual use and design intentions
(Zhang and Barret, 2010). If not performed well, in designing the work environment as a mixture
of separate, but yet closely related, designed features of service and space elements this may
result in a workspace design that does not benefit the needs and activities of all employees;
resulting in dissatisfaction, or worse hindrance. After all, with so many different users of the
work environment and its quality, in terms of fitness for use (Juran, 1951), being an individual
assessment based on perceptions (Zeithaml, 1988), perception gaps may arise between decision
makers and users of the physical environment (Parasuraman et al., 1985). An effective
workspace design in that sense is a relative concept, depending on what is intended and who is
assessing.
This raises questions as to which user group decision makers and designers should address to
determine the required workspace design. To increase the likelihood of designing effective
workspaces that function well for its users, drawing on evidence-based design can increase the
likelihood that new workspaces will generate the expected outcomes (Becker and Parsons, 2007).
To do so, an assessment of fit by conducting a gap-analysis should shed light on whether
different employees as users share the same degree of perceived quality of service and space
design, and whether a differentiated approach towards the workspace design should be acted on
to ultimately establish an effective workspace design. The following research question was
formulated:
RQ Does the employees’ organisational position affect their perceived quality of

workspace design, and if so, what design approach should be acted on for an
overall effective workspace design?
This present paper will first theorise on the occupants of workspaces, their different roles in the
workspace design process. Then the methods and data collection will be described, followed by
results, conclusions and discussion. This paper will finish elaborating on implications of findings
for FM and limitations.
31
2 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION
Occupants of work environments are typical staff members of organisations and their visitors
and customers. Within the organisational hierarchy three levels can be distinguished (Mintzberg,
1979; CEN 2006); staff can either hold a strategic (Board of Directors), a tactical (manager) or
an operational (worker) position. Facility managers typically run the buildings as responsible
actor to ensure functionality of the built environment by integrating people, place, process and
technology (IFMA). Besides users of workspace design hold different organisational positions,
they are also actors in the physical environment around them. As actors they may have different
roles and can be decision-makers, designers or end-users (Mobach, 2013). Decision-makers are
the ones that determine the organisational support goals and needs. Decision-makers are
supposed to act in the interest of the end-users but also the organisation as a whole. Ideally,
decisions about any aspect of the design, such as the selection of seating or the choice of interior
colour, represent a particular viewpoint about how that facility is to be experienced by the users.
The designer is the one who takes the design decisions to heart and acts accordingly. Where it is
the responsibility of the decision-maker to identify its needs, it is the designer’s role to apply a
design solution. Designing then encompasses translating the support goals and needs into a
whole as a mixture of design features of space and service elements. End-users make use of the
workspace design to support their (primary) activities, who can be very diverse in needs and
activities, depending on the type and complexity of the organisation. End-users are the service
co-producers, as they are participants in the service process, whether there is no, low, or high
interaction between service employees and end-users (e.g. Fitzsimmons and Fitzsimmons, 2011).
Typically end-users, as core actors, have little or no choice in what service and space elements
are provided to them, unless their needs and wants are used as inputs into the workspace design
process. Therefore, for an effective support of their (primary) activities, they are dependent upon
both the decision-makers and designers.
3 METHODS AND DATA COLLECTION

For studying how different user groups perceive their work environment to be informative, our
study population was drawn from education institutions of the same academic level, being
Universities of Applied Sciences in The Netherlands. Four user groups were identified, being
Board of Directors, education managers, lecturers and facility managers, who all are employed at
the institutions. The research first identifies educational service and space design elements that
can be assessed. Second, this study measures the similarities and differences of viewpoints
between the user groups and will examine the possible perception gaps. Finally, if gaps do exist,
we elaborate on the design approach that could be advanced to create an overall satisfying
workspace design.
All 39 Dutch Universities of Applied Sciences were invited to participate in the study, of which
eighteen institutions agreed to do so. An online survey was employed to obtain information
about the perceptions of Board members, education managers, lecturers, and facility managers.
The participants were invited through an email that was used as a cover letter and included the
URL for the website that by clicking automatically gave access to the electronic survey tool.
From the variety of service and space elements of importance for a good conduct of education
(Blackmore et al., 2011; Kok et al., 2011), we selected forty items as our independent variables
that constitute the educational workspace design. All user groups scored the same service and
space design items. Since users have underlying beliefs, assumptions and priorities that influence
their evaluation (Parasuraman et al., 1985; Zeithaml, 1988), these items were formulated as
statements about their use value (Woodruff, 1997), which relates to the specific qualities of a
32
product or service experienced by the users regarding their requirements. All items were
measured using seven-point Likert-scales from 1, very poor to 7, very good.
4 RESULTS
A total of 2,277 questionnaires were returned. After deleting incorrect and insufficient answered
questionnaires, 2,059 questionnaires could be analysed. The response was, according to the
differences in numbers of employees per function within the participating organisations,
unequally distributed among Board of Directors (17), facility managers (76), education managers
(211), and lecturers (1,755). The overall reliability of the questionnaire was very good, with
Cronbach’s α of .96, and values between .94 and .97 for each of the four respondent groups.
To identify the possible perception gaps between the four user groups first the data were
aggregated at the position level. Considering the examined groups are independent and of
unequal size (different number of participants), we used Mann–Whitney U tests to analyse the
specific sample pairs for significant differences. Between Board of Directors and facility
managers statistically significant gaps were found at five out of forty items (12.5%), ranging
from 0.54 to 0.75. Between education managers and facility managers twenty seven out of forty
items showed statistically significant gaps (67.5%), ranging between 0.32 and 0.87. Between
lecturers and facility managers thirty out of forty items showed statistically significant gaps
(75%), ranging from 0.23 to 0.90. Between Board of Directors and education managers twenty
five out of forty items were statistically significantly perceived different (62.5%), with gaps
varying from 0.54 to 1.51. Board of Directors and lecturers perceived twenty three out of forty
items (57.5%) statistically significantly different, with gaps between 0.68 and 1.37. Education
managers’ and lecturers’ quality perceptions were equal except for eight out of forty items (20%)
with gaps ranging from 0.18 to 0.36. Based on the few gaps found between the Board members
and facility managers on one hand and education managers and lecturers on the other, we
decided to converge the four user groups into two for further analysis of the data.
We used Mann–Whitney U tests again to analyse the specific sample pairs for significant
differences between Board members and facility managers versus education managers and
lecturers with regard to the prioritised list of items. These results are shown in Table 1. We found
equal evaluations across both groups for five items (12.5%): maintenance condition of the
buildings, day lighting in classrooms, audio-visual equipment, level of knowledge of the
reception, and adequacy of call handling, meaning 87.5% of the item scores had statistically
significant variation between both groups. For all surveyed items facility managers and Board
members indicated a higher perceived quality than education managers and lecturers did.
5 CONCLUSION
The misfit between, what we termed, decision makers (i.e. facility managers and Board
members) versus end-users, being lecturers and education managers as employees that represent
the primary process, is evident when looking at the perceived quality gaps with respect to 35 of
the 40 items, as shown in Table 1. The perception gaps may indicate a mismatch between which
workspace design the organisation intends to provide and what users may require or expect. We
propose six explanations for the observed perception gaps. First of all, there may be a lack of
coordination between decision makers and end-users. Since end-users typically have little or no
choice in what services and spaces are provided to them, unless their needs and wants are used as
inputs into the workspace design process, the gaps may indicate that facility management does
not manage their relationships with end-users effectively. Second, from their fit it can be inferred
that Board and FM do closely collaborate and align. Considering the past 30 years have seen a
33
clear trend towards the outsourcing of FM tasks to service providers (Duffy, 2000; Salonen,
2004), there may be close contact between the Board and FM regarding outsourcing decisions,
and consequently the required service levels. Third, Board of Directors’ and facility managers’
overreporting might be explained because their perceptions result from a self-serving bias,
internally attributing performances that they are or feel responsible for (Miller and Ross, 1975;
Gioia and Sims, 1985). Fourth, their overestimation compared to end-users may indicate that
both Board and FM apparently operate on too great a distance from the primary processes, and
therefore have no longer a good view on the end-users’ support needs and wants. FM fails to
advocate for the interests of the primary process, as stated by the European standard (CEN,
2006). Fifth, maybe the perception gaps are the consequences of budgetary cuts for FM, which
may have resulted in standardisation and a lower quality of the workspace design that does serve
the purposes of both Board and FM, but fails to satisfy users’ needs. Sixth, we expect the user
group who most intensively uses the services and spaces on a daily base, also to be the most
critical with respect to its quality. Therefore, end-users may experience a lower quality of the
workspace design than decision makers. Overall, the gaps signal a possible shortcoming of FM,
as responsible actor, which raises the question to what extent FM can change something to the
arisen situation.
6 IMPLICATIONS
Since primary processes are the legitimacy of the studied higher education institutions, and their
interests do not seem to be represented by FM in relation to the Board, FM should act more
closely to the primary process and must work to recognize their support needs. Also, end-users
(dis-)benefit directly from the services provided (De Toni et al, 2007), and have knowledge
about the direct impact of workspace design on the success or failure of the primary process
(Amaratunga and Baldry, 2000; Nutt, 2004). Therefore, FM has to make more use of the
knowledge and experience of end-users for workspace design purposes. To involve end-users in
workspace design improvement and listening and responding to what they say, with Mobach
(2013), the end-users have to become truly emancipated in terms of liberating them from the
yoke of supply-oriented design. By carrying out a participatory approach end-users become co-
creators of their workspace resulting in a dynamic coherence between work and different
stakeholders’ interests (e.g. finance, technology, politics, architecture) (Seim and Broberg,
2010). We also suggest that participatory workspace design is a cyclical exercise, with feedback
from the organisation being used to allow customisation of what is done for the end-users and
aligned to the strategic intentions of the organisation. Then, FM should also challenge
themselves to be the linking pin between Board and end-users and hereby moderate the gaps
with both. Given the different relationships that FM has to maintain, there is an obvious
importance of good communication and coordination to (changing) needs to establish and
manage expectations.
6.1 Limitations and future research

Further research may provide evidence whether alignment between the different stakeholders can
explain for differences in quality perception. Specifically we suggest research into the
governance relationship between FM, Board and education managers, the extent to which and
how end-users’ feedback is used as input to the workspace design process, but also the way in
which the FM organisation is run (e.g. degree of outsourcing, organisational positioning), and
financial (e.g. budgets and accountabilities) and quality level aspects. By doing so, and indicate
34
differences between institutions, a best-in-class approach to obtain a more balanced design of the
workspace according to different stakeholders’ quality perception may be identified.
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36
Table 1. Mean (standard deviation) and gap of perceived quality of workspace design of different
user groups.
Item Board Gap¹

Education
members &
managers &
facility
lecturers
managers
Representation 5.36 4.89 0.47
Atmosphere and appearance 5.80 (0.99) 5.13 (1.47) 0.67***
Fitting out for collaboration 5.10 (1.19) 4.62 (1.42) 0.48**
Maintenance condition interior 5.51 (0.92) 5.12 (1.25) 0.38**
Maintenance condition 0.16
5.37 (1.17) 5.22 (1.25)
buildings
Fitting out for knowledge 0.48**
5.10 (1.11) 4.62 (1.40)
sharing
Layout for knowledge sharing 4.99 (1.16) 4.58 (1.42) 0.41*
Layout for cooperation 5.19 (1.14) 4.63 (1.46) 0.56***
Tidiness of outdoor area 5.79 (0.74) 5.20 (1.27) 0.59***
Classrooms 5.22 4.80 0.42

Setup of classrooms 5.25 (1.03) 4.66 (1.29) 0.59***
Acoustics in classrooms 5.09 (1.19) 4.79 (1.30) 0.30*
Availability lecture spaces 5.21 (1.22) 4.55 (1.38) 0.67***
Availability practicum spaces 5.28 (1.07) 4.53 (1.37) 0.75***
Furniture in classrooms 5.06 (1.38) 4.79 (1.27) 0.27*
Artificial lighting classrooms 5.47 (0.77) 5.11 (1.09) 0.36**
Day lighting classrooms 5.00 (1.31) 4.83 (1.41) 0.17
Audio-visual equipment 5.43 (1.05) 5.14 (1.29) 0.29
Catering 5.58 4.96 0.62

Variation catering offer 5.35 (1.36) 4.66 (1.52) 0.69***
Supply of healthy food 5.16 (1.28) 4.41 (1.59) 0.75***
Availability catering facilities 5.72 (0.95) 5.12 (1.25) 0.60***
Accessibility catering facilities 5.85 (0.88) 5.37 (1.10) 0.48***
Availability coffee and tea 5.85 (0.94) 5.24 (1.26) 0.61***
Workplaces 5.00 4.28 0.72

Availability meeting rooms 4.78 (1.32) 3.96 (1.50) 0.82***
Availability concentration 0.90***
4.49 (1.33) 3.59 (1.64)
workspaces
Possibilities working at fixed 0.90***
5.54 (1.18) 4.63 (1.77)
places
Layout for knowledge sharing 4.99 (1.16) 4.58 (1.42) 0.41*
Layout for cooperation 5.19 (1.14) 4.63 (1.46) 0.56***
Indoor climate 4.21 3.60 0.61
37
Self-regulate building climate 4.03 (1.51) 3.22 (1.54) 0.81***

Self-regulate classroom climate 3.85 (1.49) 3.22 (1.53) 0.63***
Indoor climate buildings 4.46 (1.42) 3.86 (1.56) 0.60***
Indoor climate classrooms 4.50 (1.37) 4.10 (1.50) 0.40*
ICT 5.54 5.01 0.53

Availability digital media 5.65 (1.03) 5.10 (1.30) 0.55***
Quality digital media 5.62 (1.07) 4.95 (1.40) 0.68***
Off-site working digital media 5.46 (1.07) 4.86 (1.42) 0.60***
Audio-visual equipment 5.43 (1.05) 5.14 (1.29) 0.29
Cleaning 5.16 4.74 0.42

Cleanliness own workplace 5.24 (0.95) 4.78 (1.33) 0.46**
Cleanliness other interior 5.13 (0.97) 4.72 (1.31) 0.41**
Cleanliness sanitary areas 5.12 (1.13) 4.72 (1.44) 0.40*
Front office 5.60 5.41 0.19

Helpfulness reception 5.99 (0.96) 5.77 (0.94) 0.22**
Level of knowledge reception 5.59 (1.07) 5.48 (1.01) 0.11
Execution of concierge tasks 5.56 (1.04) 5.31 (1.13) 0.25*
Adequacy of call handling 5.25 (1.21) 5.06 (1.23) 0.19
Local printing 5.83 4.99 0.83

Accessibility local printing 5.90 (0.90) 5.09 (1.26) 0.81***
Availability local printing 5.75 (1.11) 4.90 (1.36) 0.85***
¹ Sig. shows significance values for rejecting or retaining the null hypothesis indicating whether
the distribution of items scores is the same across categories of position using Mann-Whitney U
tests of sample pairs. When the test is significant (p < .05) the null hypothesis is rejected,
indicating that there is a difference in perceived quality between the two groups concerned.
Note: Significance at: *** p < .001, ** p < .01 and * p < .05.
38
SECTION TWO:
ADDED VALUE OF FM
EuroFM WG1
Introduction
Added value of FM
Per Anker Jensen, Convenor, EuroFM WG1 Added Value of FM

CFM Realdania, DTU, Copenhagen, Denmark
Papers
Adding Value by FM: an exploration of management practice in the Netherlands and
Denmark
Theo van der Voordt and Per Anker Jensen.
Exploration of added value concepts in facilities management practice: learning from

financial institutes
Doranne Gerritse, Felix Bergsma and Brenda Groen
Identity and image of FM: Two sides of a coin to promote value of FM

39
EuroFM WG1: The Added Value of FM
Introduction
Added Value of FM
Per Anker Jensen

Centre for Facilities Management – Realdania Research, Technical University of Denmark
BACKGROUND
The EuroFM research group on “The Added Value of FM” was established in 2009. The
background for the collaborative research was that the perception and application of FM during
the last decades gradually has shifted from primarily steering on cost reduction towards
managing facilities as a strategic resource to add value to the organisation and its stakeholders
and to contribute to its overall performance. Results of the work were presented in the anthology
“The Added Value of Facilities Management – Concepts, Findings and Perspectives”, which was
launched during EFMC in Copenhagen, May 2012. This was followed by a paper session as well
as a workshop on the topic: How to manage and measure different value dimensions? during
EFMC in Prague, May 2013. The research group has recently decided to work towards the
publication of a second anthology with a more practical focus. Plans for this new publication will
be presented at the session during EFMC in Berlin, June 2014. The session also includes
presentations of the three papers mentioned below.
THE THREE PAPERS
In the first paper: “Adding Value by FM: an exploration of management practice in the
Netherlands and Denmark”, van der Voordt and Jensen investigate practitioners’ perceptions of
the concept of Added Value of FM and to what degree and how they work with managing and
measuring the value of FM. The paper is based on interviews with 5 managers from different
types of private companies in each of the two countries. All respondents mentioned different
types of added values, without a clear classification. The most prioritized values were costs and
satisfaction, followed by productivity, but there were some striking differences in the frequencies
of prioritized values by Danish and Dutch respondents.
In the second paper: “Exploration of added value concepts in facilities management practice:
learning from financial institutes”, Gerritse, Bergsma and Groen aim to show the practicality of
added value concepts for FM businesses in financial institutes. The study is based on a number
of cases and focus group with experts in the Netherlands. The research showed that FM adds
value (besides cost control) in the area of ‘support of productivity’, ‘risk control’, ‘increase
satisfaction’, ‘support image’ and ‘increase sustainability’. The results are presented in a
conceptual model for management of added value.
In the third paper: “Identity and Image of FM: Two sides of a coin to promote value of FM”, von
Felten, Böhm, Coenen and Meier focus on FM as an industry in Switzerland. By surveys with
telephone interviews they explored both the image of FM among the general public and the
identity among people working in the industry. One in five Swiss has heard the term Facility
Management, but out of those only 10% were having a correct understanding of the term. The
identity of FM is consistently higher than its image. This image deficiency could potentially be
corrected by better communication from the FM industry.
40
Adding Value by FM: an exploration of management practice in the

Netherlands and Denmark
Theo van der Voordt
Delft University of Technology, Netherlands
E: D.J.M.vanderVoordt@tudelft.nl
T: +31 6 39251096
Per Anker Jensen

Technical University of Denmark
E: pank@dtu.dk
ABSTRACT
The last decade shows a growing attention into the concept of added value of Facilities
Management and Corporate Real Estate Management and how to attain and measure added
value. A variety of different types of added value came to the fore such as user value, customer
value, financial value, environmental value and relationship value. Furthermore a huge variety of
different definitions can be found in publications from different authors, partly depending on
their disciplinary background and partly because some authors do not build on former research.
In discussions with researchers and practitioners, the concept of added value is definitely
recognized. However, people have many different topics in mind. In a workshop at EFMC 2013
all attendants used different terms and mentioned only a few concrete measures how to add
value, mostly in rather abstract terms. Further research is needed to harmonize the concept of
added value i.e. definitions, dimensions and types, and to be able to operationalize this concept
into practical guidelines for implementation and measurement by Key Performance Indicators.
This paper relates theoretical reflections on the added value of FM to the findings of ten
interviews with practitioners from the Netherlands and Denmark. It aims to explore how
practitioners cope with terms and definitions, which concrete FM measures are applied to add
value, what value, and if/how managers measure whether the aimed added values have been
attained. The paper ends with some reflections and suggestions for follow-up research, both from
a theoretical and practical perspective.
Keywords
Facilities Management, Corporate Real Estate Management, Added Value, Performance, Value
Adding Management.
1 INTRODUCTION
The added value of Facilities Management (FM) and Corporate Real Estate Management
(CREM) has in recent years been one of the key issues in various annual European Facility
Management Conferences and other conferences and publications worldwide. The growing
interest in the concept of added value of FM and CREM might be related to the growing
awareness of physical resources such as real estate and building related facilities and services
being a strategic asset (Jensen et al., 2012). Facilities are more and more perceived as enablers of
organizational productivity, business profitability, operational efficiency and effectiveness and
41
end user satisfaction (Katchamart, 2013). The relevance of the added value concept is illustrated
in the definitions of FM and CREM. According to CEN (2006) FM is “the integration of
processes within an organisation to maintain and develop the agreed services which support and
improve the effectiveness of its primary activities”. This definition emphasizes the role of FM as
an enabler of effective primary activities. According to Dewulf et al. (2000) corporate and public
real estate management can be defined as “the alignment of the real estate portfolio of a
corporation or public authority to the needs of the core business in order to obtain maximum
added value for the business and to contribute optimally to the overall performance of the
organisation”. This definition focuses on the added value of real estate and its contribution to
organisational performance.
Although there seems to be a high level of agreement about the relevance of added value of FM
and CREM, a variety of different views can still be found in literature regarding the definition of
added value, related stakeholders, types of values, and how to measure.
a. Definitions. In Jensen et al. (2012) over 50 definitions of added value were traced. Various
authors focus on the benefits i.e. the outcomes of facilities and services. For instance, De
Vries et al. (2008) defined the added value of real estate as “the contribution of real estate to
organisational performance and the attainment of organisational objectives from a point of
view of different stakeholders”. As facilities involve investments and costs, others - including
Jensen et al. (2012) - define the added value of FM/CREM as “the trade-off between the
benefits and the costs and risks to achieve these benefits”.
b. Stakeholders. Whereas various authors focus on the contribution of real estate to create
shareholder value (e.g. Lindholm & Levaïnen, 2006; Lindholm, 2008), most current authors
incorporate the interests of all stakeholders, including policy makers, controllers, technical
managers, clients, customers, end users and society (De Vries et al., 2008; Den Heijer, 2011;
Jensen et al., 2012; Van der Zwart & Van der Voordt, 2013; Van der Zwart, 2014;
Riratanaphong, 2014).
c. Value types. Based on a content analysis of sixteen chapters by authors from seven different
countries and case studies from different sectors (offices, higher education, industry, health
care), Jensen et al. (2012) detected six different types of added value: 1) use value (quality in
relation to the needs and preferences of the users); 2) customer user value (trade-off between
benefits and costs for the customers); 3) economic, financial or exchange value (the
economic trade-off between costs and benefits); 4) social value (e.g. supporting positive
social interaction or reinforcing social identity); 5) environmental value (Green FM,
environmental impact of FM); and 6) relationship value (e.g. getting high-quality services or
experiencing a special treatment). Other authors discuss different values as well, such as
productivity, profitability and competitive advantage (De Vries et al., 2008) and
sustainability (Den Heijer, 2011). Riratanaphong (2014) clustered the values mentioned by
different authors into six categories according to Bradley (2002): Stakeholder perception,
financial health, organisational development, productivity, environmental responsibility, and
cost efficiency.
d. Key Performance Indicators. The literature shows a huge variety of performance areas,
performance measurement models and Key Performance Indicators (Riratanaphong et al.,
2012), focusing on quality or costs, effectiveness or efficiency, productivity, flexibility,
creativity or sustainability. Riratanaphong (2014) shows that in practice many different KPIs
are being used as well.
42
A workshop at EFMC 2013, that was organized by the authors of this paper together with
Christian Coenen, ZHAW, confirmed that the concept of Added Value is interpreted in many
ways and linked to a huge variety of different topics. Prioritization of different types of added
value showed to be highly subjective and depends on the participant’s position, experience and
personal beliefs. Most prioritized values included the contribution of FM and CREM to the
quality of life, the productivity of the core business, user satisfaction and sustainability. The
participants found it difficult to mention concrete measures how to add value, partly due to
different interpretations of the term “measures” as “interventions” and “ways to measure”. The
answers ranged from concrete measures such as evaluate happiness, satisfaction and work
support, create energy savings in building retrofitting, and take care of shuttle busses and parking
facilities for bikes, to abstract measures such as steering on economics, efficiency and
effectiveness, or ‘good price & value for the client’.
To conclude there is still much work to be done to clarify the concepts of added value, adding
value and value adding management and to build a widely accepted framework of value types
and ways to measure the impacts of different FM and CREM interventions. For this reason the
EuroFM Research Network Group “The Added Value of FM” is continuing working on this
topic by exchanging ideas, writing joint papers and supervising MSc and PhD theses.
2 RESEARCH METHOD
In order to further explore how people in practice cope with added value and if and how they
incorporate this concept in their daily practice, ten interviews were conducted with experienced
senior facility managers, corporate real estate managers, consultants and service providers, five
in Denmark and five in the Netherlands (see Table 1).
Table 1: List of interviewees
Country Role Company and function

DK1 In-house FM Novozymes, FM Director and FM Manager.
DK2 Consultant Real-FM Consulting, Owner.
DK3 Consultant Fm3, Owner.
DK4 Provider ISS Facility Services A/S, Division director
DK5 Provider Bilfinger HSG Facility Management A/S, Managing Director.
NL1 In-house CREM Stork Technical Services, CRE Manager
NL2 Consultant Suyker Consultancy, Owner.
NL3 Consultant Gijs van Wijk Solutions, Owner.
NL4 Consultant Skenn BV, Owner.
NL5 In-house FM Vimpelcom, Director of Real Estate
Criteria for selection were senior level of practical experience, a mix of FM and CREM
professionals and a mix of in-house FM, service providers and consultants. All interviewees
were from the private sector. The final sample represents various sectors such as biotechnology,
technical services, maintenance management, FM service provider and consultancy, and
functions such as in-house FM, consultant, and director. Educational backgrounds range from
Master in FM to Building Engineer and from higher education in logistics, accounting or
organisation to MBA in marketing or e-business and civil engineering, economics, town and
country planning or economic geography. Years of experience range from 12 to 34 years.
43
The questionnaire included a number of questions regarding:

 The use of the term Added Value in daily practice, in which context or dialogue, on which
levels (strategic, tactical, operational), and benefits and downsides of using Added Value in
interactions between different actors.
 Top five of main values, examples of concrete FM/CREM interventions, ways of measuring
(KPIs) and documentation, and if/how benchmarking is applied in practice.
3. RESEARCH FINDINGS
a. Use of Added Value in daily practice
Almost all interviewees use the term Added Value (AV) in daily practice, in various settings:
 Internally in in-house FM organisations, between FM organisation and corporate
management, and within provider companies;
 Externally between clients and providers (in contract negotiations and on-going
collaboration), clients and consultants, and clients and deliverer of IT-systems and equipment
The AV-concept is both used to demonstrate the added value of ones’ own function or FM/
CREM department and to discuss the added value of FM- or CREM-interventions. Related terms
are Value Creation, Value Increase, Appreciation, Total Value Add (TVA) and Economic Value
Added (EVA). In the nineties AV was mainly linked to Economic Value Add and Shareholder
Value, whereas nowadays the concept has a wider scope, depending on the person you talk with
e.g. a CEO, operational manager, supplier or end user. One of the advantages of applying the
AV-concept is that the dialogue is moved away from the contractual agreement and the SLA’s.
According to one respondents: ”It makes the customer feel that you are interested in his business
and not just in submitting the next bill. It makes is possible to raise the level of the whole FM
provision”. It helps to speak the language that top managers understand. Downsides of the AV-
concept are that AV is perceived differently by different people and difficult to be made concrete
and operational and to document. AV concerns things that cannot always be measured in
economic terms. It is very important to understand which value is most important for the client
or customer and what he or she really needs (often more than simply solve the current problem).
In addition to sound data, storytelling can also be used to convince clients of the added value of
FM and CREM provisions and proposed interventions.
Most practitioners perceive AV as the trade-off between benefits and costs and steer on value for
money and making the Core Business more effective. The term AV is connected to Value, which
both has an economical meaning and meanings related to feelings and other subjective and
qualitative aspects such as comfort, making complex things simpler and easier to be managed,
and high speed delivery. Various interviewees made a distinction between what they called hard
economic aspects and more soft aspects related to Health, Safety, Environment and Quality.
Though the term AV is not always used explicitly, practice is always concerned about balancing
between the benefits of e.g. flexibility of short term contracts, speed of delivery or better quality
and the costs of extra investments or higher running costs. AV depends very much on the client’s
perception. One of the service providers makes a distinction between the value they provide as
part of their standard package at the start of a new contract, and the value they create during the
contract. The latter changes a lot depending on what is important for the customer over time.
44
The focus on particular types of value depends on the involved stakeholders. According to one of
the CREM-interviewees:
 Shareholders focus almost one-sidedly on a high Return on Investment and low risk, costs
and reliabilities.
 The Board of Management usually connects added value to their strategic vision and policy
and steer on maximum turnover (volume of business), minimum costs, and a high Ebit
(earnings before interest and taxation).
 Heads of regional units have to cope with both top-management needs (profit), regional
customers and employee requirements. They try to find a balance between cost reduction and
benefits such as attraction and retention of talented staff.
 Site managers focus more on operational issues and employee satisfaction.
There is also a difference in value adding management on strategic, tactical and operational
level. According to one of the CRE-managers adding value on strategic level regards developing
site master plans and implementing the real estate strategy. Its focus is on the long term decisions
and avoidance of complaints. AV on tactical level regards for instance speed of delivery and to
do what is being asked. Issues on operational level include cost reduction, employee satisfaction
and customer satisfaction. Although AV is mostly treated on strategic level, it is of relevance on
all levels and for everybody in the FM organisation. It should be part of the organisational
culture. However, according to one respondent FM is not really a strategic issue in most
organisations and CEOs are not really interested in FM. Talking about AV on operational level
can even be counterproductive because “operational managers don’t have a clue of what AV
actually means”. Focus points in FM also depend on the context. When the economy is booming,
avoiding dissatisfaction and commotion might be key issues, whereas in times of economic
recession cost reduction will be in the core. The size of the company is a factor as well. In small
firms FM is mainly operational.
b. Prioritized values
The interviewees were asked as an open question “What is your top five of main values to be
included in management of accommodations, facilities and services?” The responses per
respondent are collected in Table 2. The abbreviations between brackets refer to the list of
impact parameters in Table 3, see explanation in the text below. One of the respondents stressed
that the priority depends on the customer. The open question was followed up by asking for
examples of concrete FM interventions to attain these added values, about use of KPI’s to
measure if the aimed added values are attained, about benchmarking with data from other
organisations and about other methods to document added value.
Table 3 depicts the frequencies of the main values from Table 2 categorised according to the
impact parameters from the FM Value Map, see explanation in the text below. The responses are
divided in Danish and Dutch interviewees and in total.
45
Table 2: Main values from open question (impact parameters from table 3 in brackets)
ID 1 2 3 4 5
DK1-INH Transparency of Scalability (A) Release management User Satisfaction with
cost and priorities resources (P) satisfaction (S) service provider
(C) (S)
DK2-CON Core Business Innovation (C) Coherent strategy Productivity of Communication
objectives (A) between Core Core Business (S)
Business and FM (A) (P)
DK3-CON Create time (P) Create well-being
(S)
DK4-PRO Satisfaction of Make processes Improvements and User centricity Corporate Social
outsourced staff (S) smarter (C) (P) innovation (P) and service Responsibility
orientation (S) (E)
DK5-PRO Increase energy Ease of operation Deliver better service Satisfaction
conscience and (P) (C) with less or the same (S)
CO2 emissions (E) cost (S) (C)
NL1-INH Profit (ebit); Cost reduction (C) Transparency of Real
improving cash Estate data for
position (C) shareholders (C)
NL2-CON Cost reduction (C) Affordability (C)
NL3-CON Sustainability (E) Cost reduction (C) Identity (Cu) Satisfaction

(S)
NL4-CON Cost reduction (C) Improving Core Health (S)
Business /
Productivity (P)
NL5-INH Efficient use of Forecasting future Balance between Forecasting of Engagement
space (C) m2-needs (A) owned buildings, future capital (Cu)
rented buildings and need (C)
sale & lease back (C)
Table 3: Frequency of the main values in Table 2 related to impact parameters from to the FM Value Map
Abbr. Impact parameter Denmark Netherlands Total

24 (100%) 17 (100%) 41 (100%)
S Satisfaction 8 (33%) 2 (12%) 10 (24%)
C Cost 5 (21%) 10 (59%) 15 (37%)
P Productivity 6 (25%) 1 (6%) 7 (17%)
R Reliability
A Adaptation 3 (13%) 1 (6%) 4 (10%)
Cu Culture 2 (12%) 2 (5%)
Ec Economic
So Social
Sp Spatial
E Environmental 2 (8%) 1 (6%) 3 (7%)
46
Table 3 shows that values related to Satisfaction and Cost are most frequently prioritized, but
with a striking difference between the interviewees from Denmark and the Netherlands.
Satisfaction is seen as much more important than Cost in Denmark, while Cost is seen as much
more important than Satisfaction in the Netherlands. Productivity is also important, but mostly in
Denmark. Values in relation to Adaptation and Environmental are also mentioned in both
countries, while Culture only is represented in the Netherlands. The remaining four impact
factors – Reliability, Economic, Social and Spatial are not represented in the response to the
open question.
The open question on main values and the mentioned related questions were followed by a more
closed question based on showing a list of possible added values found in literature and asking
how these values are related to the prioritised main values. The list was based on the impact
parameters (outcomes) from the FM Value Map (Jensen, 2010) and was divided in impacts on
core business (Satisfaction, Cost, Productivity, Reliability, Adaptability and Culture) and impacts
on surroundings (Economic, Social, Spatial, and Environmental), see also Table 3. In response to
this more closed question all possible outcomes have been discussed with the respondents. In the
following each of the impact parameters are commented on based on the interview results.
Impact on core business
Satisfaction is defined as the impact of FM or CREM on satisfaction of customers, staff/end

users and owners. One of the respondents mentions that customer satisfaction has been most
important but user satisfaction has become increasingly important, too. Satisfaction is a very
subjective parameter and is often measured quantitatively by surveys or more qualitatively. for
instance by mystery visits. Surveys results are often benchmarked across organisations.
Cost is defined as operational cost, staff turnover and capital investments. Cost reduction is
obviously an important mean, but transparency is also mentioned by interviewees from in-house
FM in Denmark and in-house CREM in the Netherlands. An interviewee from a provider
mentions that cost primarily has major attention, when there is a problem. Cost impacts are
obviously often measured and also benchmarked, both in € and m2 per person (f.t.e.) or per
workplace, occupancy level, total costs of ownership per m2, or in terms of affordability, e.g. the
ratio between facility costs and total costs of running a business.
Productivity is defined as efficiency, low staff absence and effectiveness. Impact on core
business productivity can be difficult to measure, but a typical way for providers is to measure
the number of proposals for improvements and innovations. Often productivity impact is not
measured directly but addressed more qualitatively in discussions, business cases and
performance reviews. Impact on productivity is rarely benchmarked.
Reliability is defined as business continuity, security and safety. The respondents’ views on
reliability varied a lot. One view is that reliability is at the lowest level of the Maslow pyramid of
needs and therefore is not a motivation factor, which can add value. Another view is that
business continuity has become increasingly important. For one of the interviewees it has top
priority, e.g. regarding fire safety and data security. An interviewee in a biotech company
47
mentions that down time is important to control and that compliance to legal requirements has
top priority. Reliability is mostly measured in terms of response time and business continuity and
is not often benchmarked.
Adaptation is defined as foresight, flexibility and responsiveness. Adaptation is mostly

considered on a high management level in relation to capital investments and contract
negotiations. An in-house CREM interviewee mentions that technical flexibility and flexibility in
renting are becoming more important. Adaptation is rarely measured or benchmarked.
Culture is defined as organizational identity, corporate image and corporate brand. For some
companies branding is important, but not for others. Some view culture as related to the image of
FM and not as a corporate concern. An interviewee from the Netherlands mentions monitoring
the image of FM internally (employee monitor) and externally (customer monitor) and remarks
that external image is often more important than internal image. Engagement, i.e. a sense of
belonging and being committed to the company, has been mentioned once as well.
Impact on surroundings
Economic is defined as income, commerce and tax. Some of the interviewees did not understand
this parameter, and asked for a more clear definition. Others regard the economic impact of FM
on society to be mostly indirect. However, one interviewee claims that economic impact is his
company’s reason for being. There are no examples of measuring and benchmarking economic
impact.
Social is defined as employment, education and integration. Social impact can be important in
relation to location of new facilities, and it is important for some service providers in terms of
integration. As examples of measures of social impact an interviewee from a provider mentions
number of apprentices and number of handicapped among staff.
Spatial is defined as architectural expression, landscaping and townscaping. Spatial impact is

mostly important for in-house FM/CREM organisations and specialist consultants and is rarely
important for service providers. An in-house FM mentions that they participate in working
groups with the local municipality concerning transportation and infrastructure. There are no
examples of measuring and benchmarking spatial impact.
Environmental is defined as resource consumption, pollution and environmental sustainability.

There are clear indications that sustainability has become increasingly important, but it is still not
given high priority in many companies. The environmental impact is typically measured and
benchmarked quantitatively in terms of energy consumption, but in some cases also documented
qualitatively in terms of choice of environmental suitable materials and treatment of chemicals.
c. Value adding management

One of the interviewees pointed to Maslow’s pyramid of needs as a starting point for
management of value. In his own words: “FM does not create value by supporting the lower
levels in the pyramid. They are taken for granted and you will get criticism, if they are not
48
fulfilled, but you will not receive any appreciation, if they are fulfilled. That is just doing the
work that is necessary. To be appreciated you need to deliver something that is beyond basic
expectations.”
Besides KPI’s there are a number of other ways to visualise or document added value. Providers
often prepare performance reviews with fixed intervals to their customers. Other examples are
business cases for specific initiatives and reports on finished projects. Added value is also
included in the communication with stakeholders in less formal ways as part of on-going
dialogue and storytelling. Management of expectations is an important aspect of adding value.
One of the providers have attempted to make an annual added value report on key accounts, but
they have not yet managed to find the right way to meet the customers’ expectations – 2013,
however, will be the first year where they have a draft. Their experience with using Balanced
Scorecard is that the economic and people perspectives are quite easy to document, while the
customer and process perspectives are much more difficult to measure. It also depends a lot on
what triggers the specific customer and user.
d. Topics for future research

Various interviewees expressed a need for a clear framework that links concrete FM and CREM
interventions to well defined types of Added Value, Key Performance Areas and KPIs.
Furthermore there is an urgent need for best practices, empirical data and stories to illustrate the
possible AV of various FM or CREM interventions to CEOs, clients, customers and end users.
Other issues for further discussion and research came on the table as well, e.g.:
 Relate AV to the context (Anglo-Saxian countries versus Europe, USA, Asia) and sector (e.g.
offices versus health care, education, industry.
 Learn from other disciplines such as economy. Make a clear distinction between market
value of RE and value of RE for the business.
 Pay attention to AV in historical perspective and how the concept developed.
 Include AV of ownership versus renting of buildings in connection to mainstream and
company focused buildings, flexibility, costs.
 How to improve the impact of FM on macro level?
 How to cope with growing vacancy? What is or could be the role of FM when FM
interventions result in lower space demand?
In addition a number of issues were proposed to be discussed in EuroFM meetings and at EFMC
conferences, for instance: What to do in case of conflicting values/wishes (e.g. between
organisation and end users? Is it possible to argue for the value of sustainability not only because
it makes business sense but also regarding the AV of sustainability itself? What are the
relationship between FM & Asset Management i.e. how do they overlap and what is their
uniqueness?
49
4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Regarding the definition of added value all respondents refer to both benefits and costs of
FM/CREM interventions. Benefits are mainly linked to clients, customers and end users but also
to shareholders and – less often - to society as a whole. All respondents include different types of
added values, without a clear classification into for instance user value versus customer value, or
economic value versus environmental value. Practitioners mainly steer on the impact of FM and
CREM on the core business and organisational performance, and this is also essential in
provider companies’ sales arguments.
Prioritized values are costs and satisfaction, followed by productivity. Remarkably, four out of
ten outcome parameters - reliability and economic, social and spatial impact on the surroundings
- were not spontaneously mentioned at all in response to the open question about prioritized
values. These issues came only to the fore when we asked for comments on the list of possible
added values that was shown after the open questions. Not all values showed on the list – in
particular possible impacts on the surroundings – did immediately ring a bell and raised different
interpretations or misunderstanding. Sustainability was mainly perceived as a building
characteristic. Most respondents made no clear distinction between impacts on the core business
and impacts on the surroundings, and focussed more on a distinction between interventions
regarding buildings and building related facilities and services versus choices regarding the
location and the surroundings. Because practitioners use different terms, various responses could
not be allocated clearly to one particular value.
There were some striking differences in the frequencies of prioritized values by Danish and
Dutch respondents. This might be caused by the different contexts but also by the selection of
respondents with more Dutch representatives from CREM than in the Danish sample (due to the
CREM background of the first author). More interviews are needed to get a more complete
picture.
The topics for further research that were mentioned by the interviewees are in line with the
findings from the EFMC 2013 workshop that was summarised in the introduction section. The
EFMC 2013 participants also showed much interest in the development of a holistic framework
that can bring together various elements of FM activities and practices, and concrete ways how
FM can contribute to a more sustainable use of office buildings by office users themselves,
productivity support, retaining employees and attracting talented new employees, and add value
to society. Another issue is what arguments FM could use other than economy to get the CEO
interested in FM as a leadership tool/discipline, and how to visualize AV.
Although in the last decade various conceptual models and frameworks have been developed to
visualize the added value of FM and CREM (De Vries et al., 2008; Lindholm, 2008; Jensen,
2010; Den Heijer, 2011, apparently academic contributions to this research area are not ready to
be implemented into daily practice. An important next step is to integrate the insights of the FM
Value Map and other FM and CREM models into a holistic framework, to illustrate adding value
by FM/CREM by best practices and data from empirical research, and easy-to-apply KPIs.
50
REFERENCES
CEN (2006, Facility Management – Part 1: Terms and definitions. EN 15221-1.
Bradley, S. (2002). What’s working? Briefing and evaluating workplace performance
improvement. Journal of Corporate Real Estate,, 4(2), 150-159.
De Vries, J. C., De Jonge, H., & Van der Voordt, D. J. M. (2008). Impact of real estate
interventions on organisational performance. Journal of Corporate Real Estate, 10(3), 208-223.
Den Heijer, A. (2011). Managing the University Campus: Information to support real estate
decisions. PhD dissertation: Delft University of Technology.
Dewulf, G., Krumm, P., & De Jonge, H. (2000). Successful corporate real estate strategies.
Nieuwegein: Arko Publishers.
Jensen, P. A. (2010). The Facilities Management Value Map: a conceptual framework. Facilities,
28(3/4), 175-188.
Jensen, P.A., Sarasoja, A.L., Van der Voordt, T. & Coenen, C. (2013), How can Facilities
Management add value to organisations as well as to society? Conference paper. Brisbane,
Australia: CIB World Building Congress, 5-9 May 2013.
Jensen, P. A., Van der Voordt, D. J. M., & Coenen, C. (2012). The added value of facilities
management: concepts, findings and perspectives. Lyngby Denmark: Polyteknisk Forlag.
Katchamart, P. (2013). Profiling value added position in FM. Copenhagen: Technical University
of Denmark & Centre for Facilities Management (CFM) – Realdania Research.
Lindholm, A.-L. (2008). Identifying and measuring the success of corporate real estate
management. Doctoral Dissertation, Helsinki University of Technology.
Lindholm, A.L. & Leväinen, K. I. (2006). A framework for identifying and measuring value
added by corporate real estate. Journal of Corporate Real Estate, 8(1), 38-46.
Riratanaphong, C., Van der Voordt, T., & Sarasoja, A.-L. (2012). Performance measurement in
the context of CREM and FM. In P. A. Jensen, T. Van der Voortdt & C. Coenen (Eds.), The
added value of facilities management: concepts, findings and perspectives (pp. 127-149).
Lyngby Denmark: Polyteknisk Forlag.
Riratanaphong, C., (2014), Performance measurement of workplace change in two different
cultural contexts. PhD-Thesis. Delft: Delft University of Technology.
Van der Zwart, J. (2014), Hospital real estate management in a changing context. PhD-thesis.
Delft: Delft University of Technology.
Van der Zwart, J. & Van der Voordt, T. (2013). Value adding management of hospital real
estate. Balancing between different stakeholders’ perspectives. E-Hospital Vol. 15, no. 3, 13,
15-17.
51
Exploration of added value concepts in facilities management

practice: learning from financial institutes
D.Gerritse
Saxion University of Applied Sciences
D.Gerritse@saxion.nl
+31(0)612549450
F.H.J.Bergsma
F.H.J.Bergsma@saxion.nl
B.H.Groen
B.H.Groen@saxion.nl
ABSTRACT
Purpose: The role of intangible assets has drawn attention in facilities management and real
estate. There is a call for further development of FM performance beyond costs to capture,
demonstrate and manage the total value of FM for core business and corporate performance. This
research aims to show the practicality of added value concepts for FM businesses in financial
institutes.
Design/methodology: The research approach is based on the work of Jensen. Literature review
leads to methods for exploring added value in business practice. The fieldwork included an
exploratory case study at 6 financial institutes and one in-depth case study. Core topics were
explored in a focus group consisting of 5 experts.
Findings: The results give clarification on themes and issues in the area of added value.
Furthermore, the paper gives insights on the added value of FM at six Dutch financial institutes.
Interviews with FM staff in the involved institutes showed that FM adds value (besides cost
control) in the area of ‘support of productivity’, ‘risk control’, ‘increase satisfaction’, ‘support
image’ and ‘increase sustainability’. The in-depth case study illustrates how management of
added value can be integrated in FM operations. Results are presented in a conceptual model for
management of added value.
Originality/value: The research contributes to existing knowledge by bringing new perspectives
on added value in financial institutes.
Keywords
FACILITIES MANAGEMENT, ADDED VALUE, INTANGIBLE PERFORMANCE
INDICATORS.
1 INTRODUCTION
Even though Amaratunga et al. already stated in 2000 "For FM to grow as a discipline, a
paradigm shift is required from focusing purely on premises costs to looking at holistic business
performance", the performance of facility management is still often defined solely in terms of
costs and efficiency (Amaratunga et al., 2000). The issue is, how could facilities management
(FM) create value for a business corporation, other than financial value?
52
Low (2000) in The Cap Gemini Ernst & Young Centre for Business Innovation (CBI) conducted
a series of studies on the role of intangibles in creating value in a modern corporation. Nine non-
financial value drivers were developed to create a value creation index that can indicate the total
company performance across the most critical intangible categories (Low, 2000). CBI concluded
that of the nine value drivers, the factors ‘innovation’, ‘management quality’ and ‘employee
relations’ have the greatest impact on market value for the involved S&P500 companies.
The role of intangible assets has also drawn attention in FM and real estate management. Added
value of FM is one of the three main themes of the Research Network Group of EFMC, and
Jensen et al. (2010, 2012) described and confirmed the importance of a change from initial focus
on cost reduction in FM towards a more strategic orientation actively supporting the core
business. FM should become more effective and add value to the core business and should
change focus towards understanding and managing the total business impacts and effects of FM.
A more holistic way of performance management in FM is required to be able to get out of the
area of cost reductions and to remain (or become) a strategic partner in organizational planning
and change in the organization. Also Alexander (1992), Lindholm (2008), De Vries & De Jonge
(2004) and Vader (2011) recognize the insufficiency of solely cost-related performance factors in
FM practices. Furthermore, in 2012 IFMA conducted a survey amongst executives asking them
to evaluate the importance of FM for their company; 73% indicated that FM has a positive
impact on the competitiveness of the company (IFMA, 2012). Similar developments are seen in
FM operations in Dutch environment. The Netherlands Facility Cost Index is currently working
on expanding its benchmarking activities by adding new perspectives of FM performance to the
existing cost and customer satisfaction perspectives, namely service levels and sustainability
performance.
Therefore, the aim of this paper is to propose and test a conceptual model (tool) to demonstrate
non-financial and holistic contributions of FM for core businesses. Large financial institutions
were chosen, being exemplary for corporations with FM at strategic level.
2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
The FM Value Map created by Jensen (2010) captures the added value of FM in the context of
the organization to which services and products are provided as well as the surroundings and
stakeholders of the organization. Jensen distinguishes exchange value and use value as
contributions of FM for the core business. Exchange value is the traditional cost-related value,
but use value expresses the intangible values of FM, expressed in non-financial, qualitative
change in output, e.g. higher customer satisfaction. Jensen concluded that the purpose of FM is
to create value for internal customers by supporting the core business; the purpose of the core
business is to create value for external customers/stakeholders. He distinguished six areas in
which effectiveness of FM leads to a certain impact in the core business of the corporate being:
cost, satisfaction, productivity, reliability, adaptation and culture. Similar to this view, Lindholm
(2008) investigated the added value of Real Estate and developed a model as a response to the
need of corporate real estate managers to be able to demonstrate the total benefits of the
corporate real estate management for the core business. Van der Zwart (2011) proposed nine
added values of corporate real estate management (CREM) (see Table 1). Prevosth and Van der
Voordt (2011) applied the nine added values of Van der Zwart in a FM context in six hospitals.
The effect on user satisfaction was considered the most important one according to health care
facility managers.
53
Table 1 The added value of FM or CREM for core business.

Jensen (2010) Lindholm (2008) Van der Zwart (2011)
cost reduce cost reducing cost
productivity increase productivity improving productivity
customer and staff satisfaction increase employee increasing (user) satisfaction
adaptation satisfaction improving flexibility
culture increase flexibility improving culture
reliability increase innovations supporting image
economical (surroundings) promote marketing & sales increasing innovation
social (surroundings) increase value of assets controlling risks
spatial (surroundings) improving the financial
environmental (surroundings) position
Looking at the discussed studies and the applied methods to explore or ‘map’ added value,
identification of operational interventions or critical success factors (CSF’s) appeared to be
suitable to obtain an understanding of the total added value. In addition, mapping these
interventions (or CSF’s) enables development of performance indicators in order to increase the
measurability of the total added value.
The methods applied by Lindholm (2008) and Prevosth & Van der Voordt (2011) were used to
design the empirical part in this research project. Both Lindholm and Prevosth & Van der Voordt
applied case study research with semi-structured interviews with real estate managers
respectively facilities managers. Focus of the research has been on understanding the priorities in
FM or Real Estate management, definitions of added value according to these managers and
identification of real estate or FM interventions contributing to corporate performance. Learning
from CREM theory in this topic, relations between real estate strategies and corporate
performance enable real estate managers to enhance added value (Scheffer et al. 2006) and
therefore is included in the case studies in this research.
3 METHODOLOGY
Based on a literature review, a preliminary value map was drafted. This value map was
developed and validated in a three-step research project.
First, exploratory research was conducted in six Dutch financial organizations (4 banks and 2
insurance companies), in the largest segment (between 6,800 and 27,500 employees). In each
organization, semi-structured interviews of approximately 1.5 hours were conducted with the
Facilities Director or other representative strategic function in the FM department. Data was
analysed by open and axial coding, and subsequent cross-case analysis. Additionally, internal
documents and annual reports were analysed to identify both tangible and intangible corporate
performance.
Second, one in-dept case study has been conducted at one of the involved banks to explore
practical application of added value management at end-user level. The case illustrates how the
facilities manager is able to assess its added value at end-user level and shows appreciation of the
various facilities management values in the experience of the end-users (users of the office
buildings). The case study includes a survey amongst end-users of the office buildings of the
organization (random sample of 6600 people, response rate of 33%; 2163 responses).
Third, issues raised during the literature review and case studies were discussed in a focus group
of 2 hours with 5 FM experts. The participants were selected on their experience and expertise
54
regarding the topic and included one expert/researcher in added value of FM, three FM experts
from the banking industry and one FM expert from a health care organization.
4 FINDINGS
This paragraph presents the results of the (focus group) interviews (4.1-4.4), followed by an in-
depth case study that illustrates how the conceptual model can be used in business practice (4.5).
4.1 Focus group interviews

The aim of the focus group interview was to explore issues and phenomena regarding strategic
management of added value based on a literature review. Experts in the focus group discussed
issues to clarify or confirm issues or phenomena and also suggested additional perspectives. The
results are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2 Core topics discussed in focus group interview
Topic Findings
1. Strategic Respondents agreed that FM is not always timely and at the right place (in the
involvement in organization) involved in the design of optimal core business processes and therefore
hindered in optimizing its contributions. According the experts this is due to the fact that
corporate stakeholders do not know which (strategic) added value FM can contribute and hesitate
planning to involve FM. Also, FM doesn’t always have the resources to clarify its contributions.
Measurement and benchmark of the traditional 3 performance criteria of FM (costs,
customer satisfaction and quality) is not always sufficient.
2. Efficiency vs. Results confirmed the efficiency and effectiveness theory of Jensen
effectiveness (2010). The focus group mentioned that efficiency is considered to have
boundaries in which the investment is not effective anymore. Reducing
costs in the working environment can be beneficial for financial purposes;
this however may have a negative effect in other areas when pushed to the
limit (for example image or productivity). To determine the tipping point
between efficiency and effectiveness, measurement of satisfaction is
indicated as one of the possible tools.
3. Determinants Respondents discussed determinants of added value. Social context,
of added value history, and sector are indicated as determinants. Social context is
considered to be the influence of trends, developments or events in the
social context of the organization that influence management decisions.
Old buildings or out-dated installations are considered to be the inherit of
the organization; these influence the experienced service level. Sector
determines the primary process and the required added value.
4. Qualitative Respondents indicated the need to integrate qualitative performance
performance indicators in assessing FM performance. The degree in which a
indicators contribution is made to corporate objectives should be integrated in FM
performance and accountability especially in the area of intangible
performance (like image, productivity, and culture).
4.2 Exploration of concepts of added value at six financial institutes
The main part of the research consisted of a case study approach that identifies how the FM
organizations add value to the core business. Based on research methods used by Prevosth &
Van der Voordt (2011) and Lindholm (2008) the interviewees (Facility Director or strategic FM
55
function) defined the added value of FM for the organization and indicated the top 5 of most
important FM values. Ten added values were selected to use in the empirical research, derived
from Lindholm (2008), Jensen (2010), Van der Zwart (2011), Prevosth & Van der Voordt (2011)
and Vader (2011). The values were selected by their relevance for the sector where the research
took place, namely financial organizations with office environment. The following values were
used to structure the interview process:
reduce and control costs increase innovation
increase satisfaction increase flexibility
increase productivity support/improve culture
increase sustainability increase value of assets
risk control support image
Interviewees were asked to discuss the importance of the values, prioritise the values, indicate
the most important Critical Success Factors (CSF’s) in each value, and discuss the accountability
process of FM towards top management.
Definition of added value

Because of the similar primary process in the organizations, similar answers came to the table as
a response to the question to define the added value of the FM department for the organization.
The following definition could be drawn from the interviews:
“Provision of an effective, inspiring and comfortable working environment in a cost efficient
manner in which quality level and costs are balanced; the facilities optimally support the core
business and contribute to the image of the organization.”
The provision of an effective working environment for (knowledge) workers in the financial
institutes appeared to be the most important contribution of FM for the organization. In addition,
FM appeared to be of value for an organization when being able to find the optimal balance
between costs and quality. There is a clear preference and need for cost reductions or cost control
by FM. However, the results also indicate that pursuing cost reductions is going to have a
negative effect in other areas if not in balance with effectiveness (e.g. decreased productivity of
employees, decreased customers satisfaction or reputational damage). In addition, the results
show the influence of the present time: all respondents indicated the influence of the current
financial crisis on their current FM policy.
Other elements of added value indicated by the respondents were related to relational qualities
and other competencies of FM. Respondents indicated the following competencies essential for
adding value:
‐ centralized management of FM
‐ bring specific FM expertise into the organization
‐ being able to fully understand and align with customers’ needs.
Priorities of the FM department

Secondly, respondents were asked to rank the 10 values in order of importance for the FM
operations (Table 3). The number in this table indicates how many respondents considered a
specific value to be in the top five. The importance of increasing productivity and control of
costs is reflected in the top 1 and 2 position, similar to the definition of added value the
respondents gave in the interviews. Furthermore, the results showed that in the area of ‘image’,
the financial organizations appeared to put in special effort, leaning on the importance of a solid
image as a financial institute. In addition, ’risk control’ appeared to be a main priority as well,
56
FMC 2014
closely related to thhe ‘image’ value. Conttinuity of business is cconsidered tto be a succcess factor
for the iimage of finnancial instittutes and therefore requuires risk coontrol in the operations as well.
Taable 3 Rankinng of FM vallues at 6 finaancial instituttes (x-axis indicates repreesentation of a

valuue in the top 5).
In the tthird part of

o the intervview the respondents were w askedd to indicatee the most important
Critical Success Faactors (CSF’s) in each value.
v The m most imporrtant interveentions that enhance a
positivee contributioon to core buusiness perfformance foor the value of ‘cost conntrol’ were: reduction
of m2, smart contraact managem ment, improvement of tthe workplaace ratio, andd economiees of scale.
Intervenntions that iincrease prooductivity w were: flexibbility of woorkplace annd workplacce lay-out,
Activityy Based Woorking, insppiring envirronment (am mbiance andd appearancce), and accessibility
and avaailability of workplacess. For the ‘iimage’ valuue interview wees identifiied appearannce of the
built ennvironment,, maintenannce, interioor design, ssustainable design, hoostmanship, and risk
management as FM M success factors. A An overview w of indicaated CSF’s are mapped in the
concepttual model (Figure 1).
Relationn with corpoorate intanggible perform

mance areas
Intangibble assets aat corporatee level weree identifiedd by analysiis of non-fi
financial perrformance
parametters present in annual reports. The intangible performanc
p e areas were confronted with the
results oof the intervviews. The top 5 addeed values annd associateed interventions indicatted by the
FM resppondents weere compareed with the iintangible aassets of the organizatioon. Importannt areas of
impact bby FM that were found as intangibble assets of the financiaal institutes were:
‐ Risk control; eespecially appplicable in the financial instiitutes where buusiness continnuity is importtant to avoid
R
d
detrimental efffects to the coore business annd image.
‐ C
Contribute to being a respoonsible and atttractive emplloyer; the officce environmennt (e.g. The N New Way of
W
Working) andd image of thhe organizatioon play an im mportant role in the ‘battlee for talents’ as well as
o
opportunities tto create a goood work/life bbalance.
‐ O
Optimizing coore business; eefforts in FM services and products that optimally aliggn with the coore business
s
strategy and ooptimise execuution of primarry processes.
57
‐ Sustainability; by taking responsibility as an organization towards the environment and working conditions,
in some cases translated into labels or indexes. FM interventions directly or indirectly contribute to these
objectives.
4.3 Conceptual model

The results of the case studies and the literature review were combined into a conceptual model.
The aim of the model is to provide FM departments in the banking industry with a practical tool
to reveal their contributions to the core business in a broader perspective. The conceptual models
of Lindholm and Jensen were used as a starting point to map the various added values for FM.
Alike the method of Lindholm (2008), the aim was to map the specific FM (and real estate in
cases where the FM department is responsible for real estate) measures and interventions in each
value area towards FM value-adding strategies. CSF’s were derived from the interviews as well
as literature review leading towards value-adding strategies for financial organizations with
office buildings. Analysis of policy documents and the nature of service provision of the FM
department delivered the relations between the value areas and the intangible corporate
performance areas. The conceptual model is illustrated in Figure 1.
The model incorporates the theory of Jensen (2010) regarding effectiveness and efficiency (use
value and exchange value), showing two ways of adding value: FM interventions can contribute
to (or damage) either the finance position of the organization or contribute to other intangible
assets that support or enhance the differentiation strategy (non-financial assets).
4.4 Demonstrating and measuring added value

The last part of the interviews included questions regarding the accountability process of FM
towards top management. The interviews confirmed findings from Prevosth and Van der Voordt
(2011) in the healthcare sector that emphasised the importance of FM policy to align with
corporate policies. The interviews at the six financial institutes confirm these findings. However,
findings also identified a gap in the performance measurement and accountability of FM. An
analysis of policy documents and interview results showed that the accountability process of FM
towards top management does not or only partially cover the prior values of FM. The process
shows only little representation of other (intangible) assets beyond cost, quality and customer
satisfaction.
58
FMC 2014
Figure 1 Conceptuall model for ddemonstratingg added (excchange and usse) value (baased on: Jenseen (2010),
Lindhoolm (2008), PPrevosth & V Van der Voorddt (2011).
59
The FM performance indicators integrated in the accountability process towards top management
are (number in brackets indicates how many financial institutes mentioned this indicator):
 FM costs (6)
 Customer satisfaction (6)
 Service Level Agreements (4)
 Risk control (3)
 Sustainability performance (2)
 Productivity measurement as part of implementation of The New Way of Working (survey assessing the
effect on perceived productivity of the employee)(1) or occupancy level of office space (2)
 Value of physical assets by measuring vacancy and occupancy rate (1)
A confrontation of these results with the results of the top 5 of added values showed gaps in the
areas of ‘productivity’, ‘support of image’, ‘innovation’, ‘support of culture’, ‘flexibility’ and
‘increase value of assets’. FM respondents explained that current measurement systems do not
cover these contributions, preventing or limiting demonstration of FM contributions to these
topics.
4.5 Case study on integration of added value concept in business practice

The last part of the research covers one in-depth case study that illustrates how the various values
of FM might operate in FM practice. ING Facility Management (ING FM) participated as a case
study in which the practical applicability of added value was tested. ING Netherlands is a
financial institute with approximately 16.200 employees in the Netherlands working at head
offices, serviced by ING FM, the FM department. The case study shows how ING FM has
implemented value management. Questions regarding the ten values in the conceptual model
were integrated in the annual customer satisfaction survey that was conducted amongst 2163
end-users of facilities management products and services in the office buildings of ING.
Furthermore, the survey contained questions regarding how valuable certain services in the value
areas are to the end-user.
The survey addressed questions regarding the experience with these services and the importance
of the service for the respondent as follows: ‘’How important is it for you that ING FM
provides… access control?’’ Respondents indicated the level of importance with a mark between
1 and 10. Table 4 illustrates the appreciation of end-users with the values and the specific topics
that were addressed. The results generated a ranking of values of FM that are important to the
end-users of the buildings. Risk control ranked highest (8.3) and support culture lowest (7.2).
Analysis of the services that contribute to each of the values showed that employees most value:
a comfortable, suitable workspace, security and access control, (free) provision of hot beverages,
and parking space. Least valued was a new mail delivery service (5.7). Vending machines,
banqueting services, external archives, and provision of furniture for a workspace at home also
ranked low.
The case study showed that risk control, support of productivity as well as satisfaction are
priority values for the end-users of the ING buildings. The interview with the FM director
(before the survey took place) showed that ‘increase productivity’, ‘increase satisfaction’, ‘cost
control’, ‘risk control’, and ‘sustainability’ were indicated as the top 5 priority areas of FM.
60
Table 4 Results of end-user survey at ING Netherlands showing appreciation of FM values.

Added value Service aspects (how important is…. for you?) Mean Std. Mean for
deviation value
Risk control security (in and around the office building) 8.6 1.4 (n=2043)
use of access passes for offices 8.3 1.6 (n=2045) 8.3
compliance of risk policy with (national) guidelines 8.0 1.7 (n=2041)
Increase availability of hot beverages (coffee/tea) 8.6 1.4 (n=2075)
satisfaction free hot beverages (coffee/tea) 8.4 1.7 (n=2072)
clean office and workspace 8.3 1.1 (n=2066)
availability of car parking 8.3 1.9 (n=1906)
hospitality at reception/entrance 8.0 1.5 (n=2054) 7.8
availability of bicycle parking 7.6 2.3 (n=1718)
restaurant or food corner in office buildings 7.1 1.9 (n=2070)
vending machines with cold beverages and snacks 6.4 2.2 (n=2071)
Increase ING takes into account sustainable use of energy and water 8.0 1.7 (n=2022) 7.8
sustainability separate collection of sustainable waste in offices 7.6 1.9 (n=2021)
Value of assets sustainable facilities and fitment in buildings 7.7 1.7 (n=2020) 7.7
Increase innovation in office environment (e.g. New Ways of Working) 7.6 1.7 (n=2095) 7.6
innovation
Increase office open after regular office hours 7.6 1.9 (n=2039) 7.5
flexibility availability of flexible office concept 7.4 2.0 (n=2042)
Support image 24/7 accessibility of FM and (online) service desk 7.6 1.7 (n=2023)
presence of security staff to increase perception of security 7.4 2.0 (n=2046)
presence of greening in the office environment 7.4 1.7 (n=2064) 7.3
presence of host(ess) at entrance of buildings 6.8 2.2 (n=2018)
Increase comfortable and suitable workplace at ING offices 8.7 1.0 (n=2115)
productivity sufficient meeting rooms available (with reservation) 8.2 1.4 (n=2107)
online reservation of services and workspace/meeting rooms 7.7 1.6 (n=2034)
availability of audio visual equipment in meeting rooms 7.7 1.5 (n=2098)
availability of (free) office supplies 7.7 1.6 (n=2020)
availability of a restaurant with a wide range of products 7.5 1.9 (n=2068) 7.3
sufficient meeting areas available (without reservation) 7.3 1.5 (n=2103)
availability of FM call centre 7.2 1.7 (n=2024)
FM support when you need an external archive 6.4 2.1 (n=1535)
provision of furniture/equipment for a workplace at home 6.2 2.5 (n=1957)
the new mail and order delivery concept 5.7 2.0 (n=1309)
Cost introduction of the New Ways of Work at ING 7.3 1.9 (n=2089) 7.3
Support culture professional reception and welcome at ING buildings 8.1 1.5 (n=2051) 7.2
availability of banqueting services in ING buildings 6.3 2.0 (n=2066)
The method confirmed that the FM policy objectives and end-user experience show similarities,
indicating alignment of policy and outcome of FM services and products. In addition, the survey
showed specific improvement opportunities for the FM department and the ability to prioritise
improvements based on actual end-user opinions. Based on this research, ING FM is able to
combine end-user information with strategic management information by using the same
‘language’ of ‘value-adding strategies’ in an operational tool like customer satisfaction survey.
5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This research contributes to a more holistic view on FM, in order to capture, demonstrate, and
manage the total value of FM for core business and corporate performance. In addition, the aim
is to show the practicality of added value concepts in financial institutes.
Based on six small case studies in Dutch financial institutes, a conceptual model was developed
that demonstrates the total value of FM in relation to core business performance. Specific FM
61
interventions were mapped to enhance the manageability of added value strategies for the
facilities manager. Intangible corporate performance areas were integrated in the conceptual
model. Although the model supports the conversation between the facilities manager and its
(strategic) stakeholders in the organization, the model requires further exploration to create
measurable indicators of added value. The research showed that the prior areas of FM added
value currently do not play a (visible) role in the accountability process of FM indicating a gap in
measurement according to the respondents.
The practicality of added value concepts was explored in an in-depth case study showing
appreciation of FM at end-user level. The case illustrates how the facilities manager is able to
explore new interventions to increase end-user appreciation and to investigate appreciation of
end-users regarding specific management areas of FM. Furthermore, it gives insights in the
opportunity to measure added value at different levels in the organization. Following the
definition of EN15221 regarding FM customers, it would be valuable to conduct similar research
at each customer level (client, customer, consumer), in order to clarify how different FM
customers consider the importance of different FM added values. The importance of values
thereby can be specified to (and managed for) each customer level. Although the case shows
end-user appreciation, the method requires further refinement in the structure of the survey and
should make a relation with other (tactical and strategic) levels of management.
Through expert panel method, generic issues regarding added value of FM were explored and
clarified. Both the results at the financial institutes and the expert panel showed and confirmed
that certain (intangible) areas of added value of FM are important for the performance of the
organization. Results from case studies and the expert panel showed that a lack of tools for
reporting on intangible contributions restricts FM in showing its contribution to the core
business. Furthermore, results showed that there is a need for performance indicators that
correlate between corporate performance and FM performance. Further research should reveal
what aspects of FM either obstruct or stimulate/enhance core business performance. This should
be organized within the context of similar core business in the area of productivity, image,
culture, risk control, sustainability, and innovation. In addition, the focus group results showed
that the sector in which the company operates is considered to be an important determinant of
added value. This requires exploration of sector-specific performance indicators and assessment
to which level FM is able to obstruct or enhance corporate performance level. For example, to
what extent does FM contribute to an increased throughput time of patients in a healthcare
environment (productivity)? Or in the banking industry, to what extent does FM contribute to the
efficiency or effectiveness of payment transactions (optimal core business)?
Although the relationships made in the conceptual model are likely for these case studies, it
would be valuable to establish more reliable correlations between the different value-adding
strategies and the corporate intangible performance areas following the example of Scheffer et al.
(2006). Parameters that can be measured over time and can be isolated from other influencing
factors need to be developed in research objects with similar corporate performance objectives
and similar facility management strategies. This enables determining correlations between
dominant corporate strategies/performance and FM value-adding strategies.
A possible area of research would be companies that offer Integrated Facility Management,
because of their specific situation in outsourcing contracts and their challenge to deliver services
in compliance with the norms, vision, and values of the client company. Although costs have
been the main driver for outsourcing decisions so far, trends like Best Value Procurement show
62
that other (intangible) values are entering the decision making process and play a role in the
determination of the best business fit in outsourced situations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank all the interviewees, Dr. Ir. D.J.M (Theo) van der Voordt, and G.J.A (Gijs) Theunissen
MSc for their contributions to the research. We also thank Yvet Brummelhuis for her
contributions to the empirical part and ING Facility Management as a partner in this project.
REFERENCES
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international postgraduate research conference (volume 2), University of Salford, Manchester,
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Jensen, P.A. (2010), "The Facilities Management Value Map: a conceptual framework",
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Riratanaphong, C. & Pfenninger, M. (2012), "In search for the added value of FM: what we
know and what we need to learn", Facilities, Vol. 30, No. 5/6, pp. 199-217.
Jensen, P.A., Voordt van der, T., Coenen, C., Felten von, D., Lindholm, A., Balslev Nielsen, S.,
Riratanaphong, C. & Schmid, M. (2010), "The Added Value of FM: Different Research
Perspectives", paper presented at EFMC Conference and research Symposium, June, Madrid.
Lindholm, A. (2008), "Identifying and measuring the success of corporate real estate", Ph.D.
Thesis, Helsinki University of Technology, available at:
http://lib.tkk.fi/Diss/2008/isbn9789512293605/isbn9789512293605.pdf (accessed 25 Feb. 2012).
Low, J. (2000), "The value creation index", Journal of Intellectual Capital, 1, 3, pp. 252-262.
Prevosth, J. & Van der Voordt, T.J.M. (2011), "De toegevoegde waarde van FM. Begrippen,
maatregelen en prioriteiten in de zorgsector", FMN, Naarden, available at: www.fmn.nl.
Scheffer, J.L., Bastiaan P., Singer, M. & Van Meerwijk, C. (2006), "Enhancing the contribution
of corporate real estate to corporate strategy", Journal of Corporate Real Estate, 8, 4, 188-197.
Vader, R. (2011), "De waarde van strategisch facility management", Facility Management
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Infrastructure", Proceedings HaCIRIC International Conference Global health infrastructure
challenges for the next decade, 26-28 September, Manchester, UK, pp. 52-67.
63
Identity and Image of FM:

two sides of a coin to promote productivity in FM
Institute of Facility Management, Zurich University of Applied Sciences
E Mail: vote@zhaw.ch
ABSTRACT
Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to present answers of two key questions: (1) How is the
FM industry perceived by the general public (FM image, external view)? (2) How do FM
employees perceive their own industry (FM identity, internal view)?
Design/methodology/approach: In a quantitative national telephone survey with a total of more

than 2,100 randomly selected participants from the general public, the image and awareness of
FM were analysed. In a second step, FM identity was ascertained and analysed in a national
longitudinal survey, repeated after three years, with a total of about 1,800 FM managers and
skilled professionals.
Findings: An industry-based survey model for FM is developed. It explores FM image and

identity on an industry-specific basis. The dimensions of FM image and FM identity are defined
and analysed. The FM image and the FM identity in Switzerland are evaluated and will be
presented. Initial results show that FM identity is somewhat higher positioned than FM image.
However, FM identity declined slightly over the three years between the two surveys.
Originality/value: In the on-going discussion on ways how to increase value creation in FM,
issues such as process optimisation, outsourcing and cost savings are often in the foreground. A
frequently overlooked aspect which receives little attention is the commitment of employees.
This seems all the more surprising since we know from recent research that high employee
commitment significantly increases productivity, contributing to sales growth and value creation.
Because FM can be described as a service management discipline, people and their ability to
identify with their work are key factors in increasing value creation. In addition, the image of the
entire industry plays a crucial role. This is the first published scientific study on the current status
of FM identity at the sector level.
Keywords
Facility Management, Image, Identity, Reputation, Switzerland.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background and definition of the problem

Facility management is still a comparatively young business sector and has become established
as a service industry. Image and identity are critical to the success of this new sector. The fact
that FM employees identify closely with their products, as well as with the FM sector as a whole,
can be seen as the lifeblood of high, quality-oriented productivity. Knowledge about the image
and identity of the FM sector is particularly important in this regard. However, no study has so
far been published on the current status of FM identity at the sector level; the only work
64
available is a pilot study on the image of the FM sector by Coenen and von Felten (2009) and
Coenen, von Felten, Schmid (2010).
1.2 Objectives of the study

The main objective of this study is to survey and analyse the identity of the Facility Management
sector in Switzerland for the first time. The second aim is to compare this identity with the image
of FM in Switzerland. The third goal is to analyse possible changes in the identity of FM, as
shown in the longitudinal survey carried out in 2010 and 2013.
2. Theoretical foundations
The effect a company's activities have on every aspect of the business, from customer perception
to economic success, is analysed and presented in the form of success chains (Bruhn, 2009, p 66)
and in the case of strategy development and monitoring, as part of a Balanced Scorecard (Kaplan
& Norton, 1992). For service industries the Service Profit Chain identified by Heskett et al.
(1994) examines the relationship between internal service quality and the profit of a company as
follows: profit and growth are driven primarily by customer loyalty. This in turn is a direct result
of customer satisfaction. Customer satisfaction is strongly influenced by the value and quality of
the service provided to the customer. This value is provided by satisfied, loyal and productive
employees. The satisfaction of employees is in turn influenced by high internal service quality,
which enables employees to deliver good results to their customers.
Moreover, the image of a product and/or a company has an impact on customer expectations and
satisfaction. The importance of image in services is particularly important, since services are
intangible and their creation and consumption take place simultaneously; unlike material goods
they cannot, therefore, be examined objectively in advance (Meffert & Bruhn, 2006, p 210). In
this paper, the term image is understood to comprise an aggregated and subjective overall picture
of all the attitudes that a person has towards a brand, product, organisation or institution (based
on Apitz, Benad & Poth, 1987 and Meffert & Bruhn, 2006, p 210).
Furthermore, image as understood by Buss and Fink-Heuberger (2000, p 64) can be
differentiated into the close-range and long-range image. This refers to proximity or remoteness
from an organisation. That is, someone who is not aware of an organisation, or only has
information about it from a third party, has a different image of the organisation than do groups
which interact with, and thereby generate various experiences of it. In terms of image
management and improvement, this means that an organisation should invest in its close-range
image. By distinguishing between these two types of image and combining them appropriately
when evaluating the results of surveys, an organisation can identify and appropriately position its
image-related opportunities and threats. In this paper, those respondents who had a correct
understanding of the term Facility Management are assigned to the close-range image group,
while those who have heard the term facility management but have an incorrect understanding of
it are allocated to the long-range image group.
For many services, the employees embody for customers the brand or company that provides the
service, as they are often the only point of contact within the service process (McDonald, de
Chernatony, & Harris, 2001, p 346). In addition, McDonald et al. conclude (2001, p 342): “...
customers' perceptions of the brand depend highly on individual interactions with staff…”
The image that employees have of a brand, a product and the company itself, and which they
transfer into their dealings with outsiders, is therefore especially important for people-oriented
65
services. This self-image as an aggregated and subjective form of all the attitudes of an employee
to their own brand, product, organisation or institution is referred to in this paper as identity.
According to Burmann and Maloney (2004), brand identity in the strict sense is what expresses
the essential characteristic features of a brand: what it stands for at first internally and later
externally. Brand identity in the strictest sense is therefore a statement of a concept. In a broader
sense, brand identity can be interpreted as a brand management tool which aims at a) the
communication of the brand's promise of value and b) the brand-related behaviour of all those
involved in providing services for the organisation. All of this can be understood under the
general heading of identity.
In the field of image and identity research, the image and identity of an individual brand, product
or company have already been considered many times, while the image and the identity of an
entire sector have not been the subject of such focussed attention.
The image of a sector is understood in this paper to be the sum of the images of individual
organisations. Similarly, the identity of a sector is defined as the collective identity of the
individual organisations working in it. In turn, the image and identity of a sector influence the
image and identity of particular organisations and brands operating within that sector. The image
and identity of a sector are therefore involved in a permanent dynamic exchange, which can lead
to changes in both aspects. A company only has a direct influence on its own brand or company
identity, but through exercising this influence, contributes to forming the identity of the entire
sector. In this study, the identity of the FM sector in Switzerland is investigated for the first time,
and is related to the sector's image.
3. Study design
In order to examine the external image and reputation of Facility Management, a nationally
representative survey was designed and implemented in German- and French-speaking
Switzerland in 2008. When defining the term “image”, the approach used in the pan-European
studies on the European Performance Satisfaction Index (EPSI) (EPSI, 2007) was chosen,
particularly for reasons of international comparability. Based on the EPSI product and service
image construct, a further battery of questions was created regarding the image of the sector. As
with EPSI, the data collected is based on telephone interviews. Familiarity with the concept of
Facility Management was surveyed in a first part without support, using a filter question.
Participants who had already heard the term were then questioned, inter alia, about the image of
FM. Of the total of 2,100 randomly selected subjects between 15-75 years of age, 451 people
(21%) had already heard the term Facility Management and were therefore interviewed about the
image of FM.
To survey the internal perspective, or the identity of FM, a longitudinal study was designed,
conducted for the first time in 2010 and for the second time in 2013 as part of an FM sector
survey. Here the questions on FM identity constituted one among several blocks in the overall
survey, which was conducted online with FM management and professionals in Switzerland. The
questions on FM identity were designed to ensure comparability to the FM image study. In the
FM sector study in 2010, a total of 1,038 participants from German- and French-speaking
Switzerland were surveyed and 1,017 valid data records were obtained. About three-quarters of
the participants had a managerial function in lower, middle or upper management, or were self-
employed. 43.5% worked in middle management, 21.3% in lower management and 9.6% in
upper management. In the FM sector study in 2013, a total of 1185 participants, mainly from
German-speaking Switzerland, were interviewed and 788 valid data records were collected.
66
Almost 80% of participants had a managerial function in lower, middle or upper management or
were self-employed. The largest share, 44%, worked in middle management, 21.9% in lower
management and 11.4% in upper management.
4. Study results
Following the presentation of the study design above, the study results will be presented in this
section. First, the results of the evaluations of the image study in 2008 and the FM identity
surveys in 2010 and 2013 are presented. The data from the 2010 FM sector study are then
compared to those collected in the 2008 image study.
4.1 FM image
One in five Swiss has heard the term Facility Management and was therefore questioned on the
image of FM (N = 451). The participants who were able to define the term FM correctly were
classified as having a close-range image, and those who have already heard the term once, but
were not able to define it correctly, as having a long-range image. 10% of the Swiss market had a
correct understanding, and this group was characterised as having a close-range image, while a
further 10% of respondents were characterised as having a long-range image. The image of the
industry is relatively low and the potential earnings are perceived as below average. There is
hardly any awareness in the Swiss population of tertiary education for Facility Managers. Rather,
it is assumed that FM knowledge is acquired through vocational training.
FM image based on the EPSI dimensions

The statement that Facility Managers have an image of being professional and state-of-the-art
produces a mean of 5.91 on a ten-point Likert scale. Customer-oriented service shows a mean of
6.03. The value for money comes last with a mean of 5.28. Also low, with a mean of 5.32, is the
assessment of responsible behaviour towards the environment. The reliability of Facility
Managers (m/w) showed the highest value: 6.10.
The image of the FM profession

With a mean value of 6.78 on a ten-point Likert scale, those surveyed basically expect an
increase in demand in the future. The social prestige of facility management is strikingly low at
4.73, which can be explained by the fact that the respondents were doubtful about the image of
Facility Management. The mean value of respondents' estimation of job security in the industry
was relatively low, at 5.64, as was their view of earnings potential, with a mean of 5.71 (see also
Coenen and Felten 2009).
4.2 FM identity
The identity of Facility Managers in Switzerland was first surveyed in the FM sector studies in
2010 and 2013. The results are presented and interpreted below for the first time.
Longitudinal study of FM identity in 2010 and 2013

What is the identity of FM and how has the self-image of Facility Managers developed in the
three years from 2010 to 2013?
Table 1 shows the current situations in 2010 and 2013 as well as the development shown through
comparing 2013 to 2010. The data also shows whether the change has two-sided significance at a
level of 0.95 (values <0.05), or insignificant (values >0.05).
67
Table 1 Comparison of identity in 2010 and 2013

Asymptotic
significance
Comparison of 2010 and 2013 2010 2013 Difference (2-sided)
FM identity based on EPSI
Being professional and state-of-the-art 7.12 7.06 -0.06 0.040
Customer-oriented service 7.24 7.28 +0.04 0.001
Value for money 6.71 6.58 -0.13 0.001
Responsible behaviour towards the
environment 6.64 6.78 +0.14 0.000
Reliable work 7.38 7.28 -0.10 0.021
Image of the FM profession
Increasing demand in the future 8.24 8.21 -0.03 0.823
High prestige in society 5.33 5.19 -0.14 0.841
Secure jobs 6.55 6.49 -0.07 0.651
Good earnings potential 6.04 5.88 -0.16 0.955
The self-image of the facility manager is quite balanced, levelling off between about 5.2 and 8.2
on a 10-point Likert scale. Within these parameters, identity differs depending on the identity
factor surveyed. The mean values for the prestige in the society shows the lowest values in the
identity surveys, while the mean values for increasing demand in the future are highest there.
This means that Facility Managers see potential in their own industry, but see themselves as
having a relatively low status in society.
With a standard deviation of between about 2 and 3, all values are at approximately the same
distance from the mean. Thus, Facility Managers have quite a similar picture of their own
profession.
The self-image of Facility Managers has deteriorated slightly overall, whereby the two identity
factors “Customer-oriented service” and “Responsible action towards the environment”
improved slightly. The respective minimal differences in the identity dimensions based on EPSI
are significant, but no noteworthy changes could be found in the identity of profession.
4.3 Comparison of FM identity to FM image

There are different possible approaches to comparing the image study of 2008 with the identity
surveys from the FM sector studies in 2010 and 2013. Each identity survey could be related to
the image study on the basis of a) each individual year, b) both years aggregated, and c) a mean
value from the two years. The approaches a) through c) are not used in this paper, however,
partly because the FM identity study of 2010 is nearer in time to the FM image study of 2008,
but also because the amount of change in FM identity from 2010 to 2013 is negligible or non-
existent. The FM identity from the 2010 survey is therefore analysed below together with the FM
image from the 2008 survey, illustrated by diagrams and described in the text.
4.3.1 Image and identity based on the EPSI dimensions

In Figure i, the mean values for identity based on EPSI are compared with the mean values for
long-range and close-range image based on EPSI. The answers allow assessment on a 1 to 10
approval scale from “1 = totally disagree” to “10 = fully agree”.
68
Figure i FM identity and FM image based on the EPSI dimensions.
7,38
Reliable work 5,59
6,41
Responsible behaviour 6,64
4,67
towards the environment 5,59
6,71 Identity
Value for money 5,09
5,39 Long‐Range‐Image
7,24 Close‐Range‐Image
Customer‐oriented service 5,61
6,19
Being professional and 7,12
5,39
state‐of‐the‐art 6,18
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Assessment of reliable work

The mean value regarding “reliable work” of those who have a correct understanding of FM is
6.41 on a 10-point Likert scale. It is thus above the figure of those who have an incorrect
understanding of FM, with a relatively low mean of 5.59. Facility Managers themselves estimate
the reliability of their work much more highly, with a mean of 7.38.
Assessment of responsible behaviour towards the environment

The mean of those with a correct understanding of FM lies at 5.59 on a 10-point Likert scale and
is thus significantly higher than the mean of those who have an incorrect understanding of FM, at
4.67. Facility Managers assess their actions towards the environment as responsible, with a mean
of 6.64.
Assessment of value for money

The mean of those who have a correct understanding of FM is located at a low 5.39 on a ten-
point Likert scale, while the mean of those who have an incorrect understanding is even lower, at
5.09. Facility Managers themselves assess the price-performance ratio in the FM sector as being
significantly higher, with a mean of 6.71.
Assessment of customer-oriented service

The mean of those who have a correct understanding of FM lies at 6.19 on a 10-point Likert
scale, while the mean of the respondents with an incorrect FM understanding is 5.61. Facility
Managers themselves see FM services as customer-oriented, with a mean of 7.24.
Assessment of being professional and state-of-the-art

The mean of those who have an incorrect understanding of FM is significantly lower on a 10-
point Likert scale - at 5.39 - than those with a correct understanding - at 6.18. Facility Managers
again see themselves as considerably more professional, with a mean of 7.12.
69
4.3.2 Image and identity of the FM profession

In Figure ii, the mean values of the identity of the FM profession are compared to the mean
values of the long-range and close-range image. The responses allowed assessment on a ten-
point Likert scale from "1 = strongly disagree" to "10 = strongly agree".
Figure ii Image and identity of the FM profession.
6,04
Good earnings potential 6,2
5,3
6,55
Secure jobs 4,68
6,26 Identity
Long‐Range‐Image
5,33
High prestige in society 4,75 Close‐Range‐Image
4,58
Increasing demand in the 8,24
6,64
future 6,86
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
The individual identifying characteristics are commented on below.
Assessment of income opportunities

The mean value of those who have a correct understanding of FM lies at 5.30 on a ten-point
Likert scale, and is thus lower than those with an incorrect understanding of FM (6.2). Facility
Managers estimate potential earnings somewhat lower than respondents with a long-range image,
with a mean of 6.04, but higher than the overall image.
Assessment of job security

The mean of those who have a correct understanding of FM is, at 6.26, far above the mean of
those who have an incorrect understanding, at 4.68. Facility Managers themselves estimate their
job security slightly higher than those with the close-range image.
Assessment of social status

Facility Managers themselves assess their standing in society as somewhat better, with an
average of 5.33 on a 10-point Likert scale, but in general they see it as relatively low. The mean
of those who have a correct understanding of FM lies below this figure, at 4.58, while for those
with an incorrect understanding of FM lies between the other two values, at 4.75.
Assessment of demand
With a mean of 8.24 on a 10-point Likert scale, Facility Managers have a firm expectation of a
growing demand in the sector in the future. The mean of those with an incorrect understanding of
FM points to a stronger demand in future, at 6.64, while those who have a correct understanding
70
of FM also see a stronger demand, with a mean of 6.86. Both groups therefore give a much lower
estimate than Facility Managers themselves.
5. CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK

This study, based on three surveys of a representative cross-section of the population and the FM
sector in Switzerland, presents interesting and unprecedented insights into the self-image of the
FM sector in comparison to its external image. It is striking that people with a long-range image
of the FM industry assess the sector less positively than people with a close-range image – ones
who can properly define the term FM. The most positive assessments come from Facility
Managers themselves.
Comparing overall image with identity, the internal and external image people have of Facility
Management are consistent in the sense that the mean values of each show the same, but parallel
development. The self-image of Facility Managers is slightly higher in each case than the
external image that the public has of the profession. The striking feature here is the consistent
difference between the respective mean values of image and identity factors.
Since the identity of FM is consistently higher than its image, and the close-range image higher
than the long-range one, a large gap becomes visible, which could be closed through provision of
information about the FM industry. This gap represents the image deficiency which could
potentially be corrected by means of communication. In addition to individual FM companies,
the FM industry as a whole is therefore challenged to communicate about the attractive careers
available at various skill levels in FM, and to give the public a multidisciplinary picture of the
profession.
At the research level, it would be desirable if this country-wide study on the image and identity
of Facility Managers could be repeated in other countries, so that these value-adding factors
could be compared at country and company level.
REFERENCES
Apitz, K., Benad, G., and Poth, L. G. (1987), Image-Profile: Führungskräfte bewerten d. 100
grössten dt. Unternehmen u. ausgew. Börsenneulinge, Verlag Moderne Industrie, Landsberg.
Bruhn, M. (2009), Relationship Marketing: das Management von Kundenbeziehungen, Verlag
Franz Vahlen, München.
Burmann, C. and Maloney, P. (2007), “Innengerichtete, identitätsbasierte Führung von
Dienstleistungsmarken“, LiM-Arbeitspapier [24], Lehrstuhl für innovatives Markenmanagement
(LiM), Bremen, March 2007.
Buss, E. and Fink-Heuberger, U. (2000), Image Management: wie Sie Ihr Image-Kapital
erhöhen! Erfolgsregeln für das öffentliche Ansehen von Unternehmen, Parteien und
Organisationen, FAZ-Institut für Management- , Markt- und Medieninformationen, Frankfurt
am Main.
Coenen, C. and von Felten, D. (2009), “Facility Management: Bekannheit und Image einer
Branche“, in Mesago Messe Frankfurt GmbH Stuttgart (Ed.), Facility Management 2009- FM
Lösungen erkennen, beraten, möglich machen- Messe und Kongress Frankfurt am Main 21.-23-
04.2009, Tagungsband, VDE VERLAG GMBH, Berlin und Offenbach, 281-289.
71
Coenen, C., von Felten, D., and Schmid, M. (2010), “Reputation and public awareness of facilities
management – a quantitative survey”, Journal of Facilities Management, 8, 4, 256-268.
EPSI (2007), Customer Satisfaction 2006, Pan European Benchmark, EPSI Rating, Gothenborg.
Heskett, J. L., Jones, T. O., Loveman, G. W., Sasser, W. E., and Schlesinger, L. A. (1994),
“Putting the Service-Profit Chain to Work”, Harvard Business Review, March-April, 164-174.
Kaplan, R. S. and Norton, D. P. (1992), “The Balanced Scorecard - Measures that Drive
Performance”, Harvard Business Review, January-February, 71-79.
McDonald, M., de Chernatony, L., and Harris, F. (2001), “Corporate marketing and service
brands: moving beyond the fast-moving consumer goods model”, European Journal of
Marketing, 35, 3/4, 335-352.
MEFFERT, H. AND BRUHN, M. (2006), DIENSTLEISTUNGSMARKETING, GABLER
VERLAG, WIESBADEN
72
SECTION THREE:
SUSTAINABILITY IN FM
EuroFM WG2
Introduction
Sustainability in FM
Susanne Balslev Nielsen, Convenor, EuroFM WG2 Sustainability in FM

CFM Realdania, DTU, Copenhagen, Denmark
Papers
Methodologies for Improvement of Non-residential buildings' Daily Energy-efficiency

Reliability (MINDER)
Thomas Berker, Helen Jøsok Gansmo and Antje Junghans.
The energy management equation

Stefan Jäschke and Markus Hubbuch.
Sustainable Retrofitting Nordic University Campuses

Robert Eriksson, Suvi Nenonen, Göran Lindahl, Antje Junghans and Susan Balslev Nielsen.
73
EuroFM WG2: Sustainability in FM
Introduction
Sustainability in FM

The need for a transition towards a societal society is challenging the FM profession. In this
session, researchers present their findings to inform and stimulate the profession’s debate about
the facilities managers’ role in quests for sustainability.
To set the scene for the three papers to be presented, I will with inspiration from (Sabatier 1993:
Policy Change over a Decade or More) point to the need for the FM profession to engage with
the different types of learning, which the three papers collectively offer: Social learning
(associated with changes in common values, norms, goals and perspectives e.g. to embrace a
global sustainability transition in the local strategic decision making); Conceptual learning
(associated with a change in the understanding of or approach to a problem and its character
visions e.g. rethinking energy interventions from a user or operator perspective) and finally
Instrumental learning (the learning of how various political instruments and tools can be
improved to reach given goals e.g. like using the energy management equation as presented
below).
The first paper by Berker, Gasmo and Junghans takes its starting point in the observation made
through decades by professionals operating and maintaining non-residential buildings, which is
that designs (building technology) and their implementation have failed to cater for energy
efficient facilities management. The authors combine this experience with design thinking and
social practice theory to improve the design, construction and above all the management of
buildings. The paper suggests methodologies for creating virtuous circles between the users´ and
the operators´ daily routines and the energy efficiency of the building they inhabit.
The second paper by Jäske and Hubbuch outlines a decision making process model for energy
management. Based on a longitudinal study of a Swiss hospital they develop the Energy
management equation as a mean for creating a synthesis of the aspects impacting the degree of
success of energy management. The equation calculates, in a qualitative way, the success of
energy management as the product of all the benefits that arise from it, multiplied by the
engagement and the systematic implementation and continuance of an energy management
system.
The third paper by Eriksson, Nenonen, Nielsen, Junghans and Lindahl paper is an analysis of
Nordic campus development and suggests a three level roadmap for future campus retrofitting
which also serves as a research framework to demonstration projects to be conducted on different
Nordic campuses. The common challenge of the Nordic university property management
organizations is that their operations need to be sustainable from an economic, environmental
and sustainable perspective. How this can be done on existing campuses is to be explored
through retrofitting with the intention of efficient low cost actions which provides new
technologies, features, functions and services.
74
Introducing the MINDER research project:

Methodologies for Improvement of Non-residential Buildings' Daily Energy Efficiency
Reliability
Thomas Berker
Centre for Technology and Society
Norwegian University of Science and Technology
thomas.berker@ntnu.no
+47-92434811
Helen Jøsok Gansmo

Centre for Technology and Society
helen.gansmo@ntnu.no
Antje Junghans
Centre for Real Estate and Facilities Management
antje.junghans@ntnu.no
ABSTRACT
In the Norwegian building sector, we are currently witnessing the transition from a realization
gap - the gap between availability of solutions and their implementation - to a reliability gap: the
gap between the building's potential performances as it is commissioned to its users and its actual
performance in daily use. When new solutions do not live up to their promises, not only the
performance of the individual building is at stake. The reliability gap can easily grow into a
credibility gap with consequences for the ongoing efforts to realize buildings with high energy
ambitions. To achieve energy efficiency in buildings, concepts, methods and measures which
promise to close this gap are crucial for facilities managers and users.
In this conceptual paper we present the theoretical discussion behind the structure and first
findings of a newly established interdisciplinary research project: Methodologies for
Improvement of Non-residential buildings' Day-to-day Energy-efficiency Reliability (MINDER).
The research aims to reduce the reliability gap in non-residential buildings. The paper describes
the international state of the art regarding such diverse concepts, methods and measures as
energy performance contracting, continuous briefing, continuous commissioning, and soft
landings, and suggests how these may be brought further to interlink the design and operation
phase of non-residential buildings.
Keywords
Facilities management, continuous commissioning, soft landings, energy performance
contracting, continuous briefing, building performance evaluation
1 INTRODUCTION
Surprisingly little attention has been paid to environmental efficiency of facility management
(Jensen et al. 2012) even though facilities related activities produce the majority of the
company’s environmental impact. The most significant environmental impact of buildings is
75
caused by the energy use (Sarasoja & Aaltonen 2012). The use and characteristics of the built
environment accounts for roughly 40% of the total energy consumption and hence a significant
share of GHG emissions in most developed nations (Kyrö et al 2012). Over the life cycle of
buildings more than 80% of the total energy is consumed during the operation phase (Azar and
Menassa 2012). The facilities hence present a major energy conservation opportunity (Junnila
2007).
The replacement rate of existing buildings is low (Ma et al. 2012) demonstrating the crucial need
to enhance energy efficiency of existing buildings in order to bring down emissions (Price et al.
2011). Retrofitting and adaptation of existing buildings may reduce energy consumption
significantly but even the best designed low-energy buildings will not perform as planned if they
are not operated properly (Kyrö et al 2012). A wide range of technologies which could
significantly reduce energy consumption and GHG emissions from new and existing buildings
are already available, but the adoption level is low, and technologies to save energy do not travel
well from laboratories to a building’s everyday life (Berker 2006). There is a lack of
understanding of reasons for high discrepancies between design and actual building performance
(Freeman & Preist 2013).
Thanks to stricter regulation in the Norwegian building sector we are currently witnessing that
the realization gap - the gap between availability of solutions and their implementation - is
starting to close. However, there exists another gap that is revealed after energy ambitious
buildings are realized: the gap between the building's potential performance and its actual
performance in daily use. When new solutions do not live up to their promises, not only the
performance of the individual building is at stake. This reliability gap can easily transform into a
credibility gap (Bordass et al. 2004) with severe consequences for the ongoing efforts to realize
buildings with high energy ambitions. Therefore, to achieve energy efficiency in buildings,
concepts, methods and measures that promise to close this gap are crucial.
In this paper we describe the theoretical discussions related to a recently started research project
that proposes (1) to map the state of the art of the implementation of these methods in Norwegian
non-residential buildings, (2) to analyze in depth potentials for improvement and further
diffusion, and (3) based on this and approaches from product design and social science to
propose new modifications and extensions that go beyond the state of the art. This approach
extends Jones et al.’s (2013) conclusion that there is a tendency in the construction industry to
design and deliver new buildings based on the requirements of the ‘here and now’ despite that
the building owners’ needs will inevitably change, and extends their recommendation that
facility managers should be key members of the design team.
2 Existing methods closing reliability gaps

Non-residential buildings encompass building types like office buildings, schools, universities,
hospitals, nursing homes, hotels, sports buildings, commercial buildings, cultural buildings, and
light industry buildings and workshops (ENOVA 2012). Most of these building types are also
used as public buildings, and are thus an important part of public infrastructure and contribute to
benefit of society. Public buildings have a high level of usage and high requirements in terms of
their accessibility. Typically, public building stocks are the result of a historical development,
characterized with different construction types, building ages, and building conditions. The
challenges to the operation of such buildings are to adapt them to changing user demands and
make them accessible mainly to the public and hence to anonymous users (Junghans, 2012a).
Moreover, non-residential buildings have a direct and indirect potential to support and impede
76
value creation of their users. Because of these special characteristics, and despite the
heterogeneity within this building type, non-residential buildings are much more likely than
residential buildings to being managed and operated by professionals who are able to act
according to concepts, methods or employ targeted measures.
To these professionals, the existence of a reliability gap between theoretical performance of a
building and its realization in everyday operation has been known for many years1. Today, with
increasing ambitions regarding the energy performance of buildings this knowledge has gained
new urgency. According to Bordass et al. (2004) disappointing performance of buildings can be
related to wrong models, to changes and mistakes made during the construction phase, to bad
routines in the commissioning of the building and to deviations from the intended use in the use
phase. Improvements restricted to the individual periods in the life cycle of a building are
important contributions to the closing of the reliability gap. Examples for these individual efforts
are the improvement of modeling methods and software, better routines of fault detection and
repair at the building site, and increased flexibility of the resulting building.
While these efforts certainly have the potential to produce better buildings on many levels, they
do not tackle directly the disconnection between assumptions about a building’s future energy
performance and its actual performance in daily operation. A more specific approach to the
reliability gap is represented as a broad array of concepts, methods and measures which link
actors and technologies from the different sides of the gap together in order to improve a
building’s performance - but also in order to improve design processes. In the following we
present very briefly some of the most prominent examples of such approaches: soft landings
(Way 2005), energy performance contracting (EPC), continuous commissioning (CCx, Femp
2002), continuous briefing (Jensen 2006), and building performance evaluation (BPE, Preiser &
Vischer, 2005).
The primary focus of the soft landings methodology is on the post-handover phase in which
"[t]oo often clients and users of a building become crash test dummies, abandoned, in effect by
the project team after handover, just when they may need some help" (Way 2005,p23). It
involves contractual arrangements that extend the project team's responsibility into assisting
during the handover phase and beyond the Defects Liability Period (three years). The benefits for
the user are clear if changes in usage occur during the first three years of occupancy when
project team members are contractually bound to become involved with their knowledge from
the construction process. As benefits for the supply side, learning through evaluation and
feedback and relatively small costs that are outweighed through the learning effects are expected.
Energy performance contracting (EPC) is similar to the soft landings method in so far as it
relies on contracts that (re-)distribute the responsibility for the energy performance of the
building. Usually a third party such as an Energy Service Company (but this service has also
been offered by construction companies) is entering the contractual arrangement with the
building owner and provides energy efficiency during the use phase as a service. This third party
analyses the building and proposes, implements, tunes and monitors energy saving measures and
receives in turn a certain fraction of the resources saved. In the context of the reliability gap the
most interesting aspect of this bundle of different processes and procedures (for an overview see
Wargert 2011) is that it creates a link between the implementation of the efficiency measure
(most often through a refurbishing activity) and the actual performance of this measure.
Continuous Commissioning (CCx) or lifetime commissioning (LTC) extends the tests that
make sure that a building functions according to its specifications into the whole lifetime of the
1
Jensen 2009, p. 125, quotes an early example from the 1960s
77
building (Holtz 2005; Femp 2002). When building systems show hard (complete) or soft (partial)
failures detrimental performance is a likely outcome and the rapid detection of the faults is a
concrete measure to prevent a gap between projected and actual performance. The CCx approach
is mainly a technical one as documented in the report of an 8-years research project on LTC
conducted by the Norwegian research organization SINTEF (Nord et al. 2012). The main
element connecting design and operation in CCx are the technical tools that are used within the
process: data produced continuously from building energy management systems (BEMS) and
other sensors implemented in the design phase and routines and methods that are used to mine
this data for errors (related to the measuring equipment) or failures (of the actual technical
systems). Additionally, it was proposed that a person responsible for CCx bridges the gap
between design and operation by participating both in the design phase making sure that the
necessary technical installations are implemented and in the operation phase conducting the
actual continuous commissioning (Nord et al. 2012,p15).
Under the label Continuous Briefing, Jensen (2006) has described an extension of the classical
briefing process from an expert based collection of information to an inclusive and continuous
learning process during the whole life of a building. Based on but also deviating from extensive
research on efficient and inclusive briefing he proposes to see these processes as learning
opportunity with the overarching goal to improve both building operation and design. Compared
with Jensen, Preiser and Vischer (2005) start from the opposite end and develop further
traditional post occupancy evaluations (POE) to become one of six processes in a comprehensive
Building Performance Evaluation (BPE) process model. BPE is described as the “process of
systematically comparing the actual performance of buildings, places and systems to explicitly
documented criteria for their expected performance” (Preiser & Vischer, 2005). BPE
encompasses technical and structural performance checks, post-construction evaluation and post-
occupancy evaluations during the whole building lifecycle. Like the other methods presented
here, BPE aims at improving both individual buildings but also the building industry and provide
knowledge on built environments and their impacts in general. Moreover, BPE is aimed to
develop a common understanding and the respect of all participants in the building’s lifecycle,
such as building owners, architects, and facilities managers (Junghans, 2012b).
3 The MINDER project’s approach

Despite first signs of change based on a far reaching agreement on the importance of bridging the
reliability gap, we can assume that methods which promise to be a remedy are still hardly used
both in general and also more specifically when energy efficient buildings are designed and
constructed in Norway. Moreover, little is known about the actual extent of this non-diffusion
and the barriers and supporting factors. With particularly energy contracting (Kvaale and Jensen
20112) and continuous commissioning (Nord et al. 2012) gaining traction in Norway, the
question remains whether these and the other methods are actually implemented in a way that
increases knowledge flows between the different phases of a building's lifecycle. Another
question is whether individual elements from the methodologies are implemented in a more
informal and implicit way, which does not necessarily restrict their effectiveness. In more
general terms these questions connected to the actual state of the art of these methods in
Norway’s buildings direct our attention towards the practices related to user participation and
briefing (highlighted in continuous briefing), post-handover (the topic of soft landings), post
2
A current example is Skanska's OPS contract with Oslo municipality to build and operate Veitvet Skole
78
occupancy evaluations (an element within BPE), contractual and organizational arrangements
(used in EPC), and monitoring technologies and automatic fault detection (from CCx).
This conceptual paper is based on a literature study defining the background for the subsequent
work within the MINDER project which will collect information about these practices in a
structured (web-based) survey sent to a representative sample of owners of non-residential
building in Norway. In a second step, based on this survey of the state of the art we aim at
developing these existing approaches further. To achieve this, we follow two related strategies:
First, we will analyze in depth the context and critical success factors of a limited number of 10-
15 cases in which at least certain aspects of the methods have been implemented. These
qualitative case studies will be based on semi-structured interviews with facilities managers,
operation personnel and end-users in these buildings. The interviews will be complemented
through observation at the building and studies of strategic documents. The case studies will
provide insight into the state of the art in current energy efficient building operation and deepen
and nuance the image created by the survey. They will also deliver insights into how existing
concepts, methods and measures to secure a high level of energy efficiency during the buildings
lifetime can be improved and further diffused.
Second, based on the same case studies we will introduce state of the art theory and experiences
from the fields of product design and social science to the problem of closing the reliability gap
with the goal to go beyond the state of the art.
4 Beyond the State of the Art
Besides arguing that these mapping and analysis activities are long overdue to come to grips with
how practitioners “out there” work with closing the reliability gap, we start with an assumption
that both design thinking and social practice theory are able to complement and develop
further the concepts, methods and measures described above. Both design thinking and social
practice theory focus on what actually happens in daily use and operation of buildings. In both
fields it is argued that everyday life has its own logic (or its own tactics and strategies, see de
Certeau 1984). This ability to counter or at least heavily modify intentions from the "outside" of
peoples' daily life has been demonstrated over and over again in studies of technology
appropriation (Berker et al. 2005). Approached like this, the reliability gap is at least partly a
result of modifications to the original design of a building that happen during its daily operation
and use when the users and operators appropriate the building. The challenge is not to avoid
these modifications but to create designs that become part of virtuous circles in which user-
building interactions stabilize energy efficiency instead of the more common vicious circles that
so often lead to detrimental performance (Bordass et al. 2001).
Design thinking contributes to the creation of these virtuous circles by starting with meticulous
observation of the users' everyday life practices:
"Time and again, initiatives falter because they are not based on the client’s or customer’s needs
and have never been prototyped to solicit feedback. Even when people do go into the field, they
may enter with preconceived notions of what the needs and solutions are. This flawed approach
remains the norm in both the business and social sectors." (Brown & Wyatt 2010: 32)
Applied to buildings and the reliability gap, this diagnosis resonates well with observations of
architectonical designs that disrespect the human dimension of buildings (Imrie 2003) and
consequently meet the users' resourceful resistance (Berker 2011). Design thinking broadens the
attention of the design profession beyond the design of single products to addressing more open
problems and also providing input at a strategic level. A broad variety of tools and methods are
put to use to gain in-depth insight into real-life situations and systems, and designs are developed
79
through iterative cycles of observation, requirements specification, idea and concept generation,
testing and evaluation.3 More recently, design scholars increasingly have started to link
theoretical understandings of behavior and consumption to strategies and approaches for design,
to assemble or develop tools and methods for design research and generative work. Where much
emerging research on sustainability is described as relying on technological persuasion and a
rather narrow framing of sustainability, behavior and the relation between them which makes the
resulting systems susceptible to breakdown (DiSalvo et al., 2010; Dourish, 2010), others explore
the value of sociological theories of practice in design research (e.g. Kuijer and de Jong, 2012;
Scott et al., 2012).
A recent inspiration to this kind of human centered design is derived from the so-called practice
turn in social science and the humanities (Schatzki et al. 2001). In this turn the inconspicuous
routines of everyday life have moved from the background to the center stage of inquiry.
Especially in relation to undesired behavior - such as energy waste or unhealthy nutrition - the
creation, support, weakening and breaking of habits has now become a central topic within social
theory, policy and public discourse. The limited success of decades with interventions that one-
sidedly have addressed rational and cognitive aspects have shown that any behavior may as
much be the result of blind habit as it may be directed by conscious decisions and cost-benefit
estimates. This insight has been popularized in the suggestion that "nudges" - inconspicuous
clues that prompt the desired behavior - are more promising than measures which target values
and knowledge (Thaler & Sunstein 2008). Where the isolated use of behavioral psychology for
the design of "nudges" has been criticized for its ethics (Huang & Baum 2012) and has so far not
been able to document lasting changes in behavior, there is a host of recent research which
approaches social practices in a more systematic way analyzing their material, symbolic and
skill-related aspects such as "stuff, images and skills" (Shove and Pantzar 2005) and "procedures,
understandings and engagements" (Warde 2005). Recently, Shove et al. (2012) have proposed a
comprehensive framework that promises to inform new ways of understanding, stabilizing and
changing practices.
With both design thinking and social practice theory as theoretical background, the case studies
conducted in the second step of the project will be analyzed for opportunities for design and
operation routines that create virtuous circles between the users' and operators' daily routines and
the energy efficiency of the buildings they inhabit.
5 Concluding remarks
Professionals operating and maintaining non-residential buildings have for decades been aware
of the reliability gap between expected (energy) performance and a building’s actual
performance in daily life. In their work they have seen how designs and their implementation
have failed to cater for energy efficient facilities management. Starting with their experiences
and combining design thinking and social practice theory we aim to improve both design,
construction and above all the management of buildings - because a building is not energy
efficient until its daily operation delivers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research has been funded by the Norwegian Research Council.
3
ISO 9241-210 (2010): Ergonomics of human-system interaction – Part 210: Human-
centred design for interactive systems, International Organization for Standardizations, Geneva.
80
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The energy management equation

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Stefan Jäschke Brülhart
Institute of Facility Management, ZHAW
stefan.jaeschke@zhaw.ch
+41589345972
Prof. Markus Hubbuch

Institute of Facility Management, ZHAW
markus.hubbuch@zhaw.ch
ABSTRACT
Purpose:
In this paper the authors introduce a qualitative approach to describe the success factors and their
interaction for energy management. The implementation of energy management in organisations
or buildings in an optimal and effective way shall be theoretically explained.
Theory:
The research work is based on user behaviour models and knowledge of organisational theory.
The decision making process of the management in an organisation is of central importance.
Communication is an essential aspect of implementing energy management in an organisation.
Approach:
Research with a large Swiss hospital over an extended period (2 to 3 years) on various projects
has allowed practical observations and experiences. These are compared with the theoretical
approach and case studies from other organisations and then consolidated. As a qualitative
approach, a management model was formulated. The success factors (existence of benefits,
engagement and a systematic approach) and barriers affecting energy management are defined.
Findings:
The process described starts from the decision whether energy management is to be introduced in
a company or not. The different stages - expectation, clarification, finding and decision - are
described and discussed. A management model – the energy management equation - is
established that qualitatively describes the relation between the different influence factors on the
success of energy management. The success of the introduction and implementation of energy
management within an organisation depends on optimised processes, the level and effectiveness
of communication and management leadership.
Originality/value:
The newly developed and proposed energy management equation provides an important
contribution to the energy transition and for a rational use of energy in buildings. If the
influencing success factors and obstacles of energy management are understood, it can be
implemented more effectively, thus enabling considerable savings in energy costs.
Keywords
Facilities Management, Energy Management, Reporting, Organization, Model
1 INTRODUCTION
Energy management is one of the most important measures to reduce energy demand and the
interrelated bad effects on the environment. But it is becoming increasingly complex due to the
increasing complexity of the energy supply systems, modern building technology and trends in
the work environment. This is resulting in increased requirements to introduce energy
management in organisations.
83
The definition of energy management can be stated as follows: Energy management is the
planning and implementation of all necessary measures to adequately and safely provide an
organisation with the ability to ensure:
 The most efficient use of energy
 To reduce negative environmental impacts arising from energy consumption
 Reduce the cost of energy supply
 Capture and allocate charges of energy usage.
The following findings are mainly based on knowledge gained by observations and research
work done over recent years and partly described by Jäschke (2008), Hubbuch (2013a, 2013b,
2013c) and Janser, Windlinger (2013). Action research was carried out with a reputable business
partner in the past three years. Further a two-year research project, using numerous
questionnaires and statistical analyses of user behaviour, had been conducted in ca. 25
sustainable buildings. As a result important insights in relation to the success of energy
management in buildings could be gained.
Some of the aspects that are described in the following chapter are further based on the following
literature: Bourgeois, D., Reinhart, C., & Macdonald, I. (2006), Coleman, M. J., Irvine, K. N.,
Lemon, M., & Shao, L. (2013), Darby, S., (2006), Hartungi, R., & Jiang, L. B. (2011), Herkel,
S., Knapp, U., & Pfafferott, J. (2008), IEECB (2012).
2 ENERGY MANAGEMENT AS A MANAGEMENT TASK

Energy management is primarily a management task. There are also important activities on a
technical and operational level but these are of secondary importance. From a managerial point
of view each organisation should implement an energy management system (EnMS). An EnMS
is a formally defined system of elements within an organisation, which enables it to reach targets
with respect to the use of energy. An example is the EnMS according to ISO 50001 (2011). In
order to implement a successful energy management system, organisations must first of all have
a clearly defined energy management strategy which will help accomplish both the conceptual
and organisational performance. Also the organisational design must be planned correctly.
GEFMA 124-1 (2008, p1) describes it this way: "The central task of organisational design is to
distribute the overall tasks of the company through the formation of organisational units to
employees and ensure the coordination of individual tasks. The formation of different
organisational units follows the need for division of labour, which becomes more important with
an increasing amount of work, diversity and complexity."
In practice, this means that more emphasis should be placed on the word “management”. To
date, energy management has been seen by most people responsible for energy conservation as a
purely technical problem. It is obvious that an energy management system should be developed
in line with wider organisational strategy and issues. Energy management should obviously not
be implemented without a concept and an appropriate organisational design is a precondition.
There may also be a need to address certain psychological aspects in terms of a paradigm shift in
thinking of how energy is managed in an organisation in order for it to be successful.
3 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE MANAGEMENT

From the outset strategic decisions need to be considered. Decision making regarding energy
management should be made as follows (Figure 1).
84
FMC 2014
Figure 1 P
Phases of decisiion making reggarding energyy management
Phase 11: Expectatioon

In geneeral, the deecision-making processs leading too the introoduction andd implemenntation of
energy m managemennt in a com mpany beginns with the fformulationn of expectaations. Savinng energy
has a poositive connnotation, so it is generaally supportted by all sttakeholders within the company.
Top levvel managem ment supporrt is critical, to ensure the successs of the initiiative to inttroduce an
energy managemen
m nt system in an organisaation. Theree can be diffferent perceeptions of ann initiative
dependiing on at w what level thhe initiativee is introduuced withinn the organiisation. Asssuming an
organisaation is nottionally divvided into "managemennt level" annd "operatioonal level" functions,
there maay be different levels of effort requuired, to maake the initiaative successful.
Where tthe initiativee comes froom the operrational leveel it may reqquire much convincingg to ensure
the mannagement leevel buy intto the initiattive as theyy are usuallyy focused oon economicc business
case argguments to justify
j the introductionn of an initiaative. Whenn a building operator orr a facility
manager introducees an energgy managem ment conceept they m must first m make it cleear to the
"management level" why it should s be ddone. The eexpectation with energgy managem ment is to
conservve resources,, reduce em missions and protect the environmennt. On first cconsideratioon this can
be seen as a win-w win solution.. However w when organiisations disccover that ssignificant innvestment
and inteernal efforts are neededd, the argum ment often is rejected byy the "managgement leveel" as they
see the proposal noot as an oppportunity buut as a high investment with additional staffinng cost. So
the deciision gets puut off. Anothher argumennt is that energy can stiill be purchaased at low pprices and
thereforre energy coosts are in thhe overall budget oftenn almost neggligible. In oorder to justtify higher
investmments in energy manageement meassures a morre holistic vview is requuired with nnot just an
econom mic point off view. How wever in orrder to ensure initiativves are seeen as positivve by the
"management levell" clear and strong arguuments are nneeded.
Energy costs are ooften seen aas of seconddary importtance and only o regardeed as more important
when ennergy suppliers annouunce that thhe price of energy will be increased. Then, suddenly,
energy ccosts becom me a centrall focus of thhe "managem ment level"". Depending on the orgganisation
and business in qquestion ennergy costss can then be regardded as cruccial, and ssometimes
organisaations may eeven threateen to relocatte their prodduction sitess. But this iss a good point to start
an initiaative to introoduce an energy managgement systeem.
85
However it is a different situation where an initiative regarding energy management is driven top
down with clear commitment by the "management level". In this situation it is easier to get
decisions that enable internal investments and expenses and the necessary measures can be
implemented in a shorter time. The expectation is then, of course, that the initiative is seen to
deliver recognizable progress in the reduction of energy demand and cost in the organisation. An
inherent danger in this case is a false expectation. After an initial effort the implementation of a
lasting energy management system is mandatory. Otherwise the initial positive results cannot be
sustained. Then disillusionment can occur and leads to a lack of further engagement in energy
management. The implementation of an energy management system takes time and the system
has to be constantly maintained. Some results can be obtained immediately but others require
longer time periods to be realised and to become effective in the future.
Phase 2: Clarification
In order to ensure the success of an energy management system it is essential to establish clear
transparency of how energy is actually being used during the operation of a building or within
the organisation. Experience shows that there is a perception that achieving transparency will be
unproblematic. In fact, the collection of information on technical installations, equipment and
energy consumption is often more difficult that initially anticipated. The following problems are
encountered in practice:
• Energy invoices are incomplete and / or not available in chronological order
• Reliable figures of space and area are not known
• Technical system documentation is not available or incomplete
• Energy consumption data do not provide an adequate breakdown of consumption for
specific areas of the building or specific equipment.
The initial investigation to establish the clarification of the situation requires a large degree of
discipline and a systematic approach. It is rare to find organisations where there is a broad
awareness of the process. The clarification of the energy situation in the building or in the
organisation needs to record the following:
• Inventory of existing facilities
• Energy consumption of technical equipment
• Benchmark numbers for energy consumption
• Collection of consumption behaviour.
The findings during the clarification allow a baseline to be established which should be used to
measure future improvements against.
It is truly amazing how much energy is wasted in the day to day operation of everyday business
with comparatively careless use of energy. Of course, there has been a change in the last decade
in this regard. Nevertheless, there is often still a degree of carelessness in the use of energy.
Above all, there is very often a lack of detailed numerical data for actual energy consumption.
Phase 3: Finding
The obtained information in the clarification phase is necessary to have a transparent view as to
the actual energy being used in a building or organisation, or across different buildings, plants or
sites of an organisation. The energy consumption must be evaluated in this phase, in order to
provide further insights of potential energy and cost savings. Transparency has to be established
to address the following:
• In what condition the technical systems are and what the maintenance costs will be
86
• How complete and detailed the documentation of buildings and equipment/plant is

• What are the required measures and what are the time horizons for any measures to be
implemented
• What staff are necessary to implement and maintain the EnMS
• Estimated budget for investment and running costs.
These findings help make clear all the facts and parameters which should be included in a
detailed energy management plan. The determination of the best implementation strategy must
be individually developed in detail during an extended planning phase. It is advisable to put
together a suitable team and to provide sufficient time for such planning.
The impact of the finding is also influenced by the importance of energy costs for the core
business of an organisation. When the energy costs in a manufacturing organisation are
incorporated directly into product costs persons on management level are much more interested
in the findings. Where this is the case the measures put in place to capture accurate data on
energy are considered as much more important. In a service management company as another
example, which only uses a few offices and little energy, the findings are of little importance. In
the latter case, the introduction of energy management system may be dependent on other
reasons, because energy costs are insignificant. It can for instance be used as part of a Corporate
Social Responsibility (CSR) policy or to promote a company’s brand and image.
Often other influences and decisions that are seen to have more immediate impact on business or
which are seen as quick wins are weighted more at the expense of the introduction of energy
management. Investments in energy efficiency improvement measures are then often cancelled
or postponed.
In order to build a solid business case for investing in energy management the energy situation
must be clarified, and the measures that are necessary to implement a successful energy
management system must be considered. However there can also be quick wins in instant energy
conservation measures. But to obtain lasting and long term targets a clear plan should be made to
implement an energy management system. But such a system always requires additional
personnel and finances.
Phase 4: Decision
When the facts and arguments lay on the table, the decision must be made whether and how the
energy management system is to be implemented and operated. It makes no sense to focus purely
on the quick wins. Energy management is a long-term commitment and all relevant measures
should be seen in this context. Since real estate is generally a long-term asset on a balance sheet
(between 30 and 100 years), investments in energy saving measures in buildings can be
considered with longer payback periods for the return of investment (ROI). However where we
consider the case of production plants the payback periods may not be a valid business argument
due to the shorter life cycle of the produced products (a few years).
In today's business world key business decisions are taken mainly on an economic basis. This is
also the case in energy management. It is the task of management to assess all the facts,
opportunities and obstacles and weigh them against each other to decide if the business case is
valid. The better the availability of accurate data and decision-making principles are developed,
the more reliable the decisions can be made.
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4 IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION
Experience shows that above all good communication and dissemination of information to
employees about why an energy management system is being implemented is a key factor to the
acceptance by the people it has an impact upon. The involvement of employees and users can be
done by forming an energy team, or a project group, by publication of the results obtained and
information sessions.
In general, the formulation of an energy policy for the organisation which has direct links to
business objectives is recommended. Energy savings goals are more respected if they are
connected to other important business objectives.
The communication of results, measures and information from the energy management system is
crucial for the success of this management task. Ever present is the challenge of communication
to all those involved.
It is generally well known that the behaviour of users or the operators of a building also have an
enormous impact on energy consumption. So it is critical that this issue is given special attention.
The integration of (building) users in the process of implementation of energy management is a
key success factor.
The success of the introduction of energy management in a company is substantially dependent
on communication across all divisions. The management here plays a particularly important role.
The management must make clear to employees:
• The aim of the implementation of an energy management system
• The importance to the company or organisation
• What is expected of the employees
• The commitment by senior management to energy management as a whole
Another important aspect in the implementation of an energy management system is to create
awareness that it is a long-term commitment. This must be clearly communicated to all persons
involved. It is also important to highlight the need for continuous energy auditing, monitoring
and reporting. Only then can the targeted savings be fully realised.
5 ENERGY MANAGEMENT MODEL EQUATION

Energy Management (EM) is per the definition “the sum of all the necessary measures to provide
an organization with the ability to ensure the efficient use of energy and to reduce negative
environmental impacts”.
The synthesis of the aspects discussed so far is a relationship of the different influences on the
success of energy management. The following equation summarizes this model and highlights
the dependencies.
Energy management model equation (Jäschke, Hubbuch, 2013):
Success of energy management = Σ measures · SEM
∑ ∗ ∗
1 ∑
SEM = success factor of energy management
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The equation shows that the success of energy management is the product of all the benefits that
arise from it, multiplied by the engagement and the systematic implementation and continuance
of an energy management system (systematic approach). Increasing the number and significance
of barriers and obstacles decreases the success of energy management.
The benefits and barriers are affected by many influencing factors and are cumulative. They
must always be interpreted in the individual case, but using similar measurement, like giving
points or grades to the different factors.
Engagement (and also commitment) and systematic approach can between zero (0, means no
engagement respectively no systematic approach at all) and one (1, means maximum
engagement respectively ideal systematic approach).
The main benefits of energy management include:
 In particular, cost savings
 Transparency of energy consumption and costs
 Image and competitive advantage
 Less depletion of energy resources and less environmental impact
 Compliance with laws and regulations.
The benefits must clearly bring added value to the organisation. If the benefits are minimal then
the energy management will not be successful (see energy management model equation).
Without benefits no energy management is implemented.
The engagement and commitment is aimed particularly at the management level of a company.
Where there is no real interest in implementation, no budget, no strategic consideration or
requirements and no support for the long-term implementation of energy management system,
the project will fail, as the energy management model equation clearly shows.
By systematic approach it is meant that the establishment and implementation of energy
management must be planned carefully and methodical. All processes and procedures shall be
recorded and all installations are to be accurately planned and documented. For example, a
detailed and systematic energy measurement concept should be elaborated. It has to include an
exact list of all energy measuring points with clearly defined measurement criteria. It is critical to
establish exactly what is being measured and for which specific element(s) of the system. The
data then has to be processed and graphics have to be made to make clear the results. Such
processes must be permanently maintained. Without sustained effort there can be no meaningful
measurements and thus no clear transparency of the energy situation. In other words, an
expensive system with many measuring points can be worthless if it is not systematically
installed, set up and managed on an on-going basis. In such a case, the conducted energy
management is worthless, as the energy management model equation clearly shows.
It is clear that barriers and obstacles of any kind can reduce the success of energy management or
even prevent it. Significant barriers are:
 Too high initial investment costs
 Lack of adequate mechanisms and processes for capturing and recording energy use
 Lack of information
 Lack of knowledge
 Lack of commitment by staff
 Lack of competent staff
 Energy costs are not relevant.
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The more such barriers are present, the more clearly the energy management model equation
shows that successful energy management cannot be achieved. If no barriers are present, the
success is high under appropriate conditions, and given that the other parameters are met.
As each building is a unique case and the factors may be influenced by the particular
organisation, the four variables in the SEM equation are of different importance and size. They
also influence each other. For example, even if engagement and systematic approach are high,
but benefits are very low and additionally significant barriers exist, the energy management will
not be successful. Using the energy management equation model, any relationships can be
illustrated. Only when the dividend figure is high and the divisor is small will the success of
energy management be a high value. This can be in monetary terms or as high qualitative value.
6 CONCLUSION
Within facilities management energy management is an important discipline. The authors claim a
new holistic approach in understanding the success of energy management. It is important to
consider not only technical issues with respect to building services, equipment or production
plants, but also the organisation and their contribution to the success of energy management.
Once the context between the different factors is realized and considered the potentials for
energy savings in an organisation or during building operation are huge and support the desired
success in energy efficiency.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the Zurich University of Applied Sciences, including the Institute of Facility
Management, for support of this paper. Also we thank to Prof. Dr. Lukas Windlinger and his
team for using results of the project: Impact of sustainable office buildings on occupant's comfort
and productivity.
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Hartungi, R. & Jiang, L. B. (2011). Energy efficiency and conservation in an office building: a
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manual control of windows in office buildings. Building and environment, 588-600.
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Feige, Annika; Wallbaum, Holger; Janser, Marcel; Windlinger Inversini, Lukas (2013). Impact
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through personalized energy feedback in offices. Building research & information, Vol. 10, No.
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91
Sustainable Retrofitting of Nordic University Campuses
Robert Eriksson
Aalto University
robert.eriksson@fsrc.fi
+358 50 5518310
Suvi Nenonen
Aalto University
suvi.nenonen@aalto.fi

sbni@dtu.dk
Antje Junghans
antje.junghans@ntnu.no
Göran Lindahl
Chalmers University of Technology
goran.lindahl@chalmers.se
ABSTRACT
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to define the state-of-the-art of Nordic campus
development and identify how campus areas can be retrofitted by adding new technologies,
features, functions and services. The main research question is how to develop resilient campus
management in all five Nordic countries with closely comparable circumstances both on a
societal and on an infrastructural level.
Theory The current built environment of the Nordic campus, representing a both
technologically and functionally ageing real estate portfolio, is approached by applying a
systemic understanding of university campuses as socio-technical systems.
Design/methodology/approach The analysis of the state-of-the-art campus development is
conducted using a literature review and document analysis.
Findings The results identify trends and challenges on strategic, tactical and operational levels,
and a three-level roadmap for future campus retrofitting and research is presented.
Originality/value The research is conducted as part of preparations for a Nordic research and
campus development collaboration initiative and it will serve as a framework for demonstrations
conducted on different Nordic campuses.
Keywords
Retrofitting, campus development, Nordic, campus management, urban development.
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1 INTRODUCTION
Retrofitting processes are additions of new technologies, functions and services to existing built
environment systems. In university campuses, this means the development of embedded learning
environments, new space typologies and a variety of platforms (digital, physical and social)
supporting collaboration both within the university and in connection with diverse stakeholders.
Nevertheless, it is also about service concepts and new ways of producing services. Retrofitting
processes are need-driven, user-involving, agile, scalable and transferable urban acupuncture
actions.
The Nordic countries have much in common historically, culturally and linguistically. They have
had a common labour market and strong co-operation in many areas for many years. The Nordic
welfare state model is based on the rights of individuals to a decent life and equal opportunities
for social promotion, often achieved through education. Higher education is a part of their large
public sectors and has been influenced by a powerful nation state in which regional policy
considerations and the social thesis of equal educational opportunity have played an important
role. (Fägerlind et al. 2004)
All Nordic university property management organisations emphasise that their operations need to
be sustainable from an economic, environmental and social perspective (Nielsen et al 2012).
Sustainable development targets can be structured according to the three dimensions of
sustainability: society, the environment and the economy.
In Norway for example the social targets are: supply of appropriate buildings for work and life
and compliance with health, safety and security requirements. Additionally, there is a need to
preserve the cultural heritage as part of the social responsibility of the property management
organisation. This is also an important aspect in the other Nordic countries, since the university
properties are often culturally valuable and reflect the society in general,. (Stadsbtbygg, Anon.
2010 a; The Danish University and Property Agency 2013).
The ecological targets are: reduction of resources, usage of recyclable building material;
considering the separability of used material for re-use; reduction of energy consumption and
usage of renewable energy sources; reduction of space requirements and soil sealing;
safeguarding the ability to maintain and de-construct buildings; and preventing the usage of
materials causing excessive emissions (prEN 15221-4). The economic targets are: building space
optimization for most efficient usage; optimization of building life-cycle costs; and facilitating
the most efficient management methods. (Junghans, 2011)
2 THEORY AND METHODOLOGY

At the core of socio-technical systems is the proposition that many systems are a combination of
physical and non-physical artefacts and the human context (Geels 2005) and that change is
dependent on the complex interactions between these elements. Socio-technical analysis can be
considered at different levels of scale, from small work groups all the way up to large-scale
national systems (Geels 2005, Verbong and Geels 2007, Geels and Schot 2007).
Geels defines large-scale socio-technical systems as displaying the following characteristics: “At
the level of societal functions, a range of elements are linked together to achieve functionality,
for example, technology, regulation, user practices and markets, cultural meaning,
infrastructure, maintenance networks and productions systems.” (Geels 2005, 1)
Transferring the systems thinking approach by Geels (2005, 2 figure 1) towards a socio-technical
system for university campus retrofitting, the following perspectives might be integrated:
1. Learning environment - Markets and user practices in higher education
93
2. Information and communication infrastructure

3. Users of universities (students and faculty employees, .e.g. in teaching, research,
administration, etc.)
4. Maintenance of existing buildings and infrastructure
5. Construction of new buildings, modernisation and rebuilding
6. Knowledge development
7. Culture and symbolic meaning
8. Regulations and Politics (Ministry of Education, Research Council, building law,
environmental regulations, etc.).
In many ways, when looking at campuses and retrofitting innovation in the wider context, all of
these perspectives are necessary. Innovation is viewed as the lowest level, with new ideas
entering a socio-technical domain of artefacts, rules and actors.
This paper aims to define and describe the state-of-art of Nordic campus development and
identify how campus areas can be retrofitted. The leading research question is how to develop
resilient campus management in all five Nordic countries, which have closely comparable
circumstances both on a societal and infrastructural level.
The following section includes and overview of the state-of-the-art Nordic campus development
with a focus on the first five elements, which are considered the most relevant for development
of resilient campus management?.
3 THE STATE-OF-THE-ART OF RETROFITTING UNIVERSITY CAMPUSES
3. 1 Learning environment - Markets and user practices in higher education

A university’s campus is seen as a huge learning environment which creates possibilities for
learning – also across the university’s academic environments (Anon, 2013). The need for multi-
use learning environments is increasing. Based on global campus development, it is emphasised
that the learning landscape is about the connections between the spaces and how much they
support encounters and informal learning. The learning landscape should support different ways
of learning. It includes a network, connections and urban functions, which create a supporting
ecosystem for the whole learning cycle. (Harrison et al. 1996) According to Long et al. (2005),
the standards of learning spaces today do not support effective learning but are out-of-date and
ineffective. They recommend a shift from too discipline-specific spaces to more flexible and
stimulating, learning-enhancing spaces by focusing on two main principles and offerings: (1)
self-discovering virtual networks delivering secure services to portable devices that dynamically
join and depart the building operating system and (2) spaces supporting sets of interactions with
corresponding technologies optimized for specific locally identified goals.
The current issues in connection with the development of higher education in different Nordic
countries include issues such as an action plan for increased internationalization higher education
and a new financing model for state support of study-abroad students (The Danish Ministry of
Education) – these issues are handled in a report titled “Enhanced Insight through Global
Outlook”. In recent months, the ministry has reworked some of the ‘actions’ and has presented a
proposal for legislation with a totally new financing principle for exchange students entering and
leaving Denmark. The Norwegian government recently wrote about open access publishing as a
potential threat to academic freedom: "All research that is publicly financed should be openly
accessible. This principle, however, must not hinder the academic freedom researchers enjoy to
94
choose their preferred channels of publication." Sweden’s Ministry of Education has proposed
legislation that would grant universities and colleges legal autonomy from the government – by
institutions becoming private foundations. Universities have endorsed the need for change. The
underlying objective of the legislation is to increase the autonomy of universities by decoupling
them from the state. Higher education would operate according to ‘contracts’ between the
government and universities. The issues connected to reorganising universities are topical in
Finland and Iceland. Iceland used to have only two universities, but during the 1990s it already
had seven higher education institutions – four state-owned, the rest private – to serve a
population of just 320,000. In the wake of the economic downturn which devastated Iceland, an
international panel of experts recommended that the country merge its universities. Finland is at
the forefront of the merger trend: three new universities were created in 2010 (involving seven
pre-existing institutions), with more mergers expected in 2013. The drivers in merging are
quality and competitiveness – small universities are just not powerful enough. (Anon. 2013c)
3.2 Information and communication infrastructure

The development of ICT (information and communication technology) and digitalization alter
our activities and almost every space, from working, studying and teaching to leisure activities.
In terms of learning environments, the actual learning can happen both virtually and physically,
which makes it more complicated to plan the physical spaces (Dugdale 2009). According to
Santamäki (2008), as the generation born in the technology era want to work in more casual
places, the physical, virtual and social spaces need to be designed for a multitude of different
needs and users. Such a profound change requires that campus management has the ability to
develop flexibility, managerial learning and network organization capabilities.
All Nordic countries have been very active in research initiatives in connection with future
learning environments. Examples of the development initiatives are presented in Table 1.
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Table 1 Examples of future learning environment development activities in Nordic countries (Anon.
2009; Hansen et al. 2011)i
Country Actors Action Focus
Denmark Danish Publications What could campus areas
Building & 1. Campus and Study look like and which functions
Property Environment – Physical would they benefit from
Settings for Tomorrow’s
Agency University in 2009
including?
2. Campus Development: The process to identify
Method and Process 2013 methods and processes which
are necessary for supporting
campus development.
Finland University The Future learning How to benefit from the
properties of environment R&D program current international
Finland and 2011-2015.4 reputation regarding
the Strategic The Energizing Urban educational achievements
centre for Environments R&D and how to develop the
Science, program 2012-2016.ii world-class learning
Technology environments aligned with
and the latest educational
Innovation of knowledge and creative ways
the built of learning? How can the
environment current pedagogical theories,
in Finland e.g. embedded learning and
student-activating methods,
be taken into account in
designing, using and
managing the campuses?
Norway NTNU Network of Competitive How to develop future
Campuses since 2007 campuses?
Research activities in How to improve the usability
Usability of learning of learning environments?
environments. What methods can be used?
Statsbygg Sustainable development Effective building project
and cultural heritage and sustainability.
Sweden KI and SLL Future Learning How should we design our
(Stockholm Environments - How Space learning environments in the
County Impacts on Learning R&D future? The aim has been to
Council). program 2010-2012.iii find new ways of designing
space to support interaction
and flexibility on all
4
http://rym.fi/program/indoor-environment/
ii
http://rym.fi/program/energizing-urban-ecosystems-eue/
iii
www.ki.se/learningspaces
iiii
www.akademiskahus.se/downloadpubl.php?lPublID=163
96
educational levels.
Akademiska Publication Supporting holistic
hus Method support for development of campuses.
developing knowledge
environments.iiii
3.3 Users of universities: New ways of collaboration and co-creation – tactical

reflections
Action taking place within facilities and the use of facilities are strongly related to the
experiences of the users, and thus their possibility and willingness to perform. The CIB Work
Group 111 on Usability of workplaces – including Nordic researchers – has been exploring
concepts, methods and tools, developed in the evaluation of all kinds of consumer products,
applied to the built environment. In the most recent phase of this work, conducted over the past
three years, an international network of partners has collaborated to focus on the usability of
learning environments. The work has sought to identify and evaluate the ways in which users
(and other stakeholders) in projects are involved in decision making about building use and the
methods and tools they use to understand as well as to design and manage the relationship
between activities and places. (Alexander et al. 2013) The Use-Frame (Lindahl et al. 2011) and
Use-Tool process (Hansen et al. 2009) provide frameworks for developing more usable facilities
in collaborative ways. The success of the latest collaborative methods lies in user involvement,
which has been practiced and researched in the area of residential and workplace planning
(Olivegren 1974; Granath et al. 1996) since the 1970s. In user-centric design, both technical and
psychosocial systems are considered. The purpose of user involvement has shifted from mere
participation to co-designing, making fuller use of user knowledge and experience (Sanders and
Stappers 2008; Eriksson et al. 2012).
3.4 Real estate and facilities management of university campuses in Nordic countries
Real Estate and Facilities Management includes maintenance of existing buildings and
infrastructure and construction of new buildings, modernization and rebuilding of university
properties. University properties have been recognised as a key asset in all Nordic countries. The
university properties are mainly owned and managed either by a separate, typically state-owned,
organisation or a company. There are differences between the countries. In Denmark,
Universitets- og Bygningsstyrelsen or UBST (a government agency), rents 75 % of the university
properties. In Finland, 76 % of all university properties were rented from Senate Properties (a
state enterprise) until 2010. These properties were then transferred to three newly established
limited companies as of 1.1.2010. The transfer of properties into separate property companies
was a result of both strengthening the financial position of the universities as well as increasing
their autonomic position. In Norway, Statsbygg (a government enterprise) rents regional
college/university properties and a part of the university properties in the higher education sector.
In Sweden, Akademiska Hus (a limited company) has a market share of 64 % in the university,
higher education and research sector. The division of the responsibilities regarding the services
varies between the Nordic countries and there is variation between the tenants as well. In
principle, the owner is in most cases responsible of facilities services in connection with
maintenance – there are different ways to organise the user services as either outsourced or in-
house services. (Anon 2010b)
The expansions and modernisations over the coming years are connected to the fact that
universities determine where the knowledge economy (still) grows or has more opportunities.
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The location and quality of the facilities is key in attracting and retaining knowledge workers.
The campus represents value. The campus requires 10-15% of the university’s resources.
Funding models, cost structures and revenue models are in a core role in developing university
infrastructures. The expenditure models of tertiary institutions, such as colleges and universities,
consist of an increasing share of private sources. The relative amount of private expenditure
varies from under 10 % in the Nordic countries to 60-70 % in the U.S. and the U.K. This
illuminates a strengthening market-orientation approach in the field. Statistics show that both
public and private expenditures have increased in the 2000s. (Van Damme 2001).
The position of the organisations in the markets is highly affected by the legislative framework,
the organisation’s legal status and its administrational form. For example, Akademiska Hus
operates quite freely and independently in the markets with a market-based setting and ruling,
whereas the two state agencies, i.e. the Danish and Norwegian organisations, operate close to the
Ministries. (Anon 2010b)
There are identified challenges for university properties, which were defined in the Nordic
project “University Property Management in the Nordic Countries” as a part of the KTI & IPD
Nordic University Property Management Studies during 2010 (Anon 2010b). In Denmark, the
development of laboratory space includes actions where useless old laboratories will be
modernized with governmental funding of 200 million euros. The challenge in collaboration is
obvious, as institutions want to work in a closer relationship but have limited possibilities to do
so. Alternative property owning structures are under discussion: for instance, universities have
made an official request about owning their properties (conditions for this will be cleared) – the
process was in its initial phase in 2010.
In the Finnish situation, the challenge is to develop the processes and start the operations of the
different all have a specific position and market area – this is a matter of creating a credible
value network. The other challenge is in strategic, tactical and operational co-operation on a
national level. Statsbygg’s properties consist of colleges in remote areas – developing the
regional colleges and making these more attractive is a key issue. Statsbygg aims to co-operate
with the clients by developing the properties and providing new kinds of solutions. Statsbygg has
a challenge in competing with new, modern spaces with their older properties – retrofitting has a
significant role here. In Sweden, Akademiska Hus mentioned the increase of competition
regarding large projects from the market. It is important to utilize the knowledge and specialised
services that Akademiska Hus can offer, i.e. regarding libraries and laboratories. The pressure
towards centralisation is present and there are large investment projects in the process, and in
general the project portfolio has grown significantly.
As a sustainable resource, university campuses in the Nordic countries point out that the
environmental aspect can be seen as the most crucial element of social responsibility.
Environmental considerations are thus considered a major issue in all the university property
management organisations. In total, the real estate sector represents some 40-50% of the total
energy consumption, which makes it crucial to develop methods and systems that reduce energy
consumption. Specific social responsibility strategies are not currently common in the Nordic
university property management organisations. (Anon. 2010a) Statsbygg has defined social
responsibility as one of their five strategic goals. In Denmark, UBST does not have a specific
social responsibility strategy, but their operational level guidelines cover most of the topics of,
for instance, the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) and these are also reported. In Finland, the
new university property management organisations have started their operations, and as their
strategies are formed, they are naturally structured in a socially responsible way. The
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responsibilities between the owner organisation and the clients and occupiers vary between the
countries but also between universities. It is important to acknowledge and define the owners’
and the occupiers’ responsibilities and also the areas where both these parties can make an
impact.
In Norway, regarding the regional colleges and some universities, the real estates of which are
managed and owned by Statsbygg, there is a closer link to social responsibility. In universities
that own and manage the properties by them selves, the ownership and occupational aspects are
linked together and Statsbygg does not have a role in their social responsibility matters, except
for the construction phase. In Finland, universities are also partial owners of the properties by
owning shares in the property companies, which means that the owner and occupier aspects
become linked to each other. The level of involvement of the Finnish universities in real estate
related social responsibility issues is more prioritized than previously, when universities got the
space from Senate Properties. In Finland, there is a discrepancy between the different parties in
the responsibilities regarding, e.g., heat, electricity and water consumption and costs, between
the university property companies and also the universities. The standardised principles within
the companies support the alignment. (2010a.)
The statistics from 2010 indicate the amounts of university properties in four Nordic countries
(Table 2).
Table 2 Property ownership and rent and turnover of Nordic university property management
organisations
Country/Organisation Property ownership Rent & Turnover
Denmark /UBST 3.7 million sq. m, of which Capital rent model (cost-based
2 million sq. m occupied rents applied, these doubled
by universities and higher with a percentage to cover the
education capital costs, applies some
market-based elements)
Finland /University 105 properties with 378 Total rent model, Rental cash
Properties of Finland buildings flow 126 million euros/year
Ltd - Rentable area 1.1 million
sq. m
Finland/Helsinki 50 properties with 200 Capital rent model, Rental cash
University Properties buildings flow 50 million euros/year
Ltd - Rentable area 0.4 million
sq. m
Finland/Aalto Rentable area 0.25 million Total rent model, Rental cash
University sq. m flow
Properties Ltd 40 million euros/year
Norway/Statsbygg Rentable area Total rent model (cost-based
2.6 million sq. m (floor rents applied, admin. decisions
space), of which 1.1 in contracts made before 1992)
million sq. m is rented for
education and research
(mostly regional/university
colleges)
99
Sweden/Akademiska Rentable area 3.2 million Total rent model (market

Hus sq. m university and rents applied), Rental cash flow
research properties 4927 Mkr (million Swedish
crones)
4 FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

Based on the state-of-the-art of Nordic campus development, we can identify three types of
challenges for Sustainable Nordic Campus Retrofitting. Changes in property ownership as well
as in the organisational structure and identity of universities require retrofitting actions for
campus areas including strategic, tactical and operational dimensions and long-term demand and
market creation.
Strategic challenge
 There is a need to respond to the structural changes in education and university
organisations.
Tactical challenge
 There is a need to make the aging built environment more usable with small actions.
 There is a need to make the impact of the retrofitting actions greater.
Operational challenge
 There is a need to fill spaces with users and increase the user efficiency of the campuses.
The very low usage rate, combined with specialized facilities and often buildings with cultural
value calls for increasing usability through actions that have a manageable environmental impact
and which are economically sustainable. Space-redefining retrofitting concepts are needed due to
the fact that university resources are not currently fully used. Reviews of space utilisation across
different countries in higher education properties indicate that utilisation rates of teaching spaces
are often between 15% and 20% during the core learning hours. The rate of use of campus
facilities is often very low – this creates wide sustainability potential and need for innovations
and development – in terms of retrofitting and sustainability, it is an important opportunity. At
the same time, there might exist an expressed need for more space and new buildings (e.g.
Nielsen et al 2012).
The campus building stock has limitations with regards to decreasing energy consumption and
therefore there is also a call for increasing user efficiency in order to increase energy efficiency.
The actors in the field of construction and real estate need new ways of working together in order
to achieve success and overall sustainability. The use of retrofitted informal learning spaces and
the implementation of space management systems as a method will highlight the true cost of
academic space to the occupiers of the space. Effective facilities management techniques are an
important management tool in the increasingly dynamic and diverse higher education
environment. In addition, there is a need for new services both to increase user efficiency and to
manage retrofitting processes. The results are summarized in Figure 1.
100
FMC 2014
Figuree 1 The three--level roadm

map for futuree campus retrrofitting and rresearch.
The finaal conclusioon about thee steps that nneed to be ttaken in futuure researchh activities iin order to
create and
a integratte a joint rooadmap forr Nordic caampus retrofitting on sstrategic, taactical and
operatioonal levels is the followwing: There is a reasonaable amountt of researchh data to be utilised in
retrofittiing consideerations. Nordic counttries have a strong thheoretical ddatabase foor campus
developpment. The challenge is to applyy the reseaarch results and devellop conceptts for the
demonstrations.
The tacttical challennges are connnected to isssues of co-ccreation. Coo-creation allows and encourages
a more active involvement froom the users of the cam mpus to create a value--rich experiience. The
qualitatiive methodss in connection with m more traditioonal quantitative and obbjective meethods can
togetherr provide a valid process for a proof of conceept. A structtural approaach and proccess needs
to be esttablished, coonducted annd evaluatedd in a relevaant and com mparable wayy.
The opeerational chhallenge is the need too manage aand share reesources in university campuses
internallly and exteernally in connection
c with other stakeholderrs. Solutionns with effi ficient and
sustainaable campuss retrofittingg applicationns are approopriate. Thiss is based on an existinng body of
knowleddge and Scaandinavian tradition off involving uusers in thee processes. The focus should be
on deveeloping guiddance on goood practicees of campuus retrofittinng as part of the develoopment of
institutioonal real esstate strateggies. This assists univeersities and service prooviders in iddentifying
and impplementing bbest practicees in the maanagement of o space.
The Nordic contextt sets challeenges in com mparison with
w Europeaan universitties, for insttance. The
high quuality learnning outcom mes in Norrdic countriies are on the same level as e..g. in the
Netherlaands. Howeever, doctooral degreess of foreign students, for instannce, are onnly slowly
101
increasing in numbers. Campus management can have a significant role in identifying

similarities between Nordic countries and increasing their magnetic effect. Universities’ planning
grows in scale when they combine and develop their activities. The planning of a university’s
area is therefore comparable to urban planning. Planning does not relate solely to the individual
university’s activities: the university opens up towards the surrounding world – also physically –
and thus actively affects the area and the surroundings. Campus development is more than just
bricks. It is a tool for change. It is about buildings and physical areas, but it is equally about
social and functional needs, organisation, communication, and funding as well as strategic
objectives. There are many aspects suggesting that pioneer activities within campus development
can soon act as models for urban development.
REFERENCES
Alexander, K. (2012), Co-creation of value in FM. Ch. 13 in Managing Organizational
Ecologies - Space, Management and Organization (Alexander and Price 2012), pp. 155-166.
RIOT, New York.
Alexander, K., Blakstad, S.H., Hansen, G.K., Jensen, P. A., Lindahl, G. and Nenonen, S. (2013),
Usability: managing facilities for social outcomes. Proceedings from CIB World Congress,
Brisbane, 6-9 May 2013.
Anonymous (2009), Campus and study environment: physical framework for universities of the
future. Universitets- og Bygningsstyrelsen Ministeriet for Videnskab, Teknologi og Udvikling.
Denmark.
Anonymous (2010b), University Property Management in the Nordic Countries – Overview
www.statsbygg.no. (Accessed 2013- 80-15).
Anonymous (2013a), Campus Development, Method and Process. Byggningsstyrelsen.
www.bygst.dk/om-os/publikationer/campusudvikling-metode-og-proces. (Accessed 2013- 90-25).
Anonymous (2013c), Overview of Nordic countries.
http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20130927090608818. (Accessed 2013-
90-29).
Blyth. A. and Worthington, J. (2010), Managing the brief for better design. 2nd ed. Routledge.
Dugdale, S. (2009). Space strategies for the new Learning landscape. Educause review, pp.51-
63.
Eriksson, J., Fröst, P. and Ryd, N. (2012), Mapping a framework for co-design in healthcare
projects: An empirical study. Department of Architecture, Chalmers University of Technology.
Proceedings of ARC 2012.
Fägerlind, I. and Strömqvist, G. (eds.) (2004), Reforming higher Education in the Nordic
Countries. Studies of change in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. Paris:
International Institute for Educational Planning, 2004, pp. 55-87.
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001390/139015e.pdf. (Accessed 2013- 90-15)
Geels, F. W. (2005), Technical Transitions and Systems Innovations: A Co-Evolutionary and
Socio-Technical Analysis, Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham.
Geels, F. and Schot, J. (2007), Typology of sociotechnical transition pathways, Research Policy,
36, pp 339-417.
Granath, J., Lindahl, G. and Rehal, S.(1996), From Empowerment to Enablement. An evolution
of new dimensions in participatory design. Logistik und Arbeit.
Hansen, G.K., Blakstad, S.H. and Knudsen, W. (2011), USEtool. Evaluating Usability. Methods
Handbook. 2011. NTNU.
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Lindahl G, Blakstad S.H., Hansen, G.K. and Nenonen S. (2011), USEframe – A framework to
understand and map usability research. In Proceedings of the 6th Nordic Conference on
Construction Economics and Organisation – Shaping the Construction/Society Nexus, Volume
1: Clients and Users, Danish Building Research Institute, Aalborg University, pp. 83 – 95.
Junghans, A. (2011), State of the art in sustainable Facility Management, Haugbølle, K.,
Gottlieb, S.C., Kähkönen, K.E. & Klakegg, O.J. (eds.), 6th Nordic Conference on Construction
Economics and Organisation – Shaping the Construction/Society Nexus. Volume 3: Construction
in Society, p. 553. Danish Building Research Institute, Aalborg University, Copenhagen. ISBN
978-87-563-1519-7.
Nielsen, S.B., Møller, J.S., Jäschke, S. and Alexander, K. (2012), Realizing Sustainability in
Facilities Management: a pilot study at the Technical University of Denmark. Proceedings of
EFMC2012.
Olivegren, J. (1974), Brukarplanering: ett litet samhälle föds: hur 12 hushåll i Göteborg
planerade sitt område och sina hus i kvarteret Klostermuren på Hisingen. Göteborg: FFNS-
gruppens förlag.
Ryd, N. (2008), Initiating Building Projects, clients’ and architects’ front-end management of
projects. Göteborg: Reproservice Chalmers.
Sanders, E. B.-N. and Stappers, J.P. (2008), Co-creation and the new landscapes of design.
CoDesign: International Journal of CoCreation in Design and the Arts, 4(1), pp.5-18.
Santamäki, E.-M. (2011), DIY (Do it yourself) advice. Aalto Design Factory Annual Report
2010/2011. (S. Granö, Ed.) Espoo, Uusimaa, Finland: Design Factory.
The Danish University and Property Agency (2013): Campus and Study Environment: physical
framework for universities of the future, The Danish University and Property Agency, The
Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Denmark.
Van Damme, D. (2001), Quality issues in the internationalisation of higher education, Higher
Education, 41. Springer, pp. 415–441.
Verbong, G. and Geels, F. (2007), The ongoing energy transition: Lessons from a socio-technical
multi-level analysis of the Dutch Electricity system (1960-2004), Energy Policy, pp. 35, 1025-
1037.
103
SECTION FOUR:
MANAGING PEOPLE AND ORGANISATIONS
Introduction
Managing people and organisations
Matt Tucker
School of the Built Environment
Liverpool John Moores University, UK
Papers
How to increase meal experience in nursing homes?

Hester van Sprang, Ruth Pijls-Hoekstra and Geertje Tonnaer.
From Worklab to Hub: business models for optimal FM support

for office workers in 2020
Arrien Termaat, Hester Van Sprang and Brenda Groen.
Contribution of facility management to hospital(ity) issues

Brenda Groen
104
Introduction
MANAGING PEOPLE AND ORGANISATIONS
Matt Tucker
School of Built Environment
Liverpool John Moores University, UK
Facility Management (FM) is an industry centred on people. FM is ultimately a service industry,

but what actually constitutes as a service? Essentially, “service” is an activity that revolves
around providing an experience to the customer or user. Often services are made up of multiple
interlinked activities that are packaged into one common experiential output. From a customer
(demand-side) perspective, services are an experience. The critical role from an FM provider
(supply-side) perspective, is therefore to understand what these experiences should look like,
how they should be perceived, in order to enable and align the correct operational inputs to be
implemented to support the ability to make these desired experiences a reality.
This requires facility managers to be equipped to manage staff, customers and organisations
effectively in order to align service delivery with the correct organisational experience and
culture. So who is the customer? Essentially the customer can be internal or external. If we
take a Higher Education Institution as an example, the external customer would be ultimately be
the students and a secondary external customer would be visitors, such as guest lecturers or
industry practitioners. The internal customer would be the academic and administrative staff.
This is because although they are contracted to the organisation, they receive and experience
common services, such as the on-site coffee shop or local printer service, just like external
customers. The facility manger needs to be conscious of all of these customer groups and types
to be able to tailor FM services correctly. This also requires effective management and
organisation of their core FM service staff. For example, the division of soft and hard services
staff. To add another factor into the mix, facility mangers will also need to be aware of the
cultural differences between in-house and outsourced staff.
Essentially, the picture painted here is to demonstrate the complexity in FM regarding the
effective management of people and organisations. The ability for facility managers to be
equipped with management and inter-personal skills, as well as possessing technical ability and
awareness, has never been more pertinent. We now live in the ‘social age’, and era where social
and business activity is increasingly dictated by social networks. Peer-to-peer reviews and
feedback is increasingly popular, and information exchange is now a collaborative process
between providers of services and those demanding services. Moreover, the increased
sophistication in how knowledge is communicated and transferred is having a major impact on
the behaviours and special patterns of the working environment. The ways in which we deliver
services today will ultimately be distinctly different in 10 years’ time as the behaviours of our
workplace, and its space, continue to evolve.
It is therefore opportune to address the importance of people and organisations within this
conference, to which the following three papers provide a fascinating insight into small sample
105
of a wider multitude of factors involving the interface between FM service delivery, people and
organisations.
In the first paper, van Sprang et al. focus on the experiences received from the delivery of
catering services within the context of nursing homes. An innovative mixed methods research
methodology is adopted to identify critical quantitative trends in customer experience, whilst the
qualitative data unravels particular aspects of service improvement.
The findings highlight that the wider physical environment, as well as the catering service itself
play a significant role in the meal experiences of the nursing home residents. In the second
paper, Termaat et al. presents the results of a two-year project called Workspace 2020. This
paper emphasises the need to analyse the changes in workspace and working patterns of people
and organisations in order for FM to be able to effectively support the workforce of the future.
In the final paper, Groen investigates the level of hospitality provided in the healthcare sector
from an FM perspective. Through a robust quantitative study, Groen identifies trends in the
level of patient satisfaction regarding aspects of hospitality in order to understand the value that
is placed by patients, and can thus be used to improve the level of FM service provision in
healthcare to emphasise critical aspects of hospitality.
It is hoped that these papers provide a thought-provoking insight into how the FM industry
interacts and engages people and organisations in the delivery of FM services, through a sample
of some of complex issues facing the FM industry both today and in the future.
106
CAPTURING MEAL EXPERIENCE IN NURSING HOMES – AN EXPLORATORY

STUDY
Hester van Sprang

Saxion University of Applied Science
h.vansprang@saxion.nl
+31645594392
Ruth Pijls
r.pijls@saxion.nl
Geertje Tonnaer
g.h.tonnaer@saxion.nl
ABSTRACT
This study focuses on measuring the meal experiences of elderly clients living in nursing homes
(N=217). The study combines qualitative and quantitative research in an innovative way by using
a specially developed measurement box. The box is based on research by Berry, Wall & Carbone
(2006) on service clues and combines a survey with gaming elements that trigger residents to
express their thoughts and feelings with meal experience. It refers to aspects of the food itself
(the product), the staff’s behaviour, and the physical environment. Questions are either
satisfaction related, or related to respondents’ affective assessment.
Statistical analyses prove that functional, mechanical and humane service clues can be
distinguished as separate factors in the meal experience. Additionally, the present study shows
the value of combined qualitative and quantitative research: qualitative data helps to identify
specific points for improvement. Improvement of meal experience requires an effort on all
service clues. However, the instrument did not succeed in differentiating between cognitive and
affective response to meal experience in the post experience phase.
This study supports the thesis that understanding the meal experience is important. To really
understand a resident’s meal experience, one needs to address not only aspects related to the food
and drink itself, but also aspects related to the physical environment and interaction with others.
Information on a resident’s affective response remains important. However, this requires the
development of a new measurement tool, either by improving the scales, or by measuring in the
participation phase instead of post-experience measurement.
Keywords
Nursing homes, elderly, meal experience, service clues, affection and cognition.
1 INTRODUCTION
Food is important for the health and well being of people, especially for the elderly. As a result
of aging, people become less receptive to their internal signals that trigger the intake of food and
107
drinks, resulting in serious problems as malnutrition and anorexia (Roberts, Fuss, Heyman,
Evans, Tsay & Rasmussen, 1994; Morley & Silver, 1988). External triggers in the social and
physical environment can partly compensate for this reduction in perceptiveness. Examples are:
eating with others results in a higher energy-intake (De Casto, 1993) due to an extended stay at
the dinner table and agreeable company (Feunekes, De Graaf and Van Staveren, 1995).
Furthermore, a positive multi-sensory experience activates the physical processes, triggers a
person’s memory and stimulates eating (De Groot, 2002).
Institutions have a need for understanding their residents’ experience, as a means to improve the
quality of life, health and weight of elderly. Research by De Groot and Van Staveren (2007)
shows that eating in a living room setting in nursing homes, leads to a proven positive effect on
the quality of life, fine motoric, weight, a slight increase of the intake of all food and drink, as
well as increased staff satisfaction without an increase in work pressure. Besides these,
understanding meal experience (as part of the hospitality experience) is important to institutions
to distinguish themselves in an increasingly competitive market (CBS, 2012; Van den Haak &
Karlas, 2012).
Experience is a complex concept. Firstly, the experience of the service environment has a
physical and social dimension in which the service delivery takes place (i.e. Brunner-Sperdin &
Peters, 2009; Berry, Wall & Carbone, 2006). Berry et al. (2006) state that the service experience
is based on three types of clues: functional clues (technical performance: the meal); mechanical
clues (tangibles: sensory perception of the physical environment); and humane clues (behavior
and appearance of service providers). Secondly, experiences are internal in nature and, therefore,
individualized and therefore not easy to investigate (Knutson, Beck, Kim & Cha, 2010).
Defining experience of services is also complex. Researchers vary in their opinion whether
experience contains emotion and/or cognition, whether it is a process or a result, and whether an
experience must be an extraordinary moment involving ‘flow’ or also refer to ordinary service
situations (Pijls, Schreiber &Van Marle, 2011 show an overview of literature on the definition of
experience see). The present study is based on the definition that experience is the interaction
between the individual and his or her environment, containing functional, mechanical and
humane clues, and the inner responses to this interaction (Pijls, Schreiber &Van Marle, 2011).
These inner responses consist of feelings and thoughts, which follow the sensory perception of
the environment and result in an overall evaluation (i.e. satisfaction) of a service encounter. In
line with this, Knutson et al. (2010) developed a holistic conceptual model of the experience
construct, based on a review of over 600 publications. The model recognizes three phases in
experience, encompassing the ‘events or feelings that occur prior, during, and after participation’
in the hospitality experience (O’Sullivan & Spangler, 1998, p. 23). These parts have been
characterized as: (1) pre-experience—referring to anything and everything involved prior to the
actual participation in the experience itself; (2) participation—referring to the actual involvement
in the experience; and (3) post-experience—referring to the aftermath of the participation. In this
post-experience phase, cognitive and affective responses during the participation phase results in
the overall satisfaction.
According to this model, satisfaction is based on both cognitive and affective evaluation. To
obtain a deep understanding of satisfaction the cognitive and affective evaluation must be
understood. Satisfaction is widely measured, by means of validated surveys like SERVQUAL
(Zeithmal, Parasuraman & Berry, 1990), American Customer Satisfaction Index (Fornell,
Johnson, Anderson, Cha & Bryant, 1996) and Customer Quality index Long-term Care
(Triemstra, Winters, Kool & Wiegers, 2010). Affective response to meal experience is more
108
FMC 2014
difficultt to measuree, especiallyy in the post experiencce phase, annd thereforee no widelyy accepted
standarddized methoods, which aare applicabble in this sppecific conteext, exist. T
The aim of thhe present
study iss to developp and test a new instrum ment measuuring both ccognitive annd affective responses
in the post experiennce phase aas well as ovverall satisfaction (see Figure 1). M Measuremennts during
all the tthree phasess from expeectations in the pre-expperience, reaal time meaasurements during
d the
participaation phase and the ovverall evaluaation in the post experiience phase would be oof greatest
value. H
However, this is hardly feasible. Thherefore, thee focus of thhe present research is oon the post
experiennce phase, bbecause it iss the most ppractical waay to obtain data and thhe eventual evaluation
e
of a seervice encouunter is asssumed to be most im mportant foor new exppectations aand future
behavioour (Knutsonn et al., 2010; Kim and Moon, 2009).
Figure 1. Coonstruct of exxperience, baased on Knuttson et al. (20010) & Berryy et al. (20066).
Insight iin the meal experience is importannt, therefore experience surveys shoould:
 Meaasure not onnly aspects rrelated to thee food and ddrink (functtional clues)), but also asspects
relatted to the phhysical enviironment (m
mechanical cclues) and innteraction w
with others (hhumane
cluees).
 Meaasure not onnly cognitivee responses,, but also affective respponse to funcctional, mecchanical
and humane cluues of the m meal experiennce. By undderstanding tthe affectivee response ((as
deteerminant) the (overall) ssatisfaction can be betteer understoood.
Based oon these statements the following hypotheses
h a formulatted:
are
1. Functional,
F mechanicall and humanne service cllues can be distinguisheed as separaate factors
i the meal experience..
in
2. The
T differenntiation betwween cognittive and affeective respoonse to meall experiencee in the
p experieence phase oof elderly peeople is posssible.
post
3. Experience
E research reqquires a com
mbined quanntitative andd qualitativee research appproach.
109
FMC 2014
2 R
RESEARC CH METHO ODS
The stuudy combinnes qualitatiive and quantitative research in an innovattive way byy using a
speciallyy developedd measurem ment box. T The box com mbines a suurvey with ggaming elem ments that
trigger residents too express ttheir thoughhts and feeelings on m meal experieence (See F Figure 2).
Literatuure review inndicates thaat elements oof gaming trrigger respoondents to participate inn research,
improvees motivatioon and thereeby the validdity of the answers
a given (Al Mahhmud, Mubin, Shahid,
& Marteens, 2008).
The queestions refeer to aspectts of the foood (the prroduct, funcctional cluees), staffs’ behaviour
(humanee clues), aand the phhysical envvironment ((mechanicaal clues). Questions Q aare either
satisfacttion related (smiley icoons 5 point sscale), or reelated to a reespondent’ss affective aassessment
(weatheer symbols 5 point scaale). Each qquestion is sscored by m means of tuurning the dice.
d Open
questionns are usedd to obtain additional informationn on the scores. Thiss study inclludes 217
responddents (60 M Male, 157 feemale) from m eight diffeerent nursinng homes (aand instituttions), age
betweenn 61 and 1000 (mean agee 84,5). Thee individual sessions toook place in the period F Feb – July
2013. N Nursing hom me staff (vaarious posittions) adminnistered thee surveys, aafter first completing
training by IFC on the use of thhe measurem ment box.
Figurre 2: The meaasurement boox (developedd by IFC), wiith different symbols

s for ccognitive asssessment
((smileys) andd feelings (weeather symbools)
The num mber of staff administeering surveyys varied between 1 (44 homes), 2 (3 homes)) and 4 (1
home); the numberr of interviews varied ffrom 6-48. After A complletion of thee survey, thee box was
photogrraphed. Thee answers too the open questions w were writteen down in a log. Thee obtained
quantitaative data aare analysedd using SP PSS (factor analysis; rreliability teesting; averrage sums
score; bbivariate anaalysis). Thee qualitativee data is useed for furthher understaanding of quuantitative
analysiss results.
3 R
RESULTS
hesis 1: servvice clues

Hypoth
110
Functional, mechanical and humane service clues can be distinguished as separate factors in the
meal experience.
Firstly, factor analysis was carried out in order to determine the construct validity of the
instrument. The analysis identified 6 factors (Table 1), all clearly related to one type of service
clues (functional, mechanical or humane). The items show high factor loadings on their factor,
checks are performed concerning cross loadings (< .30) (Field, 2000) and the items show high
communality (shared variance) with each other. Seven items were excluded based on the factor
analysis results: contact with healthcare staff; contact with volunteers; contact with other
residents; snacks; portion size; response to questions about the meal; participation in other
activities in the restaurant. These are all items that are not based on the theory about the service
clues, but were added by the organisation IFC, the company for which the instrument was
developed. For this reason these seven items are excluded for further analysis. Cronbachs’ alpha
shows values above 0.60, which mean that the reliability for the six factors is sufficient (see also
Table 1).
Table 1: Results from factor analysis and reliability test

Factor Label Clues Items Cronbachs’
(N) alpha
1 Restaurant ambiance (satisfaction with and Mechanical 12 .981
feelings about physical environment, ambiance)
2 Restaurant staff (satisfaction with and feelings Humane 6 .936
about staff interaction)
3 General staff (satisfaction with and feelings about Humane 2 .661
interaction)
4 Hot meal tangible (satisfaction with and feelings Functional 5 .696
about product)
5 Hot meal intangible (satisfaction with and feelings Functional 5 .70
about hot meal related items)
6 Cold meal (satisfaction with and feelings about Functional 2 .971
product)
The results of the factor analysis support hypotheses one: functional, mechanical and humane
service clues can be distinguished as separate factors in the meal experience. There appears to be
one factor referring to mechanical cues, the ambiance of the restaurant. Two factors referring to
humane clues can be distinguished: items concerning general staff and items concerning staff of
the restaurant. Finally, three factors refer to functional clues: the cold meal, relatively tangible
aspects of the hot meal (menu choice, time of menu choice, time of having dinner, presentation
on the plate and temperature of the food) and more intangible aspects of the hot meal (feelings,
satisfaction, smell, taste and appearance of the meal). The results showed no factors consisting of
aspects from different types of clues.
The next step was composing the scales by calculating the average sums score (Table 2) for the
items per factor. No significant effect is found on average sums scores for the items: special diet,
male/female, and state of health in past month. All of these characteristics of the respondents
were not evenly distributed (i.e. much more females than men).
111
Table 2: Average sums score

N Min Max Mean SD
Factor 1 (restaurant ambiance) 217 ,00 4,83 3,2089 1,43753
Factor 2 (staff restaurant) 217 ,00 5,00 3,3326 1,37395
Factor 3 (staff general) 217 1,50 5,00 3,9124 ,63405
Factor 4 (hot meal tangible) 217 ,60 4,80 3,7005 ,52250
Factor 5 (hot meal intangible) 217 1,60 4,60 3,5742 ,61560
Factor 6 (cold meal) 217 ,00 5,00 2,6959 1,81356
The results in Table 2 show that overall, factor ‘hot meal tangible’, ‘hot meal intangible’ and
factor ‘general staff’ have the highest mean score, and show the least variance. This means that
the sample was in relative agreement on these scores and the expectation is that the low variance
will lead to a lower chance of significant influence of background variables. Additional bivariate
analysis (ANOVA) further shows a strong significant effect of ‘company of others’ on the
average sum score for ‘hot meal tangible’ (factor 4; eta. 513, sig **) and for ‘restaurant staff’
(factor 2; eta .511, sig **). Eating in the company of others results in higher scores. Age
correlates negatively with appreciation of restaurant staff (factor 2; sig *).
Hypothesis 2: cognition and affection

The differentiation between cognitive and affective response to meal experience in the post
experience phase of elderly people is possible.
Analysis shows no support for hypothesis two. The instrument did not succeed in differentiating
between cognitive and affective response to meal experience in the post experience phase. This
is firstly shown through bivariate correlation analysis between the items on cognitive and
affective response. Furthermore, all factors of the meal experience (Table 1) consist of both the
cognitive and affective related aspects. Thirdly, average item scores (ANOVA) do not show a
relation with different variables: the relations to various background characteristics (age, sex,
company of others, location, diet, state of health, and duration of stay) are the same.
Hypothesis 3: improving meal experience

Experience research requires a combined quantitative and qualitative research approach.
In order to increase the meal experience, the restaurant ambiance, the restaurant staff and the
cold meal are aspects for improvement. The present study shows the value of combined
qualitative and quantitative research. Even though “hot meal tangible” and “hot meal intangible”
have a relatively high mean score and low variance, the comments in the log show a number of
structural complaints. Furthermore, qualitative data helps to identify specific points for
improvement (Table 3). Improvement of the experience requires an effort on all services clues.
Frequently mentioned points for improvement are: restaurant acoustics, comfort of furniture, the
ambiance, staff attention and communication, the meal itself: portion size, presentation,
variation, and use of spices and seasonings.
112
Table 3: Results for qualitative analysis
Factor Points for Examples of answers >10

improvement
Restaurant Indoor climate Restaurant temperature is too cold (especially in winter). Some
ambiance restaurants suffer from draft.
Furniture Uncomfortable chairs (too hard), old furniture, missing arm
rests.
Acoustics Too much noise caused by background music, background
noise, loud voices of other (hard-hearing) residents, moving
chairs.
Ambiance More colour, fresh flowers, wall decoration, lightning (mood
lightning, but not too dark)
Cleanliness Not clean (floors), lack of maintenance, staff’ uniforms are not
clean.
Restaurant Attention Restaurant staff is visibly working under pressure and
staff respondents experience little support.
Communication Communication between members of staff is insufficient.
Negative atmosphere in team.
Cold meal Variation Lack of choice of savoury sandwich filling (meat and cheese)
Hot meal Temperature Meals are frequently too cold
tangible
Portion size Meal size is frequently inadequate; self-portioning seems to be
a solution.
Presentation Little attention paid to way of serving (“thrown onto plate”).
(plate)
Variation Monotonous. Respondents would like more fruit, cabbage salad
(in season), more use of seasonings.
Hot meal Taste and smell Bland, neutral smell, unpleasant smells when cloches are
intangible removed. Little use of spices.
Meat Overcooked and tough.
Vegetables Overcooked, tasteless.
From the qualitative data the negative effects of age on sensory perception become apparent: 21
respondents explicitly express a loss of taste and smell. Two respondents also explicitly mention
a lack of trigger for the intake of food and drinks.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Hypothesis 1: Service clues (functional, mechanical, and humane) can be distinguished as

separate factors in the meal experience.
This hypothesis is supported by the results of our study (see Table 1). Bivariate analysis proved
the importance of humane clues to the overall meal experience. Eating in the company of others
results in higher scores on satisfaction. This result complies with the previously discussed
findings from De Casto (1993), and Feunekes et al. (1995). This study supports the benefits of an
113
integral services clues approach. A better understanding of the residents’ experience can improve
the quality of life, health and weight of elderly. Frequently mentioned points for improvement
cover all three types of service clues: restaurant acoustics, comfort of furniture, the ambiance
(mechanical clues); staff attention and communication (humane clues); the meal itself: portion
size, presentation, variation, and use of spices and seasonings (functional clues). By deducting
the relative importance of these aspects to the residents' experience, institutions can develop or
improve their food concepts to better fit the residents' needs and wishes. Literature supports
need for a better fit between resident and food concept (De Casto, 1993; Feunekes, Van Staveren
& de Graaf, 1995; De Groot, 2002; Van Staveren & de Groot, 2007).
Hypothesis 2: The differentiation between cognitive and affective response to meal experience in
the post experience phase in elderly people is possible.
Hypothesis 2 is not supported by our results. As described in the introduction, the affective
response to meal experience is more difficult to measure - especially in the post experience
phase, and therefore no widely accepted standardized methods exist. The measurement box is not
suitable to measure differences in cognitive and affective response to meal experience in the post
experience phase in elderly people. This could be caused by the selected symbols: weather
symbols might not logically correspond with feelings. A second explanation could be that this
result is caused by the characteristics this specific population. In previous in-depth research
(Pijls, Groen, Oldeman, 2010) on affective responses (using LEM emotions) showed that
questions on emotions in this context were too difficult for this target group. A third explanation
is that respondents are not able to make a distinction between their thoughts and feelings in the
post-experience phase. This would indicate that the box only measures satisfaction - the result of
the affective and cognitive responses.
Hypothesis 3: Experience research requires a combined quantitative and qualitative research

approach.
The present study shows the value of combined qualitative and quantitative research. Qualitative
data helps to identify specific points for improvement (Table 3). Improvement of the experience
requires an effort on all services clues. In situations were regression analysis is not possible,
qualitative data can be used to identify possible relations between item scores.
Overall, this study supports the thesis that understanding the meal experience is important. To
really understand a residents’ meal experience, one needs to address not only aspects related to
the food and drink itself, but also aspects related to the physical environment and interaction with
others. Information on a residents’ affective response remains important. However, this requires
the development of a new measurement tool, either by improving the scales, or by measuring in
the participation phase instead of post-experience measurement.
5. IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

Measurement of affective versus cognitive responses by means of questions and/or images needs
to be further investigated in order to find out whether it is possible to measure affective
responses in the post-experience phase. Literature review suggests that the affective responses do
matter. A new hypothesis for further research is: affective responses can only be measured
during the participation phase. This requires the development of a new method.
114
Regression analysis might result in new insights; however more quantitative data is required. The
present population is very homogenous. To determine the value of the measurement box further
research with different types of populations is relevant.
In this type of research, quantitative data is of added value to explain the relevance of the types
of clues for satisfaction. A better understanding of the residents’ experience can improve the
quality of life, health and weight of elderly. Besides these, understanding meal experience (as
part of the hospitality experience) is important to institutions to distinguish themselves in an
increasingly competitive market.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank IFC.
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culinary concepts on the atmospheric experience and emotions of elderly people.” Paper
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long-term care in the Netherlands: a pilot study with the Consumer Quality Index Long-term
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niet klaar voor toenemende marktwerking in de zorg. Amsterdam: BDO Branchegroep Zorg.
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The Free Press.
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Workspace 2020 - Club, Hub and Co-work space:

business models for optimal FM support for office workers in the future
W.A. Termaat
w.a.termaat@saxion.nl
+31(0)6 209 16 835
H. van Sprang
h.vansprang@saxion.nl
B.H.Groen
b.h.groen@saxion.nl
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the results of a two-year project called Workspace 2020, aimed to develop a
model for the future office workspace. Work preferences are changing; the importance of the
added value of workspace for individual and organizational performance is more and more
recognized. Facility management (FM) should be prepared to offer the right kind of real estate
and service to satisfy the office workers' needs in 2020. Therefore, the central research question
is: what is the optimal FM support for office workers in 2020? Data were collected in 4 phases.
In phase 1 a preliminary vision was drafted, based on extensive literature review and a triple case
study. The subsequent triple validation process during phase 2 and 3 encompassed in-depth
expert interviews, a survey, and in-depth interviews with FM-suppliers. This paper discusses the
key aspects of the future workspace, such as working any place/any time, performance-based
management, freedom of choice, and the increasing importance of networks and communities
(e.g. for the self-employed). Phase 1-3 resulted in a validated vision, describing three options for
the future workspace (beside the traditional office and home office): Cowork space, Hub and
Club. Results indicate that large companies will tend to prefer shared service centres. SME's will
either opt for complete outsourcing or “buy your own FM”. Cowork space, Hub and Club
concepts will create new business opportunities for facility managers in 2020 (phase 4).
Keywords
Workspace strategies, workspace concepts, office workers, business model, new ways of working
1 INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, most organisations experience continuous change. New markets and work processes,
economical developments, changing demographics and new technologies are known drivers for
change. However, technology increases the speed of change and its impact on society results in
what sociologist Zygmunt Bauman refers to as “liquid modernity” (Bauman, 2000). Solid
structures are replaced by flexible and temporary solutions; organisational boundaries fade;
hierarchical structures give way to (temporary) inter-organisational networks and partnerships.
Many of the networks formed in recent years are based more on information than physical assets.
117
One of the distinctions between the industrial economy and the information economy is the
nature of costs (Mauboussin, 2004). Reputation and trust are key issues (SER, 2007). Since
change remains the one constant in the workspace all that is certain is that the workspace of the
future will be very different from that of today. Consequently, the workspace is in a state of
transition, which is having a profound impact upon the way in which organisations plan, design,
finance, occupy, use, and manage the workspace (Saurin et al., 2008). With the rise of (virtual)
network organisations, the facility & real estate management role changes from service provider
and tactical real estate manager to supervisor and strategic manager of “networked business
process systems”. Key words are: connectivity, strategic partnerships, flexible, mobile network
driven work environment, co-operation, and digital (paperless) in both policy and behaviour
(CoRE, 2010).
Work preferences are changing; the importance of the added value of workspace for individual
and organizational performance is more and more recognized (Jensen et al., 2012). As real estate
is relatively static, the solutions to increase adaptability are related to (work)space concepts and
(hospitality) services, business process redesign, legal solutions (FMN & CoreNet Global, 2013).
The work environment in 2020 exceeds building boundaries and includes multi-functional areas
that combine work, housing and leisure. It is important to incorporate societal, technological and
corporate developments, as well as the users’ needs in real estate development (FMN & CoreNet
Global, 2013, p. 6). However, the future workforce is characterised by its diverse nature. In 2020
the population of the Netherlands will have increased but the active workforce will be declined,
despite a higher participation of women (De Jong & Van Duin, 2011; Tucker, 2012). The
majority of the workforce will be Generation X and Y, Baby Boomers are by now retired;
Generation Y's preferences for meaningful, independent work, anywhere and anytime, will
colour the war for talent (Bontekoning, 2011; Eisner, 2005; Lub, 2013); a sizeable number of
professionals will be self-employed; third places and coworking are predicted to become more
important (Spinuzzi, 2013). This has important consequences for office-based work, and calls for
user segmentation and user-centred design in order to have a satisfactory fit between user and
built environment. These market dynamics are the rationale to our main research question:
What is the optimal FM support for office workers in 2020?
This paper presents the results of a two-year project called Workspace 2020, aimed to develop a
business model of FM tailored to the future office workspace. The field research is limited to
Dutch office based organisations (> 50 staff). Between 2011 and 2013, experts and managers
were asked to describe their vision on the future workspace. As predicting the future is no easy
matter, a period of 10 years was chosen, hence the name of the project, 'Workspace 2020'.
2 RESEARCH METHODS
Data were collected in 4 phases, from September 2011 to July 2013 (See Figure 2). In phase 1a
preliminary vision was drafted, based on extensive literature review (1A) and exploratory
research in the business context in 3 organisations (1B). The three case organisations represent
specific sectors (profit, semi-government and government), taking into account the size of the
organization. The subsequent triple validation process during phase 2 and 3 encompassed in-
depth expert interviews (N=16), panel discussions with future user groups (N=45), and a survey
focused at core business perspective. A total of 115 respondents, either working as manager or
staff in HR department (83%) or with a management position, filled in the survey. These
respondents were chosen based on the assumption that they can voice the vision of organisations
as well as employees and management.
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FMC 2014
The maajority wass female (662%). Malee respondents were ssignificantlyy older thaan female
responddents (479 and 3911 years, respeectively; t-teest, p=0.0044). Responddents were w working in
the proffit sector (422%), for thee governmennt (27%), orr for semi-ggovernment organisatioons (30%);
almost oone third of the responndents workk in the Raandstad (32% %), and half of the reespondents
work inn the mid-eeastern proovinces (Geelderland, O Overijssel; 49%). The compositioon of the
responsee shows thaat the HR ddepartmentss delivered significantlly more fem male responndents (2,
p=0.00)), and the m mid-eastern pprovinces ssignificantlyy more menn (χ2, p=0.0220). Furtherrmore, the
distributtion of respoondents oveer profit/sem
mi-
Figure 1: Research framework
governm ment and goovernment w was significantly differeent betweenn the three rregions (χ2, p=0.027),
with semmi-governm ment especiaally located in the mid-eeastern provvinces. The result of phhase 2 and
3 is a vaalidated visiion on Workkspace 20200. In phase 4 these conncepts were translated too business
models using the B Business Moodel Canvass (Osterwaldder & Pigneeur, 2010). The busineess models
were coompleted wiith the inpuut from entrrepreneurs of similar bbusiness cooncepts in thhe current
market (N=20)
( andd panel discuussions withh entrepreneeurs and FM
M en RE connsultants (N= =18).
3 R
RESULTS
This chaapter contaiins – after a short introoduction bassed on the ooutput of phhase 1 - the results of
phase 2,, 3 and 4 of the researchh.
119
3.1 Phase 1
The output of phase 1 was a preliminary vision on Workspace 2020:
Work 2020: The knowledge-based economy will shift to a network-based economy.

Organisations limit themselves to the core business and will be surrounded by flexible peels of
network organisations, experts, and flexible staff. Work will become more project-based, in
changing (external) project teams.
Technological developments and economic crisis will tighten the labour market. Organisations
will aim for less, but higher qualified staff, whose quality will be an important competitive
advantage.
Workspace 2020: New Ways of Working (NWW) will be standard. This trend will cause a rise in
the vacancy rate of office building. Only offices on A-locations will survive. Inner city and
logistically attractive areas will emerge. Multifunctional areas and buildings will be the solution
for the ever- changing demand for work environments. There will be a broader offer of
workspace concepts. Organizations will focus on availability instead of possession. There will
also be more attention for life cycle asset management. In 2020 three workspace concepts
(besides the traditional office and home-office) are identified with future potential:
1. Club: organisations’ headquarters aimed at organizations’ core business; internal focus,
facilitating collaboration and knowledge sharing (part of former traditional office).
2. Hub: regional office for short/mid-term use of space, focused on task performance (solo or
team); compared to the former satellite concept in 2013 this concept is more user centred,
and facilities possibly shared with other (external) companies to improve occupancy rates.
3. Co-workspace (former 3rd place): regional work and meeting space, commercial short/mid-
term rent of workspace, added value: high accessibility and network-centred.
FM 2020: focus on cost reduction will change to maximising added value. Traditional FM will
turn into FM intra- and entrepreneurship. End users will have more influence on the
configuration of their workspace and tools. Buy your own FM will be more and more the
standard. There will be a various offer of business models, depending on the size of the
organisation:
 large (>250 employees) => Shared Service Centres in combination with an increase of
outsourcing of FM activities
 medium (>50 employees) => facility sharing (with other organisations)
 small (<50 employees) => be your own FM
3.2 Work in 2020 (phase 2 and 3)

In 2020, the work force will consist of Generation X (1965-1980), Generation Y (1981-1995),
and Generation Z (>1985) (Eisner, 2005). Generations have been shown to have different needs,
expectations and skills (Bontekoning, 2007; Howe & Strauss, 2007; Lancaster & Stillman, 2005;
Lub, 2013). A shortage of skilled labour is expected, as the younger generations will need to
replace the retired Boomers (CBS, 2010). Increased productivity will not be the sole solution,
and companies may have to compete for talents (Phillips & Roper, 2009; Ware & Grantham,
2003). Furthermore, as life-long employment with one company is decreasing rapidly, and
employees' loyalty to their organisation is being replaced by loyalty to their profession, attracting
and retaining staff will become crucial for business success. Twenge et al. (2010) found
120
Generation Y to be quite self-confident, to have high expectations from their employers, and to
be more likely to leave the organisation if their expectations are not met. In this respect, it is
important to envision workers' preferences for 2020.
Satisfaction with supervisor is an important factor in job satisfaction (Babin & Boles, 1996;
Newsham et al., 2009). One of the characteristics of new ways of work is that employees will
work anywhere/anytime. This requires emphasis on trust in the relationship between an
employee and his/her superior, resulting in performance-based appraisals. Cook and Wall (1980)
define trust as the extent to which one is willing to ascribe good intentions to and have
confidence in the words and actions of other people. According to Van Baalen et al. (2007)
“performance appraisal on results will increasingly become more important within organizations,
whereby it is important that employees feel they are rewarded for their performance." Therefore,
we asked respondents to indicate preferred leadership style for 2020. The majority of the survey
respondents indeed indicated that the preference for 2020 is managing on trust and performance
(70%), with supportive leadership in second position (17%).
In 2020, the importance of networks and communities will increase (Palmer, 2006; SER, 2007;
Johns & Gratton, 2013). To meet the required quality standards and level of flexibility,
temporary teams will be common. Team members are selected on their added value, and will
increasingly be self-employed (Spinuzzi, 2012), or employed by multiple organisations on
smaller contracts. The survey respondents predict that in 2020 20-40% of employees will have a
flexible contract; men predict a higher % of flexible contracts than women (Mann-Whitney,
p=0.016). This increase in flexible contracts is in line with current predictions (European
Commission, 2007; Holtshouse, 2010)).
In 2020, the office worker will enjoy more freedom in exchange for increased responsibilities.
Time and place independent work is standard. This will suit employees' need to balance work
life and home life (Edwards et al., 2006; Sok et al., 2014). Output specification is supported by
IT. A quarter of the respondents predict that all information will be available anytime anywhere,
most state that it will be available partly within and partly outside the office (74%). This has an
enormous impact on cooperation within and between organisations, and on staff recruitment.
Only 3% of survey respondents’ expect staff in 2020 to work on a fixed schedule during office
hours; 74% expects a combined fixed/flexible work schedule. Others (mainly male; 2, p=0,015)
predict that schedules will be completely flexible (See Table 1).
The relative importance of employment conditions is changing, caused by changing labour
contracting. Respondents most value aspects like a pleasant atmosphere at work, and a
meaningful job. Payment comes second. Generation Y is thought to be less loyal towards
employers, and therefore be more inclined to change jobs when quaternary employment
conditions are not fulfilled (Holtshouse, 2010).
The relative importance of employment conditions is changing, caused by changing labour
Table 3: Importance of employment terms and conditions in 2020 (N=115).
Employment Mean Sd
conditions
Primary remuneration 3,85 ,596
Secondary e.g. holidays, leave, lease car, access to training, career 3,64 ,703
prospects
Tertiary in-company facilities: canteen, staff outing, office design, 3,43 ,928
fitness room
Quartary e.g. work atmosphere, meaningful work 4,37 ,705
121
contracting. Respondents most value aspects like a pleasant atmosphere at work, and a
meaningful job. Payment comes second. Generation Y is thought to be less loyal towards
employers, and therefore be more inclined to change jobs when quaternary employment
conditions are not fulfilled (Holtshouse, 2010). ANOVA showed no significant differences in
importance of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th level employment conditions, respectively; the post hoc test
(LSD) revealed that the government is predicted to value 2nd employment conditions lower than
the profit sector (1-sided Anova, LSD; p=0.032) and quartary employment conditions lower than
semi-governmental organisations (1-sided Anova, LSD; p=0.018). There is no moderating effect
of job position, gender, or region.
Conclusions on work in 2020: the increase in flexible schedules and temporary jobs (by choice
of the employee as well as the employer), combined with preferences concerning employment
conditions reflects an increased importance of the quality of the interaction between employees
and organisations. Currently, a sizeable proportion of the workforce has temporary contract, or is
self-employed. This trend will continue. If the predicted shortage of labour will occur, then
employer need to pay attention to quaternary employment conditions to attract and keep
motivated employees.
3.3 Workspace in 2020 (phase 2 and 3)

Gensler’s 2008 Workspace Survey shows that the physical work environment is an asset with a
specific and quantifiable impact on business success: top-performing companies have
significantly higher-performing work environments than average companies. In today’s
environment - where work processes must change quickly in response to customer demand and
competitive pressures - the workspace must be highly agile. “Agility means more than having
buildings and communication technology ready for alternative uses. It means continuously
improving work and the infrastructure that supports it. Agility requires a dynamic relationship
between work processes, the workspace, and the tools of work. Each must respond to changes in
the others. Thus, the agile workspace must be co-invented with work. The agile workspace is
also a system - a bundle of occupancy, connectivity, and managerial services that interact with
the particular work of the organization” (Bell and Joroff, 2003). Contradicting the trend of
globalization, our qualitative research indicates an increased focus on regions and local
communities. Cooperation and co-creating are core aspects in this development. This increased
focus on regional communities may be explained as a counter to urbanisation. Regions like
Zeeland, Limburg and Groningen are faced with a decline in population, against growing urban
areas like the Randstad. This influences the RE strategy of locations for organisations; access to
potential workforce is important in the war for talent.
The added value of the physical workspace is meeting others, sharing knowledge and ideas and
for networking (Van Baalen et al., 2007; Gensler, 2008). Knowledge creation is an important
outcome of collaboration. Research at MIT showed that people were five times more likely to
turn to another individual for information than to search a non-human source such as a file or
database, pointing to the value of interactive work as a business asset. It is estimated that over
70% of what people know about their jobs is gained through everyday interactions with their
colleagues (Gensler, 2008). Appel-Meulenbroek (2010) found that spontaneous informal
interaction is a better predictor for innovation than scheduled formal meetings.
122
Regarding the location of workspace, the in-company office and the home office are predicted to
be used by almost all respondents; working on the road, in the office of clients or partners, and in
third party offices is mentioned by about one third of the respondents. These results show a
number of significant differences between respondents based on position, sector, and region: HR
managers predict a significant higher use of in-company offices, the profit sector has a
significantly higher preference for working on the road and at client's offices, and in the
Randstad network partners and restaurants will be more popular according to the respondents
(Table 2). Due to the fairly conservative view from HRM on the in-company workspace may
have consequences on the speed with which organisations implement new ways of working.
Furthermore, it was expected that profit companies work in remote locations, because they have
a more externally orientation. The higher use of grand cafes and restaurant for to work in the
Randstad is probably caused by the more extensive offer of these kind of establishments.
Table 4: Workspace locations in 2020. P= profit; SG = semi-government; G = government

Location N Position Sector Region
Office in company building 106 ,, p=.026 - -
s(92%) more HR
Home office 96 (84%) - - -
On the road 42 (37%) - , p=0.036, -
P>SG>G
At client's office 46 (40%) -- ,p=0.001, P>SG,G -
Grand cafe or restaurant 21 (18%) - - ,
p=0.024*
Network partners of my 36 (31%) - - ,
company p=0.043**
Third party offices 34 (30%) - - -
* Mostly Randstad; ** More Randstad + Eastern Region
Accessibility by car will not change according to 74% of respondents; significantly more
managers than HR staff predict a deterioration in this accessibility (Mann Whitney, p=0.020).
However, new ways of work are supposed to improve accessibility, a mere 9% of respondents
think that accessibility will decrease. The profit sector is more positive in its answers than
(semi)government (Kruskall-Wallis, 2-sided, p=0.04).
Respondents predict that in 2020 20-40% of employees will have a flexible contract; men predict
a higher % of flexible contracts than women (Mann-Whitney, p=0.016). Only 19% of these
flexible contracts will always have a workspace; more than half of the respondents think that less
than 50% of the flex workers will have a workspace in 2020. There are significant differences
between profit, semi-government and government (Kruskal-Wallis, p=0.004). Representatives
for governmental organisations predicted the lowest number of workspaces for flexible staff.
123
FMC 2014
Figure 22: Present w

work conceppts (2013) Fiigure 3: Workspace conncepts 20200
In 2013 we see a doominant possition of thee traditional office (com mbined withh flexible use of home
office). Larger orgaanisations m may have saatellite offices in the reggion, but w
will share theeir surplus
2
of m , ccaused by thhe decrease in staff, witth for exampple businesss partners. T There is an upcoming
market for businesss complexees: multi-tennant buildinngs with shhort/mid-terrm lease contracts. A
relativelly new devvelopment iis the 3rd place: shorrt term woork (for inddividuals orr business
communnities) and m meeting facilities (max. 1 day), onn highly acceessible locaations like ciity centres
and traiin stations. Figures 2 anda 3 illustrrate the diffferent conceepts in a twwo-axes model: focus
(internaal vs. externaal) and locattion (user driven vs. coommunity drriven).
For 20220, the resullts of this sttudy identiffy the potenntial of new
w workspacee concepts, as well as
the disapppearance of o others:
1. Club: organisattions’ headqquarters aim med at orgganisations’ core businness; internnal focus,
faciliitating collaaboration annd knowledgge sharing (ppart of formmer traditional office).
2. Camppus: collecttion of officces centred around a Club,C focusssed on task performancce (former
tradittional officee).
3. Hub:: regional office for shhort/mid-term m use of sppace, focussed on task performancce (solo or
teamm); comparedd to the form mer satellitee concept in 2013 this cconcept is m
more user ceentred, and
faciliities possiblly shared wiith other (exxternal) com
mpanies to immprove occuupancy rates.
4. Cowork-space ((former 3rd place): regiional work and meetinng space, coommercial short/mid- s
term term rent of workspacee, added vallue: high acccessibility and a networkk centred.
5. Hom me-office (ass an explicit place of woork).
Conclussion on worrkspace 2020: the agile workspace must be coo-invented w with work. IIt supports
a full raange of worrkspaces andd facilitates rapid scalee-up and conntraction. Inn-company and home
office arre predictedd to be used by almost aall respondeents, whereaas working oon the road, in clients'
or partnners' officess, and in tthird party offices aree less used,, with signnificant influuences of
positionn, sector and region. Only
O a smalll part of sttaff workingg on a flexxible contract will be
facilitateed with a workspace. From a F FM perspecctive this m may seem efficient;
e hoowever, it
introducces a seriouus risk for ddiminished creation annd sharing oof knowledgge. As a reesult of an
increaseed importannce of inter-- and intra organisation
o nal networkss, future offfice conceptts in 2020
will havve a strongeer external ffocus, and aan emphasiis on facilitaating and buuilding commmunities.
Not ownnership, butt access to w workspace w will be the focus of the future. In larger orgaanizations,
124
HRM's have a considerable impact on policies regarding workspace. However, their apparently
rather conservative views on workspace may inhibit developments in NWW in these kind of
organisations. Smaller organisations will probably develop at a faster pace.
3.4 FM in 2020 (phase 4)

Once facility - and real estate managers begin to think of the workspace as a bundle of services
dedicated to support the enterprise’s work, and as a network of investment and contractual
arrangements, they can move toward a more holistic view of workspace costs (Termaat, 2011).
All phases - from planning through systems and facilities retirement - are considered. A good
understanding of the added value of the workspace is essential to decide on investment trade-offs
between space and IT, and different degrees of infrastructure outsourcing (Bell & Joroff, 2003;
Jensen et al., 2012; Termaat, 2011). Agility requires that facility and real estate managers focus
on the specifics of work as the driver of workspace design - intertwining their tasks with IT,
HRM, and business processes. After all, real estate is not an end in itself; its only purpose is to
serve the value-creating activities of the enterprise (Jensen et al., 2012).
In 2004 CoreNet Global described the workspace 2010 in a Workspace Strategist Model; the
core characteristic of the model is the integral approach of workspace-related issues. This model
is in accordance with the results of our study: in 2020 larger organisations will prefer to organise
FM, HR, IT and CREM in Shared Service Centres; they will take well-thought make-or-buy
decision, in line with the business strategy. Property Providers should develop new business
models, tailored to the needs of availability rather than ownership. Current PPPs are a good
example of such business models.
The present study indicates a preference in smaller organisations for a different concept: ‘Buy
your own FM’: users are provided with a personal FM budget – to be spent on workspace, IT,
transportation, and tools. This enhances a staff members’ freedom of choice, and is a way to
respond to workforce diversity. Providers of work and network sites have a great future.
Providing an inspiring working environment and continuous innovation are key success factors,
with an increasingly important role for the hospitality industry and active participation of user
communities. In phase 4 (Figure 2) the Club, Hub and Cowork space concepts have been
translated to Canvas business models (see Table 3), each requiring a different role for FM. In the
cowork space the facility manager acts as an entrepreneur in hospitality; for the Hub (s)he to
supports and facilitates hospitality; in the Club (s)he is host and organisation-based director of
hospitality.
Conclusions on FM 2020: Agility requires that facility and real estate managers focus on the
specifics of work as the driver of workspace design - intertwining what they do with IT, HRM,
and business processes. In 2020 larger organisations will prefer to organise FM, HR, IT and
CREM in Shared Service Centres. Smaller organisations will embrace ‘Buy your own FM’.
Providers of work and network sites have a great future. Providing an inspiring working
environment and continuous innovation are key success factors, with an increasingly important
role for the hospitality industry and active participation of user communities. Three concepts
with great potential for the future are: Cowork space, Hub, and Club.
125
FMC 2014
Tablle 5: Busineess model C

Canvas for coo-work spacce, Hub andd Club.
4 C
CONCLUS SIONS
The workplace is iin a state off transition. This reseaarch reports on a 2-yeaar project innto current
visions on Worksppace 2020, based on liiterature revview, experrt interview ws, panel discussions,
case stuudies, and a survey am mong HR prrofessionals and managgers. Those involved are a mostly
users off corporate offices, nott visionariess; they are aware of cuurrents trendds, maybe uup-to-date
with neew concepts, but theirr views maay be ratheer colouredd by alreaddy existing trends in
workspaace. Their vviews are a valuable source of innformation oon what willl happen inn the near
future, bbut their insight in out-oof-the-box cconcepts is llimited.
In 20200 larger orgaanisations w will prefer tto organise FM, HR, IT T and CRE EM in Shareed Service
Centres, with a weell-thought make-or-buuy decision. Smaller oorganisations will embrrace ‘Buy
your owwn FM’ as a response to t workforcce diversity and need fo for freedom of choice aas to how,
when annd where staaff works. P Providers off work and network sitees have a grreat future. Providing
an inspiiring workinng environm ment and coontinuous innovation aare key succcess factorss, with an
increasingly imporrtant role for the hoospitality inndustry annd active pparticipationn of user
communnities. Threee concepts with great potential for fo the futurre are: Cow
work space, Hub, and
Club. EEach conceppt requires a different rrole for FM M: in the co--workspace the facilityy manager
acts as an entrepreneur in hoospitality oor communiity managerr; the Hub requires thhe facility
manager to supportt and facilittate a busineess-like worrking enviroonment by providing
p h
hospitality;
in the C
Club the faccility managger is the hoost and orgganisation-baased directoor of hospittality. The
126
task of a facility manager will remain, but question is, do we call them facility 'managers'?
Maybe it's better to speak of 'facility professionals': same knowledge, but no more fixed roles.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank all respondents and FM students that participated; Achmea,
Tennet, draaijer+partners, and Facility Management Nederland for supporting this research. A
special thank you to dr. D.J.M. van der Voordt for his critical reviews and sharing of knowledge.
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128
Contribution of facility management to hospital(ity) issues
B.H. Groen
b.h.groen@saxion.nl
+31(0)645594501
ABSTRACT
Purpose: Changes in financing induce Dutch hospitals to become more market-driven; they aim
at high customer (patient) satisfaction. Therefore, hospitals put more and more emphasis on
hospitality. A hospital stay involves more than medical treatment: a bed to sleep in, a room, food
and drink, and interaction with medical and facility staff. What aspects of a hospital stay are
related most to hospitality according to patients?
Theory: definitions of hospitality, including the four dimensions of hospitality as formulated by
Brotherton; added value of FM in healthcare.
Design/methodology/approach: three surveys among patients of two Dutch hospitals, regarding
aspects of hospitality. First, patients were asked to rate hospital staff on behavioural aspects
related to hospitality. In a second survey patients were asked to select characteristic aspects of
hospitality. Third, interviews and a survey in a third hospital showed which aspects of hospitality
patients most value.
Findings: indicate that aspects of hospitality are valued by patients in hospitals, and that
hospitality contributes to patient satisfaction. Behavioural aspects are relevant for all staff,
including FM staff. Tangible aspects of hospitality, including coffee, rooms/spaces and
reception, represent typical FM functions. Therefore, these represent added value of FM in
hospital environments.
Originality/value: the results contribute to an evidential definition of hospitality in health care.
Keywords
health care, hospitality, patient satisfaction and experience
1 INTRODUCTION
Facility management (FM) is a relatively new profession (Alexander, 2009). It is a divers field
(Grimshaw, 2003), covering a wide range of processes, services, activities, and facilities.
According to the CEN (European Committee for Standardization, 2009) 'Facility Management is
the integration of processes within an organization to maintain and develop the agreed services
which support and improve the effectiveness of its primary activities'. According to Friday and
Cotts (1995) these are e.g. accommodation, maintenance, cleaning, security and reception,
utilities, internal decoration, signage, and catering. It can be argued that facility support for
organisations is based on a collection of more or less specialised technical and service-related
tasks which are not part of the primary process, but which are essential for the functioning of this
primary process. The importance of insight into the contribution of FM in general is recognised
in FM literature (Becker and Parson, 2007); FM can contribute to space and services (basic
products), with impact on (among others) staff and customers (Jensen et al., 2010).
Hospitals in the Netherlands are government-funded, and divided into academic, top-clinical and
general hospitals. Total costs for healthcare were 90 billion Euros in 2011 (Gezondheid in zorg
129
en cijfers, 2012). The position of the patient in Dutch health care has been evolving since the
1980s. Patient rights became prominent during the 1980s and 1990s, but since the millennium
patients are more and more seen as consumers (Grit et al., 2009). In the present market,
patients/consumers with a restitution health care policy may freely choose their providers. In the
case of a policy based on direct payment, people may choose from a -usually- comprehensive list
of contracted providers. This theoretically leads to competition between hospitals and
practitioners, for insurance contracts as well as for patients (Delnoij, 2010); this creates a need
for comparative information concerning aspects like quality and costs of care, effectiveness and
safety of health services, access and availability, waiting times, and information (Delnoij et al.,
2010). So, patients have become important players expected to make independent and rational
choices (Grit et al., 2008) and as a result, the sector needs to become more market-driven (RVZ,
2006; Rotscheid & Diepstraten, 2007). Therefore, hospitals are aiming at high customer (patient)
satisfaction, to ensure return visits (Clark et al., 2007). Word-of-mouth is one of the factors that
influences hospital selection; people choose a hospital based on information obtained from their
general practitioner (42%) and, to a lesser extent, friends and relatives (11.4%), leaflets (7.8%),
the hospital web site (7.5%) or the specialist (3.4%) (Schaefer et al., 2007). Patient satisfaction
concerns medical treatment as well as a hotel function (Oz, 1991), and both functions play a role
in the competition between hospitals. Research has shown that patient satisfaction regarding non-
medical aspects of a hospital stay have a large effect on overall satisfaction. "Customers
naturally look for clues that can help explain what they don't understand or see" (Berry &
Bendapudi, 2004). Facility management may well deliver clues that patients interpret as evidence
of the quality of medical care, and thereby increase patient satisfaction.
Indeed, according to Prevosth and Van der Voordt (2011), Dutch hospitals see added value of
facility management (FM) in healthcare primarily with respect to customer- and job satisfaction,
with productivity and lowering costs in second and third place. Appropriate measures to increase
satisfaction are: hospitality, realizing a functional, pleasant, and comfortable environment, and a
healthy indoor climate and high-quality services. Other potential values of FM, namely risk
management, value of real estate, flexibility, organizational culture, image, innovation,
sustainability, and healing environment were considered less important.
Hospitals do show an increasing focus on hospitality (King, 1995; Severt et al., 2008). Patients
more and more expect to be treated as customers, as individuals, also in healthcare, and hospitals
use hospitality to profile themselves. Dutch hospitals may join the competition 'Hospitality with
stars'5. This despite the obvious fact that hospitals are not part of the hospitality industry: motives
to visit a hospital are usually need not leisure, and an obligation not a choice. The patient (not
client or customer) relinquishes (part of his/her) autonomy, and will rely to a smaller or larger
extent on the physical, social and medical hospital environment. Uncertainty, fear, discomfort,
and pain, combined with a loss of privacy: hospitality in a hospital environment is alike but not
identical to hospitality in the traditional hospitality industry. The reductionism of the medical
world needs to be balanced by a holistic hospitable approach. However, the content and meaning
of hospitality is still a matter of debate, in the hospitality industry, but also in healthcare. So what
is hospitality?
"A contemporaneous human exchange, which is voluntarily entered into, and designed to
enhance the mutual wellbeing of the parties concerned through the provision of accommodation
and food or drink". (Brotherton, 1999)
5
http://www.zorgmetsterren.nl
130
"A balanced combination of (1) the material product in a narrow sense, (2) the behaviour and
attitude of the employees who come in direct contact with the guests, and (3) the environment
(the accommodation)" (Reuland et al., 1985)
"(1) It is conferred by a host on a guest who is away from home. (2) It is interactive, involving
the coming together of a provider and receiver. (3) It is comprised of a blend of tangible and
intangible factors. (4) The host provides for the guest’s security, psychological and physiological
comfort" (Hepple, Kipps and Thomson, 1990)
Especially the definition by Hepple et al. (1990) seems suitable for a hospital environment.
Furthermore, these definitions show that hospitality is behaviour and attitude, but also tangibles
like accommodation and food. Brotherton and Wood (2008) have suggested that hospitality
comprises four dimensions: spatial, temporal, behavioural and physical. In healthcare these
would be the hospital itself, the occasion (e.g. making an appointment, a consultation, short stay,
long stay), staff behaviour (medical and FM staff), and the physical environment and services
provided, respectively. Many of the tangible factors (accommodation, food and drink,
cleanliness) are taken care of by FM. The dimensions behaviour and attitude refer medical as
well as FM staff.
Literature on hospitality refers to guests. Could the patient be considered to be a guest? Telfer
(1996) has developed a classification of guests, in which the second type of guest is the most
interesting one for this research: 'those in need'. She even uses the term “good-Samaritan
hospitality”. Her point of view is that hospitality includes “a psychological need of a kind which
can be met particularly well by hospitality, such as loneliness or the need to feel valued as an
individual”. Therefore, patients may be considered to be guests of a hospital. However, many
discussions on the nature of hospitality mention that the stranger must be transformed from
potential threat to ally by the offer of hospitality. Hospitality then serves as a means for the host
and guest to protect both from hostility. In a hospital setting, it is primarily the patients that need
to be protected, and true hospitality might be a suitable means.
Brotherton (2005) and Brotherton and Wood (2008) have researched which words customers
associate with hospitality in the traditional hospitality industry. They have shown the
applicability of the four dimensions of hospitality in these settings. This paper will expand their
research to hospital settings, to determine which aspects (whether physical or behavioural)
convey the feeling of hospitality. Thereby, this paper aims to contribute to an evidential
definition of hospitality, and to optimization of (the added value of) hospitality in hospitals.
Implications for facility management will be suggested.
2 METHODS
The quantitative, cross-sectional study was conducted in two academic (AC) hospitals (AC1,
Short stay and day treatment, N=92, response rate 30%; AC2, Radiology, N=509, response rate
64%), and one top clinical (TC) hospital (TC, Short stay, initial measurement with N=102,
response rate 76%; Short stay second measurement N=92, response rate 55%; Dietetics and
Physiotherapy, N=165, response rate 73%). The survey was developed based on the Experience
indicator from Senta Multisensory Concepting and a pilot in a regional hospital. It was adapted
to the local situation in each hospital involved. Students of the Hospitality Business School and
the School of Health visited the departments involved during 3 weeks, and handed out the survey
to all patients in person in the waiting areas or on the ward. The survey was self-administered,
but patients could ask for assistance. The survey contained questions on patient characteristics,
e.g. gender, satisfaction and experience of staff behaviour (and satisfaction with services and
131
facilities, which is not the topic of this paper), in the pre-admission phase, reception, stay, and
aftercare. Question could be answered on a 7-point Likert scale (AC1, TC) or 5-point scale
(AC2) ranging from 'very negative' to 'very positive', or from 'to a very small extent' to 'to a very
large extent', or a semantic scale; surveys also contained a limited number of open questions on
hospitality. Closed questions were analyzed with SPSS 21. Open questions were analyzed with
content analysis, using open and axial coding. Codes can refer to either manifest or latent content
(Graneheim and Lundman, 2004). Open codes were quantified.
The study at AC2 was supplemented with 8 in-depth interviews with patients from the Radiology
department; the transcripts of the interviews were analyzed using open and axial coding, using
the themes and subthemes developed during the analysis of the open survey questions.
3 RESULTS
The surveys for AC1 and TC (Short stay, both measurements) asked respondents to rate a
number of characteristics concerning approach by nurses, medical staff, cleaning staff, and
catering staff, on a 7-point Likert scale (1=very low - 7=very high). A number of words
representing characteristics commonly associated with hospitality were selected for the survey,
(see e.g. Brotherton, 2005). Ratings were high, with very few respondents scoring any of the
characteristics below 4 (see example in Table 1). Differences between scores for individual
characteristics were too small to draw conclusions on importance of these characteristics. There
are differences between the mean scores for nurses, medical staff, cleaning staff, and room
service staff, as well as between hospitals. However, these differences were small and most times
not significant; inter-hospital comparison was complicated by the fact that the selection of
characteristics measured varied between the three measurements (due to preferences of the
departments in the hospitals were the survey was carried out, see Table 2).
The value of these ratings for insight in hospitality was therefore limited, and did not enable
determining which characteristics are typical for hospitality in healthcare. To determine whether
the characteristics could be described with a limited number of concepts factor analysis was
applied to the data for the TC (combined measurements). However, factor analysis (principal
component analysis, KMO 0.841, Bartlett Sig. 0.00, 48% variance explained) for combined
measurement at DZ Short stay showed that all characteristics for nurses loaded as one single
factor.
To determine which aspects patients associate with hospitality, the survey for the patients for
Dietetics and Physiotherapy contained a question asking patients to choose 3 out of 11 items (see
Table 3). The sample for TC consisted of 165 patients (Dietetics and Physiotherapy; outpatients
as well as clinical patients). 'Taking adequate time' was selected by 53% of the respondents, next
came items on listening and involvement. Quality of care came fourth. Freedom of choice and
recognizing the patient were hardly chosen) (see Table 3). As patient characteristics like gender
Table 1: Respondents in AC1 rated a number of characteristics of nursing staff on 7-point Likert scale,
ranging from 1 (very low) to 7 (very high). Frequencies, mean and S.D. are shown.
Score on 7-point Likert scale N Mean and S.D.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Polite 1 1 26 60 88 6.65  0,57
Friendly 1 2 27 61 90 6.64  0,57
Helpful 1 2 26 61 90 6.63  0,59
Trustworthy 2 28 58 88 6.61  0,62
132
Hospitable 1 1 29 57 88 6,61  0,58

Involved 1 2 31 53 86 6.56  0,60
Feeling safe with staff 1 1 31 50 83 6.55  0,65
Professional 6 28 52 86 6.53  0,63
Expertise 3 4 27 52 86 6.49  0,75
Trusting staff 1 1 37 43 82 6.48  0,65
Quality of contact 3 2 32 46 83 6.46  0,72
Personal approach 5 3 27 53 88 6.45  0,72
Speed 4 5 32 44 85 6.36  0,80
Recognition 2 3 3 31 46 85 6.36  0,90
Sum of scores 75 6.51  0,61
and age are known to influence patient satisfaction, we checked the influence of these
characteristics. Mean age of the sample was 51 ± 21 years, men were significantly older then
women (56 ± 21 and 48 ± 21, respectively; T-test, p=0.013). For the analysis, patients were
grouped into four generations, namely Traditionalists, Baby Boomers, Generation X and
Generation Y (Eisner, 2005). The sample showed significant differences between the distribution
of men and women over the generations (2, p=0.032), and outpatients differed significantly
from clinical patients with respect to generation (2, p=0.00). There were no significant
differences between men and women, or patients from Dietetics and Physiotherapy, but
outpatients mentioned 'respect' more then clinical patients (2, p=0.016). Furthermore, there were
significant differences regarding the importance of 'be involved' and 'be polite' between patients
from different generations. Generation X (born between 1981 and 1995) valued involvement less
and politeness more than the other generations (2, p=0.036 and p=0.024).
The survey for the Radiology Department (AC2) contained an open question, asking patients to
describe the meaning of hospitality as well as pointes for improvement of aspects thereof
(approach, services, and physical space); 239 patients answered the question.
Table 2: Average scores for nursing staff, medical staff, room service and cleaning staff on characteristics
like politeness, friendliness and trustworthiness; results from 3 separate measurements.
AC1 Mean and N
S.D.
Nurses 6.51  75 polite, friendly, helpful, trustworthy, hospitable,
0.68 involved, secure, professional, expertise, personal
approach, speed, recognizable, quality of contact
Medical 6.32  72 polite, friendly, helpful, trustworthy, hospitable,
specialists 0.97 involved, secure, professional, expertise, personal
approach, speed, recognizable, quality of contact, clear,
involved,
Room service 6.39  72 polite, helpful, professional, expertise, speed,
0.74 recognizable
Cleaning staff 5.64  40 polite, helpful, professional, expertise, speed,
1.09 recognizable,
133
TC, Short stay, Mean and N

first measurement S.D.
Nurses 6.29  96 polite, friendly, helpful, trustworthy, hospitable,
0.44 involved, expertise, approach, recognizable, not hurried,
Medical 6.37  102 expertise, approach, not hurried, attitude,
specialists 0.54
Room service 6.33  97 polite, friendly, helpful, hospitable, expertise, approach,
0.60 personal approach, recognizable, not hurried,
Cleaning staff 6.35  57 polite, friendly, hospitable, expertise, recognizable, not
0.53 hurried,
TC, Short stay, Mean and N

second S.D.
measurement
Nurses 5.96  88 polite, friendly, trustworthy, hospitable, involved, not
0.42 hurried, expertise, recognizable,
Medical 6.06  0.6 80 expertise, not hurried, approach, attitude,
specialists
Room service 6.00  87 polite, friendly, helpful, trustworthy, hospitable,
0.36 involved, professional, not hurried, recognizable,
Cleaning staff 5.50  45 polite, friendly, hospitable, professional, not hurried,
0.83 recognizable
These data do show which aspects of hospitality are valued by patients. Within the behavioural
dimension patients valued 'being taken care of' highest: be helpful, to set at rest, reassure, to set
at ease, words that indicate that patients are insecure and need guidance during their hospital
stay.
The second most mentioned aspect is friendliness, followed by reception, respect, adequate
information, and empathy. Patients value the reception at the hospital, the feeling of being
welcome. They require adequate information on what is going to happen, delivered by friendly
staff, that respects them as people. Many respondents wrote down that they did not want to be
considered a number. Empathy is scored decidedly less than friendliness.
Aspects of space and facilities were also mentioned, but less often. Two aspects stood out in
these responses. First of all, the availability of coffee, in waiting areas, for visitors and for
inpatients. Second, that spaces are adequate, also for those using wheelchairs or walkers. This
again refers to patients' wish to be seen as persons that need to be taken care of.
Table 3: Patients' selection of words describing 'hospitality'; they selected 3 out of 11 items (TC, Dietetics
and Physiotherapy, N=165).
N=165 Rank Total Total (%)
Taking adequate time 1 87 53
Listen to the patient 2 66 40
Be involved 3 60 36
Good (medical) care 4 56 34
Be friendly 5 54 33
134
Attention 6 49 30
Showing respect 7 37 22
Be helpful 8 34 21
Being polite 9 32 19
Giving freedom of choice 10/11 7 4
Recognize the patient 10/11 7 4
When compared to the results of Brotherton (2005) and Brotherton and Wood (2008), it is clear
that their four dimensions are suitable to categorize the aspects mentioned by patients, especially
the behavioural and physical dimension (the spatial dimension being the hospital, and the
temporal being the consultation). In both hospital and hospitality industry the behavioural
dimension is most important. However, 'taking care of the patient, be helpful, to set at rest,
reassure, to set at ease' and 'respect for patient as individual, respect for privacy' seem to be
specific for healthcare, whereas 'friendliness' and 'empathy, warmth, attention, to listen, to show
understanding and interest, involvement' appear to be general characteristics. Furthermore, the
physical dimension is more often mentioned in the hospital environment. Cleanliness and
comfort are general characteristics, but signage/routing, transportation and planning not.
Furthermore, providing adequate information seems typical for the healthcare setting. Kleefstra
et al. (2010) have measured patient satisfaction in Dutch academic hospitals. They showed that
information provided by nurses upon admission and reception at the ward were the most
important aspects of the admission procedure. Furthermore, satisfaction with nursing staff is
determined by the way nurses helped patients when asked for help, and in general how nurses
approached patients. Also approachability of hospital staff in case of questions, clarity of
information as well as the amount of information were found to be important aspects
contributing to patient satisfaction. Though the research by Kleefstra et al. (2010) was aimed at
patient satisfaction, it could be argued that the aspects mentioned in Table 4 (and 3) refer to
aspects of hospitality.
Table 4: Aspects related to hospitality, mentioned in interviews and survey at
Radiology department. Numbers in column 'interviews' refer to interviewees.
Numbers in column 'survey' refer to number of respondents that mentioned
this aspect in open questions.
Theme within Subtheme Interviews Survey
dimension
Dimension: Behaviour
Approach taking care of the patient, be helpful, to set at 1,1,2,3,3,3,4,4, 72x
rest, reassure, to set at ease 5,6,7
friendliness 3,3,7,8 51x
respect for patient as individual, respect for 3,3,5,6 25x
privacy
empathy, warmth, attention, to listen, to show 3,6 25x
understanding and interest, involvement
reception 4,5,6,7 23x
taking time 5 6x
kind, agreeable 1 6x
eye contact, address, smile, handshake 3,3,4,4,5,7 5x
135
Dimension: Physical
Information providing adequate and honest information 1,1,1,3,4,7 22x
(understandable)
opportunity to ask questions - 4x
Planning, planning itself and waiting time; efficient and 1,1,1,2,7 10x
waiting time quick procedures
Transport e.g. (inadequate) equipment for transport 1,1 2x
Signage, 1,1,4,5,5,7 4x
walking
distances
Medical care quality of care, trusting the doctor 2,2 5x
Facilities coffee 1,2,3,5,6 8x
Rooms and size (toilet, changing room, waiting room, 1,1,2,2,3,5,5,6 1x
spaces locker)
ambiance (colours, tidiness, clean) 1,3,3,5,5,7 6x
furniture 1 1x
other 5,5 2x
Lashley et al. (2005) researched whether people were able to recognize hospitality experiences as
being genuine in commercial as well as domestic settings. When asked to recollect memorable
meal experiences, the ratio commercial/domestic was 50/50: "interestingly, both appeared to be
recognized as having authenticity, though the language of domestic hospitality was used to
evaluate experiences in commercial settings. Emotional requirements to feel safe and secure,
welcome and genuinely valued dominate the assessment of authenticity in both settings." The
stranger must be transformed from potential threat to ally by the offer of hospitality. Hospitality
then serves as a means for the host and guest to protect both from hostility.
4 CONCLUSION
The objective of this paper was to contribute to an evidential definition of hospitality. Patients
were asked what they associate with hospitality in a hospital setting. Results were interpreted
using the four dimensions of hospitality proposed by Brotherton (2005). Results show that open
questions regarding hospitality provide more useful answers than closed survey questions.
Furthermore, the behavioural dimension was most often mentioned. Behaviour that provides
reassurance, and shows respect for the patient as an individual person seems both important and
specific for the perception of hospitality in a hospital; the hospital patient is indeed an example
of Telfer's type second type of guest, 'those in need'. Friendliness and attention are also
important, but these are general characteristics. All behaviours may refer to medical as well as
FM staff.
The physical dimension in hospitals showed to be an essential element for the perception of
hospitality. Patients mentioned e.g. cleanliness and tidiness, comfort, the availability of coffee.
Furthermore, during the interviews patients often mentioned that spaces are adequate for those
patients that need a wheelchair or walker.
Added value of FM may concern realizing a functional, pleasant, and comfortable environment
(the physical dimension), and behaviour that makes patients feel at ease, and valued as an
individual. This will reinforce the feeling of safety, an important aspect of hospitality in a
hospital.
136
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank all students that have contributed to this research.
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138
SECTION FIVE:
MANAGING INFRASTRUCTURE AND SPACE
Introduction
Managing infrastructure and space
Antje Junghans
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
Papers
Selection of Key Performance Indicators for Engineering Facilities in Commercial

Buildings: A Focus Group Study in Hong Kong
Chun Sing Man and Hung Kit Joseph Lai.
Maintenance Expenditures of Technical Building Facilities in the Public Sector

Jens Helge Bossmann, Carolin Bahr and Kunibert Lennerts.
Evidence-Based Design in Learning Environments: A practical framework for project

briefing
Matti Sivunen, Jere Viljanen, Suvi Nenonen and Juho-Kusti Kajander.
139
Introduction
MANAGING INFRASTRUCTURE AND SPACE
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Antje Junghans
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
Introduction
The management of infrastructure and space is a classic scope of tasks in the facilities
management (FM) discipline. Over the past twenty years the perspective has become more
strategic. In the 1990s FM researchers studied mainly the efficiency of operation- and
maintenance processes, the optimisation of work space, and the improvement of cost- and
resource efficiency. Current research considers also qualitative requirements of space
development for organisational needs and changing user demands. The efficient operation and
maintenance of buildings and technical systems has a long tradition within disciplines like
architecture and engineering. FM research is in general more interdisciplinary with the intention
to support and improve the primary activities of organisations. Qualitative aspects as well as a
live-cycle perspective of facilities and services are becoming increasingly important in addition
to the development of cost- and resource efficient solutions.
Man and Lai have an academic background in building services engineering. They present a
systematic approach for the identification of Key performance indicators (KPI). Major
performance aspects of engineering facilities were studied and evaluated in five categories:
physical; financial; task and equipment related; environmental; and health, safety and legal. The
objective of the conducted focus group studies with FM professionals was to identify the most
relevant KPIs and to develop a holistic assessment scheme for performance assessment in
operation and maintenance. The research was conducted with focus on engineering facilities of
commercial buildings in Hong Kong.
In the research focus of the second paper by Bossmann, Bahr and Lennerts are maintenance
efforts of public buildings in Germany. The authors consider the public facilities managers as
being permanently requested to reduce maintenance costs but still having to guarantee the
functional capability of public buildings at all times. The presented research is based on
statistical analyses of building- and maintenance-cost- data with focus on the technical
infrastructures and building services systems. The objective of the paper is to contribute to the
development of a new calculation method. This method shall be used for the calculation of
maintenance cost and help to plan and control the needed budgets.
FM includes all life-cycle phases of buildings like planning, design, construction, use and
operation. The early design stage of school buildings is in the focus of the third paper by Sivunen
et al. The authors intend to implement evidence based design (EBD) as contribution to briefing
methods for the development of school buildings. They develop an EBD matrix which shall help
building owners to improve the quality of schools as learning environments. The Finnish
researchers have studied the relationships between design strategies and outcomes. Background
for this study was literature research and the conduction of a workshop. Finally a conception for
a model is proposed.
140
Selection of Key Performance Indicators for Engineering Facilities in

Commercial Buildings: A Focus Group Study in Hong Kong
Chun Sing Man

Department of Building Services Engineering
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
m.c.sing@connect.polyu.hk
852 3400 3610
Joseph Hung Kit Lai

Department of Building Services Engineering
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
joseph.lai@polyu.edu.hk
ABSTRACT
Effective use of performance evaluation enables facilities managers to monitor the quality of
facilities management works, identify areas of deficiencies, and communicate the business value
of their actions to their organizations. Existing performance assessment schemes in the building
sector in Hong Kong, however, are mainly focused on one or some of the physical, technical and
environmental performance aspects of buildings. In order to develop a holistic evaluation scheme
that covers the essential performance aspects of engineering facilities in commercial buildings, a
study comprising multiple stages of research work has been commenced. The primary purpose of
this paper is to report the findings of a focus group study, which aimed to identify key
performance indicators (KPIs) that are critical to assessing the major performance aspects of
engineering facilities in commercial buildings: physical; financial; task and equipment related;
environmental; and health, safety and legal. Through the interactive discussion and exchange of
opinions among the focus group participants, the major factors affecting their selection of KPIs
were revealed. The common practice of facilities operation and maintenance, which influenced
their views on which among the KPIs should be shortlisted, was identified. The further works
needed to cream off the most useful KPIs and find out their importance weights were also
suggested.
Keywords
Commercial buildings, engineering facilities, focus group, Hong Kong, key performance
indicators.
1 INTRODUCTION
It is famous that commercial buildings in Hong Kong have high sale and rental values. A
substantial amount of input resources is required to ensure proper operation, maintenance and
management of the engineering facilities in commercial buildings in order to support the core
activities. Therefore, it is necessary to assess the performance of the facilities in order to show
whether, and to what extent the resources are used effectively.
It is well recognized that facilities performance assessment enables monitoring the output quality
of works, highlight opportunities for improvement, detect problems, and derive corresponding
solutions (Horenbeek and Pintelon, 2014). Without appropriate performance assessments,
141
undetected underperformance of the facilities would adversely affect the commercial operations
of the buildings and even lead to enormous financial losses, negative impacts on the
environment, or health and safety threats to the building end users.
Although there have been some studies and assessment schemes pinpointing at some
performance aspects (e.g. energy, environmental) of engineering facilities in existing commercial
buildings, a holistic scheme that can measure the performance of the facilities over a wide range
of operation and maintenance (O&M) facets is yet to be available.
A significant volume of literature, which covers a variety of KPIs for reflecting different
performance aspects of engineering facilities, has been published. Synthesizing a consolidated
list of KPIs from such publications is not only extensive, but would also include performance
metrics that are redundant. Furthermore, it is practically unfeasible to monitor or measure all of
the available indicators (Horenbeek and Pintelon, 2014; Kumar, 2006). As such, there is a need
to categorize the indicators to avoid redundancy and to facilitate selection of KPIs based on the
perspective of relevant stakeholders.
This paper reports on a focus group study, which aimed to identify KPIs that are critical to
assessing five major performance aspects of engineering facilities in commercial buildings in
Hong Kong. Covered in the following include the major factors affecting the selection of the
KPIs, and a discussion on the common practice of facilities operation and maintenance that
influenced the focus group participants in shortlisting the relatively more important KPIs.
Finally, suggestions are given for the further works needed for completing the establishment of
the holistic performance scheme.
2 PERFORMANCE INDICATORS IDENTIFIED

At the initial phase of the study, a desktop review of the relevant literature had been conducted
(Man et al., 2013). Among the findings of that review, 71 performance indicators that are
relevant to measuring the performance of engineering facilities had been identified. In order to
enable effective management and reporting of performance, systemic categorization of
performance indicators is necessary. Having considered the classifications of KPIs of various
sources (British Standards Institution, 2007; Gilleard and Wong, 2004; Lavy et al., 2010;
Muchiri et al., 2011; Parida and Chattopadhyay, 2007; Shohet, 2006), a consolidated
classification was adopted. In the current study, the performance indicators were classified into
five categories according to their functionalities and interpretations, namely physical (P),
financial (F), task and equipment related (T), environmental (E), and health, safety and legal (H)
(see Figure i). A summary of these indicators is shown in the appendix.
The group of physical indicators represents the physical quality of services delivered by the
engineering facilities. While reflecting the feelings or perceptions of end-users, the quality of the
services impacts on the customers’ satisfaction. Financial indicators are those indicators related
to costs and expenditures associated with O&M works for the facilities. Task and equipment
related indicators are those indicators that can reflect how well the equipment are operated and
maintained, and whether O&M tasks are effectively managed and implemented. Environmental
indicators measure the impact of the facilities’ operations on the environment. Health, safety and
legal indicators reflect how well the facility management (FM) team has done in safeguarding
the health and safety of the building occupants as well as its performance in avoiding legal costs
arising from any malpractices of facilities operation and maintenance.
142
FMC 2014
Five categoriies of KPIs.

Figure i F
3 F
FOCUS GR ROUP DISCUSSION
After thhe literature review, a focus group meeting waas convenedd, with an aaim of shorttlisting the
importaant and usefful KPIs am mong the 71 indicators. Participatedd in the meeeting was a group of
highly experienced
e FM professsionals in Hong
H Kong.
At the bbeginning off the meetinng, the convvenor explainned to the pparticipants the definitioon of each
of the iindicators. Then the pparticipants were requeested to ratte the impoortance leveel of each
indicatoor using a fiive-point sccale: from “1” (very low w) to “5” (vvery high), and vote onn whether
the indicators shouuld be incorpporated intoo the assesssment schem me. Indicatoors supporteed by over
half of the
t professiionals were shortlisted. Moreover, the importance levels of the indiccators and
their feaasibility in rreal-world applications
a were analyzzed in the seelection proocess.
The parrticipants weere further ffacilitated too discuss the usefulnesss of the indicators and they were
asked too share theiir experiencces in usingg the indicaators includding, for exaample, any problems
with reccording or rretrieval of the data reequired for figuring ouut the indicaators. They were also
free to bbrainstorm aand suggestt any other iindicators thhat were nott covered inn the list of indicators
providedd.
4 F
FINDINGS S AND DISCUSSION
4.1 B
Backgroun nd of the foccus group participants
p s
Seven FMF professiionals in Hong Kong participated
p d in the focuus group meeting.
m Fivve of them
were working for some privaate companiies and twoo were workking for noon-governmeent public
organizaations. Theiir principal job nature w was manageement of enngineering ffacilities in buildings.
Two of them were directors off engineerinng, and the rrest were: one o chief enggineer, two managers
and twoo assistant mmanagers. Inn commerciaal buildings of Hong Koong, managgement of enngineering
facilities is typicallly a major F FM functionn. FM profeessionals oftten need to take care of a mix of
hard andd soft FM isssues. The workw experiience of the focus groupp participannts ranged beetween 14
and 31 years, and the types of commerciial premisess they had m managed inncluded: offiice, retail,
hotel annd restaurantt.
4.2 S
Shortlistedd KPIs
On top of the 71 listed perfoormance inddicators, thrree additionnal perform mance indicaators were
suggesteed by the fofocus group participants, namely ratio r of totaal O&M cosst to buildinng income
(F0), avvailability off fire servicces system (T28a),
( and availabilityy of lift (T28b). Througgh a series
of discuussions and exchanges of opinionss among thee participantts, 17 out off all the 74 indicators
were shhortlisted forr use under the scheme. A summarry of the shoortlisted inddicators wass shown in
Table 1. The decisiions of shorrtlisting thesse indicatorss were not m merely basedd on their immportance
143
levels, but also the feasibility and usefulness of the indicators in actual applications. Table 1 also
shows the main reasons raised by the focus group for shortlisting the indicators. In terms of
quantity, the majority of the 17 KPIs were dominated by task and equipment related indicators.
Table 1 Main reasons raised by the focus group for shortlisting the indicators
Performance indicators Reasons
It is important to maintain an environment with suitable thermal comfort may affect the
(P1) Thermal comfort
working efficiency of employees in offices, or the number of customers.
It is important in regard to the health and safety concern of the employees. It is a trend
(P4) Indoor air quality to apply for certification on the building indoor air quality in local certification scheme.
It is useful for marketing.
Percentage users It is important to investigate the perceptions of the end users about the services that
(P5)
dissatisfied they perceive in order to find out areas of insufficient.
It is useful to evaluate the effectiveness of the resources input and to estimate the O&M
Ratio of total O&M cost
(F0) budget. It would be more meaningful to focus on the total O&M cost instead of the cost
to building income
of particular item.
It is useful to evaluate the effectiveness of managing the expenditure within budget, i.e.
Actual costs within
(F4) not over-spend or under-spend. Leaving the planned works undone is technically and
budgeted costs
financially unhealthy.
It is important to investigate the amount of money spent on O&M for O&M budget
O&M cost per building estimation, expenditure monitoring and financing. It is useful to evaluate the
(F13)
area effectiveness of the FM team in controlling or minimizing the cost. Normalization by
the building area can facilitate comparisons and benchmarking among peer buildings.
Work request response It is important to have short response time to work requests in regard to the service
(T1)
rate quality.
Number of completed It is useful to investigate the efficiency of the staff, with different trades of O&M works
(T12)
work orders per staff identified and categorized.
It is useful for the FM team to investigate if the manpower is sufficient to carry out
Area maintained per
(T13) daily O&M works. It would be a useful reference for the team to request for more
maintenance staff
resources in case the manpower is found insufficient.
It is useful to investigate the efficiency of the FM team as leaving the planned works
(T18) Backlog size
undone is technically and financially unhealthy.
Failure frequency or It is usually a useful indication of the quality of O&M services delivered by the O&M
(T25)
breakdown frequency staff or an indication of the end-of-life of the equipment which may need replacement.
It is important in regard to the safety concern of building end users. Instead of using the
Availability of fire
(T28a) generic availability indicator (T28), adoption of T28a which represent the performance
services system
of a relatively more critical facility is more specific and useful.
It is important in regard to the safety concern of building end users. Instead of using the
(T28b) Availability of lift generic availability indicator (T28), adoption of T28b which represent the performance
of a relatively more critical facility is more specific and useful.
This is probably due to the fact that energy use, especially electricity consumption, is a
substantial cost burden in operating engineering facilities of commercial buildings. In
fact, about 60% of the total electricity in Hong Kong was used in the commercial sector
(E1) Energy use index (EUI)
and the amount of such consumption has been increasing continuously (Electrical and
Mechanical Services Department, 2012). Therefore, using this indicator can help
identify measures for curbing the use of electricity in commercial buildings.
As for environmental sustainability, greenhouse gas emission per building area is
important and carbon audit has in recent years become a hot topic in the building
industry. In 2012, the Hong Kong government has enacted the Building Energy
Greenhouse gas emission Efficiency Ordinance (Cap. 610) to stipulate the mandatory conduction of energy audits
(E3)
per building area for commercial buildings, which is a significant step after the launch of the Buildings
Energy Efficiency Funding Schemes in 2009 to subsidize building owners to conduct
energy-cum-carbon audits and energy improvement projects (Environment and
Conservation Fund, 2012).
Number of accidents per It is important in regard to the health and safety concern of the employees. It is useful
(H1)
year to help identifying any problem or insufficient in the services delivery process.
It is important in regard to the health and safety concern of the employees. It is useful
Number of lost work
(H6) to investigate the efficiency of the FM team and the consequences of accidents,
days per year
incidents or illness.
144
4.3 Major factors affecting the selection of KPIs

At the focus group meeting, besides shortlisting the important and useful indicators, the FM
professionals were asked to provide the reasons for those they judged as not forming an essential
element of the assessment scheme. There were various factors affecting the professionals in
making such judgment, for examples, the unavailability of record data that are necessary for
working out the relevant indicators; the time constraint of the professionals themselves; the
difficulties in working out the indicators; the high consultant cost or internal staff cost needed for
working out the indicators; and the comparatively low importance levels of the indicators. To
some extent, these factors are related to one another. For instance, the amount of time or cost
required for working out a performance indicator may be dependent on how difficult it is to work
out the indicator. In order to provide a picture of the interactive effects of such factors, an
attempt was made to group the indicators with respect to the reasons for excluding them from the
assessment scheme.
Figure ii depicts a mapping between the 57 indicators that should be excluded and the reasons for
excluding them. The three most common reasons were: 1) it is too time consuming to work out
the indicators; 2) it is too costly to work out the indicators; and 3) the indicators are covered or
should better be represented by other indicators. For some indicators, their exclusion from the
scheme was due to more than one of the aforesaid reasons, as shown by the overlapping regions
in Figure ii. For example, excluding P2 (visual comfort) was because it would be too time
consuming and too costly to work it out. E2 (energy consumption per person) was excluded
because it would be too time consuming and too costly to work it out, and it is covered or should
better be represented by other indicators. Among the excluded indicators, the predominant,
common reason for their exclusion from the scheme was the substantial amount of time required
to collect the necessary data for figuring out their values.
145
FMC 2014
Figgure ii Reasonns for excludding the indiccators
T
Too time consu uming to work out
the indicators
• P3, F8, F14, T33, T4, T6, T7, T8,
T T9, Other reeasons
T10, T11, T19,, T20, T21, T222, T24,  F7, F155, F18, F19,
T30, E6, H2, H
H3, H4, H5 F20, F221, F22, T2,
T15, T16, T29, H7
 P2, T23,  T144 [T12],

T26, T27 T177 [T18],
 F12 T5 [T3]**
[F0],
E2
[E1] Covvered or betterr
Too ccostly to work out
o the reprresented by oth her
indicaators  F5 [F0, indiicators*
F4], F6 • P66 [P5], F1 [F0], FF2 [F0], F3
[F4] [F00], F9 [F0], F100 [F0], F11
[F00], F16 [E1], F117 [E1, E2],
T228 [T28a, T28b]], E4 [E1],
E55 [E3] * Examples of substitute indiicators are
shown in the brackets
*** T5 has the ssame meaning asa T3, but their
results are expressed
e in diff
fferent units
Furtherm more, it wass found thatt a number oof performannce indicatoors were exccluded not bbecause of
the abovve three most common reasons, buut some otheer reasons ass shown in T Table 2.
As repoorted earlier in a separatte paper (M Man and Lai,, 2013), an iinvestigationn had been made into
the leveels of imporrtance of alll the 74 perrformance iindicators. It I was also noted that nnot all the
indicatoors which w were rated aas importantt were shorrtlisted. Am mong the 577 indicators that have
been excluded, the importancee levels of alll except thee visual com mfort indicattor (P2) werre rated as
below 4 (out of a maximum rating of 5). 5 Although visual coomfort was consideredd as rather
importaant, it was eexcluded froom the scheeme becausee the focus group partiicipants connsidered it
difficultt to conducct the necesssary field measuremen
m nts and calculations foor this indiccator, e.g.
identificcation of glaare at differeent times inn various buiilding areass. Accordingg to the opinnion of the
participaants, the reesources neeeded for uundertakingg such meaasurements and calculations far
outweiggh the beneffit obtainable from takinng the indicator as part of the assesssment scheeme.
Tabble 2 Perform
mance indicattors excludedd for reasons other than thhe three mostt common reeasons
Perforrmance indiicators Reaasons
Thee number off equipment needs to bee covered
(F7) Equipmennt replacemeent value (ER
RV)
is tooo many.
Thee usefulnesss for perfo
formance evvaluation
andd comparisoon is doubtful as theere is no
(F15) Cost of eqquipment added or replaaced
dennominator aand the reason for adddition or
repllacement is unknown.
(F18) Total safetty and securrity expendiiture Thee usefulnesss for perfo
formance evvaluation
146
and comparison is doubtful as there is no

denominator. It would be niggling to consider
this expenditure as the amount would be
relatively small.
It would be niggling to consider the security
(F19) Security expenditure per building area expenditure as the amount would be relatively
small.
It would be niggling to consider the security
(F20) Security expenditure per person expenditure as the amount would be relatively
small.
Unlike the leasing managers, FM
professionals who focus on engineering
matters are relatively less concerned about the
(F21) Building income per building area
amount of building income but would care
more about the money allowed for O&M of
engineering facilities.
Unlike the leasing managers, FM
professionals who focus on engineering
matters are relatively less concerned about the
(F22) Total rentable value of the building
rentable value of the building but would care
more about the money allowed for O&M of
engineering facilities.
The workload of technical staff in Hong Kong
is usually measured based on the number of
work orders instead of man hours; and the
(T2) Scheduling intensity technical staff are usually fully scheduled
such that the scheduling intensity would
normally be not less than 100% (i.e. fully
loaded or involving over-time work).
It is too detailed and not normally applicable
(T15) Schedule realization rate
in FM.
It is too detailed and not normally applicable
(T16) Schedule compliance
in FM.
The number of equipment needs to be covered
(T29) Efficiency of facilities
is too many.
Number of incidents of specific
(H7) diseases in building per year (e.g. It is rare to have those diseases.
legionnaire’s disease)
4.4 Observations about the O&M practice in Hong Kong

During the focus group discussion, some specific observations about the O&M practice in Hong
Kong were noted. First, the pace of O&M work in Hong Kong is remarkably fast. It was found
from the literature that the work request response rate (T1), for example, could be derived by
dividing the work requests remaining in “request” status for less than 5 days by total work
requests (Muchiri et al., 2011). The focus group participants opined that a 5-day tolerance is too
147
long to be acceptable in the practice of Hong Kong. Usually, the allowable response time is
“immediate”.
Second, as far as time is concerned, the workload of technical staff in Hong Kong are usually
measured based on number of work orders instead of man hours. In this connection, related
indicators include manpower utilization rate (T3), manpower efficiency (T4), manpower
utilization index (T5), preventive maintenance ratio (T6), percentage of corrective (reactive)
work (T7), percentage of preventive (proactive) work (T8), percentage of condition based
maintenance work (T9), percentage of improvement work (T10), and number of man hours per
capacity of installation (T11). These indicators necessitate measurements to be made based on
man hours. This practice, according to the FM professionals, is not common in Hong Kong.
They further pointed out that it is too time consuming to report and record the commencement
and completion times of each and every work order, which are among the data needed for
working out the respective indicators. Again, they wondered whether the cost for having such
indicators established could be justified by the benefit they could bring along.
Third, for indicators such as mean time between failures (T26) and mean time to repair (T27),
even more detailed reporting and recording of the progress of O&M work orders is required in
order to find out their performance levels. Although computerized maintenance management
system (CMMS) could be used to keep track of the O&M activities (Lai and Yik, 2012),
enormous amounts of investment are needed not only for adopting such a system in the first
place but also for its on-going use and maintenance. Therefore, the use of CMMS in commercial
buildings in Hong Kong is often confined to some high-end, relatively new buildings whose
owner and management team put a great weight on the usefulness of CMMS. In most of the
other existing commercial buildings, manual logging of maintenance data remains as a common
practice.
5 CONCLUSION
Aimed at identifying KPIs for incorporation into an assessment scheme that can enable holistic
performance evaluation of engineering facilities in commercial buildings in Hong Kong, a focus
group study was conducted. Through the in-depth discussions among a group of FM
professionals, 17 important and useful KPIs were shortlisted.
Besides the levels of importance of the indicators, availability of record data, time constraint,
resources needed and difficulties in working out the indicators are the key factors that affected
the FM professionals in shortlisting the KPIs. The predominant, common reason for excluding
the indicators was the considerable time required to collect the data needed for working out the
indicators.
The particularly fast pace of O&M work in Hong Kong was observed from the focus group
discussion. Although time is of paramount importance in carrying out O&M work, it has not
been a common practice to computerize the recording and analysis of time spent on the work.
Without such computerized data, it is hard to figure out the time-related work performance
indicators.
In the subsequent stage of work, a large-scale questionnaire survey will be conducted to further
cream off the most useful KPIs. A series of face-to-face interviews will also be pursued to find
out the importance weights of the KPIs, e.g. based on an analytic network process (Saaty, 2005).
Upon completion of these works, the intended holistic performance assessment scheme will be
established and further work will be carried out to verify its applicability in practice.
148
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank the professionals who dedicated their precious time and effort in
participating in the focus group meeting.
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Electrical and Mechanical Services Department (EMSD) and Environmental Protection
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Ho, D.C.W., Chan, E.H.W., Wong, N.Y. and Chan, M.W. (2000), "Significant metrics for
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Lai, J.H.K. (2010), "Operation and maintenance budgeting for commercial buildings in Hong
Kong", Construction Management and Economics, 28, April, 242-265.
Lai, J.H.K. and Yik, F.W.H. (2006), "Developing performance indicators for benchmarking
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Trondheim International Symposium: Changing User Demands on Buildings, 12-14 June, 283-
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Lai, J.H.K. and Yik, F.W.H. (2012), "A probe into the facilities maintenance data of a hotel",
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Lavy, S., Garcia, J.A. and Dixit, M.K. (2010), "Establishment of KPIs for facilities performance
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Leung, M.Y., Lu, X., Ip, H.Y. (2005), "Investigating key components of the facility management
of secondary schools in Hong Kong", Facilities, 23, 5, 226-238.
Lutzkendorf, T. and Lorenz, D.P. (2006), "Using an integrated performance approach in building
assessment tools", Building Research & Information, 34, 4, 334-356.
Muchiri, P., Pintelon, L., Gelders, L. and Martin, H. (2011), “Development of maintenance
function performance measurement framework and indicators”, International Journal of
Production Economics, 131, 1, 295-302.
Man, C.S. and Lai, J.H.K. (2013), "Identifying key performance indicators for engineering
facilities in commercial buildings - a focus group study in Hong Kong", Proceedings of the 8th
World Congress on Engineering Asset Management & 3th International Conference on Utility
Management & Safety, Hong Kong, 20 October - 1 November 2013, Springer (in press).
Man, C.S., Lai, J.H.K. and Yik, F.W.H. (2013), "Developing a research framework for studying
performance evaluation of engineering facilities in commercial buildings in Hong Kong",
Proceedings of the 19th International CIB World Building Congress, Brisbane, 5-9 May 2013.
Muchiri, P., Pintelon, L., Gelders, L. and Martin, H. (2011), "Development of maintenance
function performance measurement framework and indicators", International Journal of
Production Economics, 131, 1, 295-302.
Parida, A. and Chattopadhyay, G. (2007), "Methodology and Theory – Development of a multi-
criteria hierarchical framework for maintenance measurement (MPM)", Journal of Quality in
Maintenance, 13, 3, 241-258.
Saaty, T.L. (2005), Theory and Applications of the Analytic Network Process: decision making
with benefits, opportunities, costs, and risk, RWS Publications, Pittsburgh.
Shohet, I.M. (2006), "Key performance indicators for strategic healthcare facilities
maintenance", Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 132, 4, 345-352.
Tsang, A.H.C., Jardine, A.K.S. and Kolodny, H. (1999), "Measuring maintenance performance:
a holistic approach", International Journal of Operations & Production Management, 19, 7, 691-
715.
Vesela, V. and Michael, E. (2001), "Indicators of sustainable production: framework and
methodology", Journal of Cleaner Production, 9, 519-549.
150
APPENDIX
(Source: British Standards Institution, 2007; Building Services Research and Information Association, 2011; Campbell, 1995; Chan et al., 2001;
Electrical and Mechanical Services Department, 2007; Electrical and Mechanical Services Department and Environmental Protection
Department, 2010; Hinks and McNay, 1999; Ho et al., 2000; Hong Kong Quality Assurance Agency, 2012; Lai and Yik, 2006; Lavy et al., 2010;
Leung et al., 2005; Lukzkendorf and Lorenz, 2006; Muchiri et al., 2011; Parida and Chattopadhyay, 2007; Tsang et al., 1999; Vesela and
Michael, 2001)
Physical (impact on customer satisfaction) (T1) Work request response rate (E3) Greenhouse gas emission per building area
(P1) Thermal comfort (e.g. temperature, mean (T2) Scheduling intensity (E4) Conduction of energy audit
radiant temperature, humidity and air speed) (T3) Manpower utilization rate (E5) Conduction of carbon audit
(P2) Visual comfort (e.g. illuminance and glare) (T4) Manpower efficiency (E6) Conduction of environmental assessment
(P3) Acoustic comfort (e.g. reverberation) (T5) Manpower utilization index (e.g. LEED, BREEAM, BEAM Plus,
(P4) Indoor air quality (e.g. total volatile organic (T6) Preventive maintenance ratio (PMR) HKQAA SBI)
compound, CO2 level, concentration of (T7) Percentage of corrective (reactive) work

radon) (T8) Percentage of preventive (proactive) work Health, safety and legal
(P5) Percentage users dissatisfied (T9) Percentage of condition based maintenance (H1) Number of accidents per year
(P6) Number of users’ complaints per year work (H2) Number of legal cases per year
(T10) Percentage of improvement work (H3) Number of compensation cases per year
Financial (T11) Number of manhours per capacity of (H4) Amount of compensation paid per year
(F0) Ratio of total O&M cost to building income installation (H5) Number of health and safety complaints per
(F1) Percentage of personnel cost (T12) Number of completed work orders per staff year
(F2) Percentage of subcontractor cost (T13) Area maintained per maintenance staff (H6) Number of lost work days per year (i.e. sick
(F3) Percentage of contractor cost (T14) Quality of scheduling leave day(s) given by doctor)
(F4) Actual costs within budgeted costs (T15) Schedule realization rate (H7) Number of incidents of specific diseases in
[excluding the extra expenditure for urgent (T16) Schedule compliance building per year (e.g. legionnaire’s disease)
or emergency works] (T17) Work order turnover

(F5) Direct maintenance cost (T18) Backlog size
(F6) Breakdown severity [i.e. corrective (T19) Urgent repair request index (URI)
maintenance cost / preventive maintenance (T20) Corrective maintenance time

cost] (T21) Preventive maintenance time
(F7) Equipment replacement value (ERV) (T22) Response time for maintenance
(F8) Maintenance stock turnover (T23) Percentage compliance with required
(F9) Percentage of maintenance material cost response time
(F10) Percentage of corrective maintenance cost (T24) Number of maintenance induced
(F11) Percentage of preventive maintenance cost interruptions
(F12) Percentage of condition based maintenance (T25) Failure/breakdown frequency (number of
cost equipment faults per month or per year)
(F13) O&M cost per building area (T26) Mean time between failures (MTBF)
(F14) O&M cost per capacity of installation (T27) Mean time to repair (MTTR)
(F15) Cost of equipment added or replaced (T28) Availability
(F16) Energy expenditure per building area (T28a) Availability of fire services system
(F17) Energy expenditure per person (T28b) Availability of lift
(F18) Total safety and security expenditure (T29) Efficiency of facilities
(F19) Security expenditure per building area (T30) Gross floor area under safety and security
(F20) Security expenditure per person patrol
(F21) Building income per building area
(F22) Total rentable value of the building Environmental
(E1) Energy use index (EUI)
Task and equipment related (E2) Energy consumption per person
151
Maintenance Expenditures of Technical Building Facilities in the

Public Sector
Dipl.-Ing. M. Eng. Jens-Helge Bossmann

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)
jens.bossmann@kit.edu
+49 721 608-46008
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Carolin Bahr

Karlsruhe University of Applied Science (HsKa)
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Kunibert Lennerts
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)
ABSTRACT
In times of increasing demands on the overall economic performance, building maintenance has
become one of the main topics in the focus of public cost-reducing politics. In consequence
public facility managers are permanently requested to reduce maintenance costs but still have to
guarantee the functional capability of their buildings at all times. Yet to determine adequate and
sustainable maintenance budgets and to defend the necessary investments against the pressure of
cost reduction, there is an urgent need of a transparent and scientifically accepted calculation
method. Therefore the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), the Karlsruhe University of
Applied Science (HsKA) and the German working group for machine and electrical technology
in state and municipal organizations (AMEV) initiated a quantitative research project based on
empirical data of 140 buildings of 21 public institutions with the final goal to develop a
significantly improved budgeting tool. To do so especially highly specific information on the
maintenance-relevant expenditures (building cost groups 410 to 490 – 2nd level pursuant to DIN
276) for maintenance, inspection, servicing and repair & overhaul work over previous years was
documented and implemented in a newly developed database. Derived from the generated input
of almost 10,000 data sets, numerous correlation and cluster analysis were conducted to identify
influences on the maintenance of technical building facilities and interdependencies between
maintenance expenditures and other building-specific attributes. As a result of the extensive
database analysis the new improved AMEV calculation method was finally developed.
Keywords
Maintenance Costs, Budgeting, Public Sector, Technical Building Facilities.
1 INTRODUCTION
In the year 2010 the Central Association of the Building Industry in Germany evaluated the
overall national demand for investments in building maintenance at approximately 98 Billion
Euros (ZDB, 2010). This figure impressively displays the immense economic relevance of
building maintenance in Germany and is based on the fact that about 20-30% of the overall
operation costs of a building are linked to maintenance measures (Krimmling et al., 2002).
Consequently the public sector, as one of the biggest real estate owners in Germany, has to make
huge amounts of money available every year, to be able to guarantee the long-term operation of
its buildings and its technical facilities. Yet in times of increasing economic pressure, due to the
152
financial crisis and the advancing globalization, maintenance budgets regularly turn out to be the
first to be cut. The maintenance public experts in charge often appear to be rather helpless in the
face of aggressive public cost-reducing politics. Due to missing scientifically accepted
calculation methods (and therefore missing arguments) combined with a general administrative
misjudgment considering the importance of maintenance measures, the budgets are lately
constantly decreasing, while the maintenance backlog is rising in the public sector. In order to
fight this process the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), the Karlsruhe University of
Applied Science (HsKA) and the German working group for machine and electrical technology
in state and municipal organizations (AMEV) initiated a quantitative research project to prove
the tremendous impact of building maintenance and especially the maintenance of technical
building facilities on public assets.
The project goal was to identify relevant influences and interdependencies between maintenance
expenditures and other building-specific attributes (Bossmann & Bahr, 2013). Based on the
resulting findings the further target was to develop a new AMEV calculation method which
might successfully budget maintenance expenditures of technical building facilities in Germany.
Additional to that the development of a scientifically accepted calculation method also
significantly strengthens the position of the maintenance experts in future budget negotiations.
This is of great importance since a permanent lack of maintenance measures, due to exaggerated
cost reduction, inevitably leads to defects in the technical building facilities and furthermore
might evoke secondary damages that often add up to multiple costs of the original damage
(Roetzel, 2001).
2 METHODOLOGY
The scientific study is based on quantitative research methods, especially the analysis of
empirical maintenance data of an asset of 140 buildings owned by public institutions. The
corresponding data was contributed by 14 universities, 5 cities and 2 federal institutions. The
newly generated input was manually integrated into an Access data base. Although the manual
integration of each single dataset in the data base is a rather time-consuming procedure, it allows
a first and very effective plausibility check to identify obvious data errors. Following the rough
plausibility checks further statistical tests like scatter plots, box-plots and additional checks on
completeness in terms of an extensive data mining were conducted to secure the best data
validity and reliability possible. Derived from the total of almost 10,000 maintenance costs
related entries, numerous correlation and cluster analysis were conducted hereafter to identify the
relevant influences and interdependencies on the average maintenance expenditures of technical
building equipment.
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3 D
DEFINITIO ONS
All maiintenance reelated termss used in thhe study aree based on the definitions publishhed by the
Germann Standard D DIN 31051 2012-09 - “Fundamentals of maaintenance” (DIN 310551, 2012),
coveringg “service””, “inspectiion”, “repair & overhhaul” and “improvem ment” measuures. The
o the “reguular maintennance costs”” including “service”,
presenteed results cooncentrate eexclusively on
“inspecttion” as weell as “repaiir & overhaaul”. “Improovement meeasures” aree explicitly excluded.
This is related to thhe fact that the regularr maintenannce expendittures are usually allocaated in the
adminisstrative budgget, while the
t extraorddinary mainttenance exppenditures aare part of tthe capital
budgetaaccording too the public aadministratiion system in
i Germanyy.
Figgure 1: Definnition of mainntenance according to DIN

N 31051:20112-09
4 R
RESULTS
Based oon a precediing literaturre research (BKI, 20111; Bahr, 20008; Hellerfoorth, 2006; Schulte
S &
Kalaitziis, 1988), thhe followingg potential key
k influenciing factors w
were movedd into the foocus of the
plannedd cluster andd correlationn analysis (B
Bossmann & Bahr, 20133).
1. The age of tthe technicaal building ffacility

T
2. T size of the technicaal building ffacility
The
3. T use of tthe buildingg
The
4. T height of
The o the buildiing
5. T standarrd of the techhnical buildding facility
The
6. T operatioon time techhnical buildding facility
The
In the existing AMEV

A proccedure, thee maintenannce budgett is determ mined based on the
replacem ment valuess of the techhnical facillities as welll as an annnual cost faactor represeenting the
average annual cosst value prooportional too the replaccement valuue. Consequuentially alm most all of
the folloowing figures display thhe maintenaance expendditures as avverage annuual costs in rrelation to
the repllacement vaalue of the ttechnical faacilities. To exemplify the chosenn approach tto analyze
the dataa base input the outcomme of the agee and operaation relatedd investigations will be presented
in the foollowing chaapters.
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4.1 A of the ttechnical building facility

Age
In the coourse of thee literature rreview numeerous publiccations weree identified that point oout the age
of the bbuilding to be one off the most important influencingg factors regarding maaintenance
expendiitures (Ham mpe, 1986; K König & Schhnoor, 19888; Bahr, 2010).Thereforre further innformation
o the technical facilitiess was gathered additionnally to the ccorrespondiing annual
regardinng the age of
maintennance costs.. To do soo the coopeerating publlic institutions were aasked to prrovide the
individuual age of the techniccal installattions of eaach cost groups accorrding to thee German
Standardd 276 (DIN N 276, 2008)). Since all oof the analyyzed building have beenn owned andd operated
by publlic institutioons ever sinnce, there haave been noo major chaanges in term ms of the teenants nor
any tenaancy agreem ments.
The anaalysis of thee age relatedd influence was conducted in 2 seeparate steps evaluatingg each the
servicinng and inspeection costs as well as tthe costs of repair. In thhe first step the focus w
was put on
the servvicing and inspection expenditurres to provve the indiccated correlation quotted in the
literaturre. The outccome of the correspondding analysiss shown in figure 2 yett does not im mplicate a
significaant correlaation consiidering thee servicingg and insppection exxpenditures and the
correspoonding age of the technnical buildinng facilitiess. Disregardding certain variations, caused by
years wwith only verry few num mbers of resilient cases (e.g. 19, 433, 48, 49, 550), the servvicing and
inspection costs shoow a rather steady distrribution witth an averagge of approxximately 0.668% of the
replacem ment value. The result therefore sshows neither a positivve nor a neggative interrrelation of
the servvicing and innspection costs and thee age of thee technical ffacilities. A future inteegration of
an age-sspecific inflluencing facctor in the aaspired AMEEV budgetinng tool in teerms of servvicing and
inspection costs waas thereforee abandonedd. The analoogical analyysis consideering the doocumented
costs forr repair & ooverhaul leads to a commpletely diffeerent result.
Average Maintenance Costs per year (in percent /
replacement value)
Age of the Faacility
Figuree 2: Averagee service/insppection costs per year according to thee age of the fa
facility (Bossmann &
Bahr, 20133)
As show wn in figuure 3 the aannual expeenditures acctually rise as the faccilities “groow” older
(accordiing to the ddashed trennd line). Thhis result appplies to a great extennd to the asssumption
quoted iin the literaature before. Yet the diistribution ddoes not com
mply with a linear incliine due to
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numerouus deviationns within thhe span of 50 5 years. TThe chronoloogy of mainntenance innvestments
rather seeems to be fformed by sseveral phasses of higherr and lover monetary
m buurdens.
Average Maintenance Costs per year (in percent /

replacement value)
Age of the Faacility
Figure 3: Average ccosts of repaiir & overhauul per year according to thhe age of the facility (Bosssmann &
Bahr, 20133)
The pottential reasons for thiis unsteady cost distriibution mayy be numerrous and neeed to be
analyzedd in furtherr evaluationns in terms of proceedding researcch activitiess. Since thee analyzed
expendiitures excluusively incllude the annnual costss of repair & overhauul the peaks in the
distributtion might nnot be causeed by rebuillding, extennsive renovaation or upggrading. Connsequently
there haave to be othher age relaated explanaations. One assumption is based onn the idea thhat the life
span of major techhnical installlations mighht affect thee disposition of the exppenditures. The costs
thereforre might risee with the ggrowing agee of some m major compoonents of thhe technicall facilities.
But oncce these com mponents reach the endd of their liffe span and will be repllaced (thesee costs are
not included in thee research) tthe new com mponents m might cause significantlly lower annnual costs
than in the year beffore. Becauuse of this thhe life span as well as tthe econommic framewoork will be
focusedd on in furthher analysiss with the ggoal to inteegrate if so a new agee-specific innfluencing
factor inn the aspireed future AM MEV budgeeting tool taaking the efffect of the technical age
a on the
repair & overhaul ccosts into acccount.
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4.2 Opeerating timee of the tech hnical buildding facilitiies

Anotherr potential influencingg factor menntioned in the literatuure is the ooperating tim me of the
technicaal building ffacility (Kallusche, 1991; KGSt, 20009). The coorrespondinng hypothesiis is based
on the iddea that the longer a tecchnical instaallation is being
b operated on a dailly basis the higher the
resultingg maintenannce expendiitures will gget, due to an a increasedd number of o necessaryy servicing
and insppection measures. Thee cooperatinng public innstitutions thereforet w
were asked tto specify
their faccilities accorrding to theeir average operating
o hoours per dayy. The evaluuation of thee influence
of the opperation timme on the annnual mainteenance costss was conduucted by a cluster analyysis. To do
so four ddifferent cluusters repressenting typiical operatinng intensitiees were form
med:
Cluster 1: unsteadyy operation
Cluster 2: one-shiftt operation
Cluster 3: two-shiftt operation
Cluster 4: continuous operationn
Average Maintenance Costs per year (in
percent / replacement value)
Unsteadyoperation
One-shiftoperation
Continous Operation
Two-shiftoperation
U t d ti
Operatiing time
Figure 4:AAverage maiintenance cossts (based onn the replacem ment value) aaccording to
thee operating tim
me of the tecchnical facilitties (Bossmaann & Bahr, 22013)
The outtcome of tthe evaluatiion shown in figure 4 surprisinggly does noot correspond to the
assumpttion mentionned before. According to the chartt the mainteenance expennditures in rrelation to
the replaacement vallue for an unsteady
u opeeration add up to 2.70% % while the costs of thee one-shift
operatioon cluster ammount to 2..77%. Contrrary to that the two-shhift operatioon cluster w with 1.75%
and the cluster reprresenting thee longest opperating timme with 2.22% range siggnificantly llower than
expectedd. Consequuently the reesult does neither
n indiccate a positiive nor a neegative corrrelation of
the operration time and
a the corrresponding maintenancce expendituures. A veryy likely expllanation in
this conntext is menntioned by B Bahr in herr dissertatioon on empirrical mainteenance data of public
buildinggs (Bahr, 20008). She pooints out thaat the outcoome of an exemplary cluster analyysis on the
operatinng time migght be signnificantly innfluenced by b the type of use of the buildinngs in the
portfolioo. Due to thhe indifferennt result thee operating ttime will noot be taken into accounnt in terms
of an inttegrated influencing facctor in the fu
future AMEV V proceduree.
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4.3 Buillding heigh

ht
An addiitional correelation analyysis was coonducted conncerning the building hheight in terrms of the
total number of stoories. The appproach is bbased on the idea, that higher builldings need more and
highly ccomplex teechnical faccilities for example too overcome pressure ddifferences in piping
systemss or to meet safety regullations (Bosssmann & Lennerts,
L 2013).
Average Maintenance Costs per year (in
percent / replacement value)
Number of
o stories
Figure 5: Average maiintenance costs (based onn the replacem

ment value) according
a to
the building heiight (Bossmaann & Bahr, 2013)
2
Yet the analysis of the real daata in relatioon to the repplacement vvalue does nnot show a llinear cost
increasee related to the buildingg height (see figure 5). Especially for buildinggs from 1 too 8 stories
the perccentages aree rather sligghtly decreaasing than inncreasing. The
T corresponding averrage costs
for all bbuilding with 1 to 8 sttories add uup to 1.76% % of the repplacement vvalue. In coontrast the
average costs of alll buildings in the porttfolio with m more than 8 stories aree significanntly higher
and addd up to 2.988%. Conseqquently the dashed trennd lines show a signifficant increase in the
average maintenannce costs foor buildingss that have more thann 8 stories. The result might be
explaineed by the faact that buildings with m more than 8 stories aree, by definittion, considdered to be
high-rises and therrefore havee to meet tiightened saafety regulattionsin Gerrmany. Thiss includes
particulaarly numerrous requireements in tterms of firre protectioon such as additional elevators,
sprinkleer systems oor extensivee smoke exxtraction sysstems. The given requuirements m most likely
result inn higher m maintenancee expenditurres. To takke this effeect into acccount it is therefore
reasonabble to includde a correspponding inflluencing facctor in the fuuture AMEVV budgetingg method.
4.4 S
Standard oof the techn
nical buildinng facilitiess
Additionnally to the correlationn and clusterr analysis conducted too identify thhe main influences on
the maiintenance oof the technnical buildiing facilitiees the reseaarch was aalso triggereed by the
followinng questionn: Do higherr investmennts in inspecction and seervicing meeasures leadd to lower
expendiitures in terrms of the resulting repair work needed? T The corresponding hyppothesis is
based oon the idea that servvice and innspection m measures kkeep the teechnical installations
predomiinantly in ggood condition and thherefore preevent failures and secoondary dam mages that
might caause repair & overhaull measures. To evaluatee the potentiial correlatioon figure 6 shows the
158
FMC 2014
average costs (in reelation to thee replacemeent value) foor servicing and inspecttion on the x-axis
x and
the corrresponding costs for repair & ooverhaul meeasures on the y-axis. Assumingg that the
hypotheesis mentionned before aactually exists the costs for repair & overhauul ought to bbe sinking
accordinng to higherr investmentts in servicinng and insppection meassures.
Figuree 6: Average annual costs (in % of the replacementt value) for service and innspection meeasures in
relation to the annuaal costs of reppair & overhaaul (in % of tthe replacem
ment value)
Lookingg at the outtcome of thhe analysis in figure 6 this assum mption cannoot be confirrmed. The
expendiitures for reppair & overrhaul actuallly show a w widely scatteered, non-diirectional diistribution
compareed to the inccreasing cossts for serviccing and insspection meeasures.
159
3. CONCLUSIONS & OUTLOOK

To develop the new AMEV budgeting method, the real data of 140 public buildings was
collected. Based on the corresponding database the identification and weighting of different
influencing factors on the maintenance of building facilities was successfully completed. In the
focus of the study were amongst others the age and the operating time of the technical facilities
as well as the number of full stories that proved to be of crucial relevance. Based on these results,
specific weighting factors were determined and integrated in the new AMEV budgeting method.
From a scientific point of view this can be regarded as a valuable improvement in terms of the
knowledge considering the influences and interdependencies on maintenance costs. Nevertheless
the total number of 140 buildings statistically covers a rather small research basis. Outliers
therefore might have a significant impact on the results. Hence, there is a continuative need of
further research activities to consecutively validate the presented results. In this connection it is
also necessary to generally improve the quality and quantity of the data collection in public
institutions, taking in mind that only 21 institutions were capable to deliver the corresponding
information needed.
The general function of the new AMEV calculation is based on the replacement value multiplied
with an unchanging parameter representing the overall average maintenance costs. This
calculation basis is extended by an additional correcting factor (consisting of different weighting
factors) in order to take the identified relevant influences into account and consequently to
improve the quality of the calculation outcome. Based on the real data it was therefore possible
to form a transparent calculation method that might support the maintenance experts in practice
and significantly strengthens their position in future budget negotiations. Furthermore it has been
possible to develop an additional excel-based calculation tool to help the owners of large assets
to easily and transparently define their adequate maintenance budget by their own. Yet the
decisive structure and function of the new AMEV budgeting method as well as the additional
excel-tool were not the subject matter of the paper at hand but will be covered by future
contributions.
160
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Beitrag zur Budgetierung“, Universitätsverlag Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe.
Bahr, C. (2010), “Quantitative validation of budgeting methods and suggestion of a new
calculation method for the determination of maintenance costs”, Journal of Facilities
Management, Vol. 8 No. 1, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 1472-5967.
BKI Baukosteninformationszentrum (2011), „Objektdaten – NK2 Nutzungskosten von
Bestandsimmobilien“. BKI : Stuttgart.
Bossmann, J., Bahr, C. (2013), "Kosten- und Personalbedarf für das Betreiben von technischen
Anlagen", Abschlussbericht Forschungsinitiative "Zukunft Bau", Bundesinstitut für Bau-,
Stadt- und Raumforschung (BBSR) im Bundesamt für Bauwesen und Raumordnung
(BBR).
Bossmann, J.; Lennerts, K. (2013), "Maintaining Building Facilities - A Growing Challenge",
Proceedings of the 2013 International Conference on Construction and Real Estate
Management (ICCREM), published by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE):
Karlsruhe.
DIN 31051 (2012), „Grundlagen der Instandhaltung“, Deutsches Institut für Normung, Beuth
Verlag, Berlin.
Hampe, K.-H. (1986), „Vergleich des Einflusses unterschiedlicher Konstruktionen, Baustoffe
und Ausstattungen bei sonst gleichen Gebäuden auf die Herstellungs- und
Baunutzungskosten“, im Auftrag des Bundesministeriums für Raumordnung, Bauwesen
und Städtebau am Institut für Bauforschung e. V., IRB Verlag, Stuttgart.
Hellerforth, M. (2006), „Handbuch Facility Management für Immobilienunternehmen“, Springer
Verlag : Berlin, Heidelberg [u.a.].
Kalusche, W. (1991), „Gebäudeplanung und Betrieb : Einfluss der Gebäudeplanung auf die
Wirtschaftlichkeit von Betreiben“. Springer Verlag : Berlin.
Kommunale Gemeinschaftsstelle für Verwaltungsmanagement – KGSt (2009),“Instandhaltung
kommunaler Gebäude. Budgets ermitteln und Aufwand für Folgejahre planen“ (B 7),
Verband für kommunales Management.
König, H.; Schnoor, C. (1988), „Bestandserhaltung von Hochschulgebäuden : Untersuchung zu
den Rechtsgrundlagen, den Einflussgrößen und dem zukünftigen Mittelbedarf.
Hochschulplanung“, Band 66, Herausgegeben von der Hochschul-Informations-System
GmbH, Hannover.
Krimmling, J. et al. (2002), „Technisches Gebäudemanagement : Instrumente zur
Kostensenkung in Unternehmen und Behörden“. Expert-Verlag : Renningen
DIN 276 (2008), „Kosten im Bauwesen – Teil 1: Hochbau“, Deutsches Institut für Normung e.
V.; Beuth, : Berlin.
Rötzel, A. (2001), „Instandhaltung : Eine betriebliche Herausforderung“. 2. Auflage; VDE
Verlag : Berlin, Offenbach
Schulte, W.; Kalaitzis D. (1988), „Fundament erfolgreicher Instandhaltung : Wartung u.
Inspektion“, Verlag TÜV Rheinland : Köln
ZDB Zentralverband deutsches Baugewerbe (2010), „Analyse und Prognose :
Bauwirtschaftlicher Bericht 2011/12. Zentralverband des deutschen Baugewerbes e. V.;
Ludwig Austermeier Offsetdruck : Berlin.
161
Evidence-Based Design in Learning Environments:

A practical framework for project briefing
Matti Sivunen
Boost Brothers Ltd
matti.sivunen@boostbrothers.fi
+358 40 751 5710
Jere Viljanen
Boost Brothers Ltd
jere.viljanen@boostbrothers.fi
Suvi Nenonen
Aalto University
Juho-Kusti Kajander
Boost Brothers Ltd
juho-kusti.kajander@boostbrothers.fi
ABSTRACT
Purpose. The objective of this paper is to construct an evidence matrix, which can be used to
analyse the correlation between learning outcomes and design strategies.
Theory. In this paper, a framework tool for a building briefing is presented as a potential
solution to include Evidence-Based Design (EBD) in building design.
Design/methodology/approach. The research process was divided into three phases, namely a
literature review, a workshop and a constructed model for linking EBD and a briefing process for
further testing.
Findings. The main finding of this paper is that a building owner can utilize the presented
evidence matrix to make key decisions in the building briefing phase regarding functional
requirements and design parameters that support learning in the facilities. This article suggests
that the EBD methodology can be implemented in the building briefing phase to support the
benefits that the facility offers to its users. In the future, longitudinal and multidisciplinary
studies are needed to assess the effects between EBD and briefing.
Originality/Value. Learning environment design at its best can have a significant positive
impact on learning outcomes. Paradoxically, practical tools are rare for building owners to
systematically manage the building design process to capture these productivity benefits.
KEYWORDS
Briefing, Design Strategy, Evidence-Based Design, Learning Environment, Learning Outcome
1. INTRODUCTION
Learning environment facilities have a strong impact on the learning outcomes of students. For
example, Barrett et al. (2013) argue that school design has a 25% impact on students’ learning
rate. However, at the briefing phase of the construction management process, there is a lack of a
systematic approach to link the building features and learning outcomes. Instead, the emphasis of
briefing is often placed on standardized technical features and generalized user needs.
Consequently, the utilization of research-based information on the documented benefits of
162
different design solutions, such as the Evidence-Based Design (EBD) results, is currently ad hoc
based. Traditionally utilization depends on the personal interest and expertise of an individual
designer.
The concept of EBD has been most widely discussed and examined in the context of healthcare
facility research. EBD can be seen as a bridge for the gap which connects research evidence with
operational design decisions. The Center for Health Design defines EBD as “the process of
basing decisions about the built environment on credible research to achieve the best possible
outcomes”.
Even though EBD is increasingly discussed and applied in practice, it has not been successfully
integrated into the building briefing process (Elf et al. 2012). Briefing is the stage when owners
define the requirements for their construction project (Ryd 2004). It has been recognized as one
of the most important phases of a project (Tzortzopoulos et al. 2006).An effective EBD process
in briefing helps designers to take into account the potential benefits of different, even unfamiliar
design solutions for facility users. In contrast, without external information, such as evidence
from research, there is a risk that the building solutions will be static, traditional and
conservative (Higgins et al. 2005). Jensen (2009) claims that one of the problems in the building
industry is the limited degree of learning from experiences of the use and operation of existing
buildings.
The main research question of this paper is what are the potential correlations of design
strategies and learning outcomes. Moreover, this paper examines how EBD can be utilized in a
traditional construction project design process. This study proposes a potential implementation
tool for facility projects in high school level educational buildings.
The research process was divided into three phases. First, earlier literature was reviewed
pertaining to EBD and construction project briefing and a link between EBD and building
briefing studies was established. Following this, the results from the literature review were
reviewed and validated in an industry expert workshop. The participants of the workshop were
16 researchers and industry specialists from Architecture/Engineering/Construction (AEC) and
real estate industry. The presented evidence matrix was confirmed and co-developed. Finally, the
model to link EBD and the briefing process was constructed for further testing. The literature
review includes an overview of earlier studies and introduces the constructed evidence matrix.
The matrix is described more thoroughly in the following chapters. The article concludes with
suggestions for future research.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature review includes two sections: the general theories of construction project briefing
as well as a more specific review of the EBD concept.
Briefing and briefing tools

The main aim of briefing is to develop client needs to functional requirements, design parameters
and constraints. Functional requirements are a minimum set of independent requirements that
completely characterize the functional needs of the facilities. Design parameters are the key
physical variables in the physical domain that characterize the design that satisfies the specified
functional requirement. Constraints are bounds on acceptable solutions (Suh 1990). Pennanen
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and Koskela (2005) noted that “during briefing the building as a solid object cannot be
predicted”. Thus, the requirements set during briefing have many possible design solutions.
The briefing phase is highly important when aiming to achieve good value-in-use. According to
Shen and Ann (2012), the strategic needs and functional requirements of users should be planted
as early as possible in the briefing stages of a project to have a significant impact. It is inefficient
and often expensive to include more functional requirements for facilities after the briefing
phase. According to a broad literature review by Ryd (2004), there are four different strategic
briefing tools that have been utilized in setting functional requirements. The tools are: problem
seeking, strategic need analyses, strategic choice approach, and scenario planning.
Briefing can be seen as a problem seeking process and the design can be seen as a problem
solving process. Peña and Parshall (2001) explain briefing as the pre-design activity that
develops the considerations or design determinants that define a comprehensive architectural
problem. The comprehensive method is a system called problem seeking and it consists of five
phases: goals, facts, concepts, needs, and problems. The main sources of information in problem
seeking are interviews and work sessions.
Strategic Need Analysis aims to define the needs of the client. According to Smith et al. (2003),
the method aims to help stakeholders see projects from their own organisation’s true goals,
objectives, needs, and requirements. The main sources of information in strategic need analyses
are seminars and workshops.
The Strategic Choice Approach (Friend and Hickling 1997) is a Problem Structuring Method
(PSM) developed as a methodological support for decision. Strategic choice is an incremental
approach that recognises the need of an explicit balance between decisions to be made now and
those that can be delayed. The main source of information in the strategic choice approach is
workshops.
Scenario planning is a strategic briefing tool for medium to long-term planning under uncertain
conditions to manage complexity. It helps clients sharpen their strategies, develop their strategic
briefs for the unexpected, and focus on their goals. Scenario workshops can challenge existing
paradigms and create shared perspectives on the future.
Even though there are several strategic briefing tools available, none of them systematically
utilize evidence-based information, such as EBD, from outside the construction project. Instead,
the main sources of information in briefing are usually interviews of the projects’ stakeholders,
seminars and workshops and visits to similar buildings. Paradoxically, Kamara et al. (2000) and
Ryd (2004) argue that briefing processes are often inadequate in considering the client
perspective and often focus only on short-term problem identification.
Evidence‐Based Design in healthcare

The concept of EBD is well-established in the context of healthcare facility research (Ulrich et
al. 2008). EBD research has validated certain building design strategies to produce significant
health benefits for building users. In particular, the EBD approach uses research evidence to
forecast the desired outcomes for building users. The widely discussed review article by Ulrich
et al. (2008) found rigorous studies that linked the physical environment to patient and staff
outcomes in reduced stress, patient safety, improved outcomes, and overall healthcare quality.
First and foremost, providing of single-bed rooms, noise reduction, views of nature, wayfinding,
ventilation, natural lighting and effective layout planning were identified as the most important
design strategies that lead to desired outcomes. On one hand, Lundin (2012) claims that EBD is a
“buzzword” in hospital planning, and that there are differing opinions on whether a correlation
between the physical environment and healthcare outcomes exists at all. In addition, Stankos and
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Schwarz (2007) criticise that EBD has been used several times only as a persuasive tool for
decision makers to buy into suggested design solutions.
There are only a few studies that have investigated how frequently evidence-based information is
utilized in the briefing phase. According to these studies, briefing practices in general lack EBD
utilization. In fact, the most comprehensive study made on briefing practices so far indicates that
knowledge from previous projects is moved into new projects mainly through designers’ tacit
knowledge (Kamara and Anumba 2000). In the area of Swedish healthcare projects, only a few
of the studied 27 briefs mentioned evidence-based information (Elf et al. 2012).
Constructing an evidence matrix of learning outcomes

Correlations between learning outcomes and design solutions can be identified in several studies.
According to the literature, better learning outcomes can be gained through attainment, student
well-being and personal fit, student engagement, student attendance, affect, user satisfaction, and
student behaviour.
Academic achievement is linked to learning components that facilitate learning. The main
learning components are the student’s motivation, engagement, and academic emotions (Pekrun
2006). It is argued that students experience a wide range of emotions while studying (Pekrun et
al. 2002). These academic emotions refer to emotions that are linked to academic learning
activities. In addition, academic emotions are closely related to motivation, engagement and
achievement in learning situations (Pekrun 2006). Thus it is relevant to study how different
design strategies improve the learning motivation and engagement indicators such as student
well-being besides attainment.
Attainment
Several factors have an effect on student attainment, i.e., improvements in curriculum attainment
measured by standardized tests or exams, or as monitored by teacher observation. First of all, the
temperature affects human performance, for which Maula et al. (2013) and Earthman (2004)
have found evidence. Moreover, indoor air quality has been shown to be associated with
attainment. For example, Satish et al. (2012) studied indoor air quality (IAQ) and provided
evidence that human productivity varies by different levels of carbon dioxide, CO2, in the air.
Haines et al. (2001) and Evans & Maxwell (1997) studied chronic noise exposure and cognitive
functioning. Their studies discovered noise-related reading problems and deficiencies in pre-
reading skills. Lercher et al. (2003) found evidence with more general cognitive deficits.
Student attainment also depends on the classroom layout, arrangement and furniture choices.
Knight and Noyes (1999) studied differences of attainment between traditional classroom
furniture and ergonomically designed furniture. They found significant improvement in on-task
behaviour when using ergonomically designed furniture with correct installations. In addition,
Nash (1981) found evidence that the classroom layout and arrangement facilitated learning and
enhanced cognitive development.
Interestingly, a design strategy that enhances daylighting availability has been shown to improve
human performance. In fact, standardized tests showed that better daylighting conditions lead to
better human performance (Heschong 2002). Earthman (2004) also proved positive effects
between daylighting and attainment. Barrett et al. (2013) examined the relationship between
school building design and pupils’ learning rates in primary schools in the UK. The study
comprising an empirical setting of 34 varied classrooms with 751 pupils showed that design
solutions related to colour, choice, connection, complexity, flexibility and light were connected
to 25% better learning progression.
Student well-being and personal fit
165
Several design solutions affect student well-being, i.e., impacts on the physical self, relating to
discomfort as well as minor and major ailments. For instance, bad indoor air quality and
importance of ventilation have been linked to poor well-being (Undin et al. 2003). According to
Norbäck (2001), irritants and allergens decrease air quality and thus wellbeing. Thus, “fleecy”
furnishing and open shelving should be avoided and the frequency of cleaning should be
increased.
Moreover, noise is a stress factor that will have a negative effect on students´ wellbeing. As a
matter of fact, noise might increase blood pressure, which leads to helplessness in learning
(Cohen et al. 1980). According to Stansfeld and Matheson (2003) predictability, control and
judged necessity determine how annoying particular noises are for students. Furniture also has its
role in the well-being that students perceive. According to Troussier (1999), students feel more
comfortable in ergonomically designed furniture, thus it is likely to be correlated with perceived
wellbeing.
Student engagement
Engagement refers to increased attention and decreased distracted or disruptive behaviour of
students. A key factor for engagement is noise. However, the interactions between engagement
and noise are complex. When a student is performing a high concentration task, for example,
silent reading, external noises are very distracting (Shield and Dockrell 2004). Observations of
teaching pauses have been studied and results show that noise bursts lead to significant (11%)
reductions in teaching time (Rivlin and Weinstein 1984).
A few studies have investigated the correlation between student participation and time on task
and furnishing and classroom arrangement. A renovated room with soft furnishings and an aimed
friendly and attractive feeling seemed to lead to increased student participation (Sommer and
Olsen 1980). In a layout study, Galton et al. (1999) found that rows of desks (instead of, for
example, pairs of desks) increased time on task and seemed to be appropriate for individual
work.
Matthews et al. (2011) studied social learning spaces and their potential impact on student
engagement. The researchers conducted over a hundred informal interviews and found out that
“social learning spaces can contribute to enhanced student engagement by fostering active
learning, social interaction and belonging amongst tertiary students.” Such social places are often
informal by their nature and represent something else than formal space types at school.
Student attendance
Earlier research has examined the correlation between student attendance (i.e., fewer instances of
lateness or absenteeism) and facility condition, poor indoor air quality, and inadequate lighting.
For instance, Durán-Narucki (2008) have studied the role of school attendance as a mediator of
the relationship between facilities’ condition and student grades. The study showed empirical
evidence that a poor school building correlates with student attendance, which led to decreased
academic achievement. Rosén and Richardson (1999) linked poor air quality to absenteeism.
They found that reducing the number of particles in the air resulted in reduced child absence.
Hathaway (1992) argued that absenteeism and inadequate lighting correlate with each other.
Affect
In essence, affect is improvements in self-esteem for teachers and learners, increased self-esteem
and identity and improvements in mood and motivation. Earlier studies have found that noises,
the visual environment, ergonomically designed furniture and an open layout plan seem to be
positively correlated with student affect. Lundquist et al. (2002) linked annoying noise to
children’s level of mood in their study of the visual environment and concluded that it “affects a
166
learner´s ability to perceive visual stimuli and therefore affects [a] student´s mental attitude. In
addition, Troussier (1999) found that students have a preference for ergonomically designed
furniture. Rivlin and Rothenberg (1976) stressed that students wish to perceive some privacy,
which challenges the advantages of open plan classrooms.
User satisfaction
Learning is no more only knowledge distribution where a lecturer distributes his/her knowledge
in auditoriums. Learners are requiring more dynamic and interactive methods of learning
(Poutanen 2012). To meet this requirement of interactivity, the physical facilities benefit from
having different layout options so that a sufficient level of flexibility is achieved. “It has been
discovered that users appreciate possibilities to control their environment and it increases user
satisfaction” (Nenonen et al. 2013).
Student behaviour
Air quality, temperature and the school layout have been found to correlate with student
behaviour. For example, Fisher (2001) and Schneider (2002) argue that air quality and
temperature affect student behaviour. Moore (1986) claims that the layout arrangement of pre-
school environments affects children’s behaviour. Social cohesion is easier to achieve in a
comfortable indoor environment because it does not cause e.g. tiredness. This also seems to
imply that basic physical variables have to meet the minimal requirements before it is possible to
change other requirements.
Based on the reviewed literature, considerable evidence for correlations between indoor
environment elements and specific learning outcomes exists. Table 1 sums up the findings and
presents the evidence matrix of learning outcomes. The correlations are indicated by applying the
method of Ulrich et al. (2008).
Table 1. Relationships between design strategies and outcomes
Arrangement/ layout
Lighting and colour
Indoor environment elements Facility condition
Informal areas at
Air quality and
temperature
Daylighting
Furniture
school
Noise
Learning outcome
Attainment ** ** ** ** * *
Wellbeing ** ** *
Engagement (Study commitment) ** * * *
Attendance * * *
Affect * * *
User satisfaction * *
Behaviour * *
* indicates that a relationship between a specific indoor element and a learning outcome was indicated, directly or
indirectly, by a one empirical study reviewed in this report.
** indicates that there is strong evidence (converging findings from multiple studies) that a specified indoor
element improves a learning outcome.
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3. UTILIZATION OF THE EVIDENCE MATRIX IN BRIEFING

The evidence matrix (Table 1) can be utilized by building owners as a tool in the building
briefing process. Both Pennanen and Koskela (2005) and Alexander et al. (2013) emphasize
dialogue in briefing between owner, user and other stakeholders. The dialogue should include:
1. User activity description
2. Workplace requirement description
3. Performance requirement description
4. Use-of-resource description.
These four steps can be both widened and deepened by applying the EBD process. In addition of
functional requirements described as the user activity description also a functional requirements
of the desired value-in-use for the user can be added to the brief. In addition of the design
parameters of performance the brief can include EBD design parameters from the resulting
evidence matrix. These two steps also include the seed for an evaluation of the outcome, which is
not only based on evaluating the performance of the building but also on the evaluation
outcomes of the performance of the users. This provides an approach that is closer to the
usability appraisals developed in earlier studies (Alexander et al. 2013).
Table 2 provides an example of an EBD application in the briefing process. Building design is
the next phase after briefing. The success of the design solution can be evaluated with the brief.
For example, if the presented design solution achieves design parameters and constraints e.g. the
requirement of workplace, performance, EBD, and use-of-resources in normal conditions, the
design can be accepted.
Table 2. Example of EBD and brief implementation
Type Briefing Briefing Role of Matrix Example of values

phase content in
the dialogue
Functional User activity User vision Setting a context for Classroom for 30 pupils
requirements description User processes a learning
environment project
Desired value User goals for Providing examples Improved student attainment by 30%
in use for the the value of and good practices during the first 5 years of operation
user the solution
Design Workplace User space Providing new Classroom requires 45 m2 and the
parameters requirement needs insights for the room must be divisible into 2 small
and description learning work group spaces
constraints environment, for
example, use
flexibility
Performance Technical Setting a context to Load 5 kN/m2
requirement solutions technical solutions
descriptions
Evidence- Evidence- Providing Attainment (requirements):
Based based choices recommendations
requirements - Air quality level: CO2 level at 600
from the ppm (Satish et al. 2012) and
resulting - Internal temperature level: 23
evidence Celsius degrees (Maula et al 2012)
matrix - Noise: Ambient noise levels under
57 dBa (Haines et al 2001)
168
- Colour: Bright colours (Warm

colour for senior grades and cool
colours for junior grades) (Barret
et al. 2013)
- Lighting: High quality and
quantity of the electrical lightings
(Barret et al. 2013)
- Day-lighting: Classrooms receive
natural light from more than one
direction (Barret et al. 2013)
Use-of- Goals for Basics for long-term The classroom will be in good use
resource evaluation of and short-term (utilization degree 70%), life-cycle
description learning evaluation costs of the classroom are 15 € / m2 /
environments year.
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4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Correlations between learning outcomes and design solutions can be identified in several studies.
According to the literature, better learning outcomes can be gained through attainment, student
well-being and personal fit, student engagement, student attendance, affect, user satisfaction, and
student behaviour.
The main finding of this paper is that the presented evidence matrix can be used by a building
owner to set functional requirements and design parameters that support learning in facilities and
to utilise EBD results during a building briefing phase in a more systematic way. This article
suggests that EBD methodology can be implemented in a building briefing phase to support the
benefits that the facility offers for its users.The presented briefing model is potentially valuable
for building owners in all procurement models. For example, in a traditional design / bid / build
model the brief can be utilized to monitor whether the design solution fulfils the design
parameters. In the Design & Build model, the brief can be utilized to evaluate the design quality
of tenderers’ offers.
As the EBD results have been collected globally, the results of this paper in relation to the
correlation matrix can potentially be generalised internationally. The correlation matrix was
objectively constructed from the literature and, moreover, 16 industrial experts confirmed that
the correlation matrix covers relevant aspects and literature. The briefing process is also
potentially useful in other industries, for example in healthcare, as the construction management
process is in general industry-neutral.
The results of this paper are only suggestive and thus the briefing process needs further testing.
In future, longitudinal studies are needed to evaluate the effects that the EBD-integrated briefing
has on construction management and value-in-use.
5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study has been conducted as part of the RYM Ltd program Indoor Environment, partly
funded by Tekes. Moreover, the authors are grateful to PhD Olli Niemi from SYK Ltd and prof.
Seppo Junnila from Aalto University for giving valuable insights about the topic.
170
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173
SECTION SIX:
RELATIONSHIP MANAGEM ENT IN FACILITIES MANAGEMENT
Introduction
Relationship management in FM
Keith Alexander
Papers
Discovering the Relationship Lifecycle in FM: Phases and Drivers of Client Value
Perceptions
Christian Coenen and Paul Nwanna.
Relationship value and relationship quality in FM

Ying Ying Cui.
Introducing marketing and market research to FM firms: a conceptual framework for

managing the change process
Arno Meerman, Vanessa Lellek and David Serbin.
174
Introduction
RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT IN FM
Keith Alexander
Pioneering research by Coenen et al (2013), as part of the Added value of FM project, introduced
and described the concept of the FM Value Network which takes a subjective perspective and
focuses upon the relationships amongst key FM stakeholders. The work proposes a demand
perspective and considers client, customer and end user perceptions of value. The approach is
consistent with the thinking that underpins the European standards in FM (EN 15221) and
provides a conceptual foundation for considering a demand driven, service-oriented and user
focused approach to FM. It introduces important concepts drawn from related fields such as
services marketing, business economics and management and identifies an agenda for future
research.
Building on this work, Coenen has continued to focus on relationship management and upon
business to business relationships between clients and service providers in particular. In the
paper in this section, Coenen and Nwanna investigate how client value perception varies at different
stages in the lifecycle of a relationship and identify drivers that are responsible for this. The
findings highlight specific areas where clients’ trust and control perceptions vary. The authors
propose that FM providers should focus on clients’ perceptions of value, rather than purely
delivering the terms of the contract, in order to build client loyalty.
Joint work presented at last year’s symposium in Prague (Coenen and Cui, 2013), has been developed
further by Cui, in a study to adapt a model of buyer-seller relationships, with an emphasis on
supplier performance evaluation in the field of FM. Cui’s paper presents the model and explores
links with satisfaction and trust, as key constituents of relationship quality. The paper argues that
measuring customer satisfaction allows a service provider to make strategic decisions in respect
to resource allocation (i.e. which complaints to resolve) and strengthens customer relationships.
Meerman’s paper also addresses the relationship between clients and providers and addresses the
challenge of including customer satisfaction in the productivity measurement process in facilities
management. The paper proposes ways in which service providers can integrate the
measurement of customer satisfaction in their measurement processes.
Recent marketing studies have suggested additional dimensions for investigation, for example
commitment and control. Taken together, this research provides basis for further in-depth
investigation in the study of relationship value and relationship quality in FM.
References:
Coenen, C., Alexander, K., and Kok, H. (2013), “Facility Management Value Dimensions from a
Demand Perspective”, Journal of Facilities Management, 11, 4, 339-353.
175
Coenen, C. and Cui, Y. (2013), Relationship Value in FM: A Customer Perspective,

International Journal of Facilities Management, Special Issue EFMC2013, 9-24.
176
Discovering the Relationship Lifecycle in FM:

phases and drivers of client value perceptions
Christian Coenen and Paul Nwanna
E Mail: coen@zhaw.ch
ABSTRACT
Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to identify FM client value perceptions as well as the key
drivers of this B2B relationship.
Design/methodology/approach: A literature search on relationship lifecycle and customer value

is used to design semi-structured, in-depth group interviews with three large client organizations
and their respective FM suppliers.
Findings: Three key phases of a FM relationship lifecycle are identified and analysed. In
addition, main drivers of relationship value along these different stages are characterized. These
include hard and soft drivers during the initiation stage as well as pull-and-push drivers during
the enhancement stage. Relationship dissolution can be triggered by problem-related or strategy-
related drivers. Along the relationship lifecycle, FM customers perceive varying degrees of trust
and control toward the supplier.
Originality/value: The research provides a case study of how client value perception varies
along the relationship lifecycle stages and which drivers are responsible for this. The findings
highlight specific areas where clients’ trust and control perceptions vary. FM providers need to
create client loyalty by managing relationships professionally, rather than merely generating new
clients. Thus, providers should focus on clients’ value perception, rather than purely delivering
the contract.
Keywords
Relationship Lifecycle, Client, Value, Trust, Control
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1 INTRODUCTION
The focus on cost reduction and efficiency has pushed companies into long-term relationships
with their suppliers. Few would question the idea that the quality of supplier-customer
relationships accounts for a great amount of business success. In their 2012 RICS research paper,
Ware and Carder justified the existence and relevance of strategic FM relationships by stating
that, “the Head of Facilities is at the centre of a web of relationships, between the senior
executives, SBUs, IT, HR, RE and (…) usually the service providers” (2012, p. 21). As Sarshar
and Pitt (2009, p. 411) correctly noted, “FM is primarily about people and it is the people of the
FM organizations that make or break customer relationships.” These relationships originate first
with one party, mature over time and, after several years’ duration, may decline and finally
terminate. During these various stages, the FM supplier co-creates different amounts of value
with and for his customers.
Despite overall awareness of these different stages, relationship lifecycle research is lacking.
Earlier research in other non-FM fields has tended to view relationships as static, ignoring the
dynamics that occur during the different stages (Dwyer et al., 1987; Eggert et al., 2006).
Additionally, Liljander and Strandvik (1995) stated that the dominant view regarding B2B
exchange has been static. Liljander and Strandvik further propose that unfolding the static
service quality rating within a time duration would highlight the processes by which quality is
developed, maintained, and lost; the authors note that such an approach would lead to
recognizing customers as an “investment object” and good relationships as a “potential for
profitability”.
As mentioned above, relationship management and value has been a focus in other disciplines,
such as marketing and services management, while only recently, the FM field discovered this
research topic (Coenen et al., 2012; Cui, 2013; Coenen and Cui, 2013). Hence, further research is
needed for a better understanding of how FM customers view value creation across the entire
relationship lifecycle. As stated in EN 15221-1 (2006), the FM customer category can be split
into three levels: clients at the strategic level, customers at the tactical level, and end users at the
operational level. This research solely takes the perspective of the client, hence the strategic
perspective.
The aim of this paper is to identify the nature of client value perceptions as well as the key
drivers within the various stages of B2B relationships in FM. Using a case study approach, field
data is derived from different client organizations and FM service providers that have dyadic
relationships. Based on interviewing and literature research, the main steps of an FM relationship
lifecycle are identified and analysed. In addition, the main relationship value drivers along these
different stages are characterized with implications for research and practice.
2 CONCEPTUAL BACKGROUND OF VALUE DURING B2B RELATIONSHIP

LIFECYCLE
2.1 Value, Satisfaction, Trust and Commitment in B2B Relationships
As Grönroos (2011) pointed out, value co-creation is often discussed on a philosophical level.
Basically, value is the trade-off between what one benefits and what one sacrifices (Zeithaml,
178
1988; Sánchez-Fernández & Iniesta-Bonilla, 2007). Benefits are what the customer seeks to buy,
whereas sacrifices, according to Berry (2009), have both a monetary component (economic
costs) and a non-monetary component (for example, inconvenience or time invested). For
customers, value means that they feel better off than before after having been provided with
resources or interactive processes (Grönroos, 2008). Delivering superior value entails
maximizing benefits and minimizing sacrifices for customers in their supplier relationship
(Coenen et al., 2013).
Similar to value, the concepts of satisfaction, trust, and commitment have been identified in
various marketing studies as essential determinants of long-term buyer-seller relationships
(Dwyer et al., 1987; Moorman et al., 1992; Gundlach et al., 1995; Mishra, 2000; Dash et al.,
2007). Satisfaction and trust have been identified as key relationship commitment drivers
(Mishra, 2000). Teas (1994) claimed that satisfaction cannot validate a relationship by itself
since there are possibilities that one could look only at the satisfaction derived from recent
experiences. Dash et al. (2007) noted that satisfaction and trust increases as the relationship
environment between both parties progresses and defined trust as, “one party’s belief that its
needs will be fulfilled in the future by the actions undertaken by the other party” (2007, p. 5).
Dash et al. further state that trust is an essential relationship “building block”, and stress that
business partners allocating resources to build a relationship over a period of time expect that
trust should be the major emotional aspect for both parties.
Commitment in relationships generally shows that both parties value its importance and are
willing to ensure it lasts over a long period of time (Gundlach et al. 1995; Wilson, 1995).
Commitment is defined as, “an implicit or explicit pledge of relational continuity between
exchange partners” (Dwyer et al., 1987, p. 19) and the authors emphasise that commitment
indicates the readiness to make short-term sacrifices in order to obtain long-term benefits.
Moorman et al. (1992) stressed commitment as an enduring desire to maintain “value
relationship”.
Since it can be assumed that an FM client’s value perception, satisfaction, trust and commitment
are not static or permanent during the entire life cycle of the relationship, the next paragraph
introduces the different stages of buyer-seller relationships.
2.2 Generic lifecycle stages in a B2B setting
While considerable research has focused on relationship management and value in general, only
a limited amount of research takes a holistic view at the lifecycle of the entire B2B relationship
duration (Eggert et al., 2006; Jap and Anderson, 2007). In addition, much relationship dynamic
research is mainly conceptual in nature (Wilson, 1995, Wilson and Jantrania, 1996).
Some of the few publications that deal with relationship dynamics date back to the late 1980s. In
their research from 1987,Dwyer and his colleagues. describe the theory in which both parties
build a relationship in a sequence of steps until they get to a level of commitment or dissolve the
relationship, offered a stage model as shown in Figure 1.
179
Figure 1: Relationship development process (similar to Dwyer et al., 1987, p. 21).
Relationship Phase
Phase Characteristics
1. 1. Unilateral considerations of
potential exchange partners
Awareness
2. Dyadic interaction occurs.

2. Enabling Sub-processes for Deepening Dependence A gradual increase in inter-
dependence reflects bilateral
Exploration Communication/ Power/ testing and probing. Termination
Attraction of the fragile association is
Bargaining Justice simple.
3. A successful power source

Norm Expectations exercise marks the beginning of
expansion. Mutual satisfaction
3. development development with customized role perfor-
mance supports deepening
Expansion interdependence. Additional
gratifications are sought from the
current exchange partner, rather
than from an alternative partner.
4. Contractual mechanisms
4. and/or shared value systems
Shared values and governance structures
Commitment ensure sustained inter-
support joint investment in relation dependencies. Mutual inputs
are significant and consistent.
Partners resolve conflicts and
adapt.
0 Seller’s dependence Buyer’s dependence 0
on buyer on seller
Dwyer et al.’s relationship development model highlighted primary transitions and phase
characteristics to explain that awareness is a unilateral, pre-exchange process and that mutual
considerations and dyadic interactions initiate exploration, which is mainly a relationship testing
period. Continual exchange may reflect an extended testing period. The exchange association is
easily terminated at this stage and the relationship might end before really starting. However, if
the parties effectively communicate, negotiate roles reflecting fair contributions from both sides,
and form expectations for promising future interactions, the relationship enters into the
expansion stage. The five sub-processes shown in Figure 1 support a new path of deepening the
expansion phase interdependence. As Dwyer et al. further explained, the commitment phase then
supports high mutual dependence by defining the exchange relation with value structures and
contractual mechanisms that ensure durability. Ford et al. (1998) noted that any party’s action
that leads to higher cost perception or lesser reward, and therefore less relationship value, could
180
FMC 2014
likely leead to reducced committment whichh in turn haas negative effects on the continuuity of the
relationship.
3 R
RESEARC
CH METHO
OD AND ANALYSIS
3.1 R
Research a
approach
Using an inductivve approacch, the auuthors adoppted the suubjectivism m and interrpretivism
philosopphies by loooking at thee world as dynamic.
d w exploring the study
Thhese philosoophies allow
area in detail
d (Rem
menyi et al., 1998). Morre details reggarding the research chhoices and ttechniques
can be observed
o in Figure 2.
Figurre 2: The Ressearch Onionn (adapted froom Saunders et al. 2009, pp. 138).
3.2 D
Data collecction and an
nalysis
Multiplee case studies (semi-strructured, in--depth groupp interviews) collectedd data from two
t major
industriaal engineering compannies and onne major finnancial servvice organizzation that have
h B2B
relationships with m major FM service
s provviders. According to Robson
R (20002), a case study is a
researchh strategy thhat examinees a typical contemporary phenom menon in itss natural conntext with
the helpp of several eevidence soources.
The semmi-structuredd, dyadic grroup interviiews with F
FM clients aand providerrs serve as oone of the
most vittal informattion sourcess (Yin, 20003) and focuus only on the core buusiness orgaanization’s
strategicc level. Acccording to Laforest
L (20009), semi--structured interviews
i aare approprriate when
181
working with smaller samples to understand a particular situation, as well as to augment and
validate information obtained from other sources. Laforest (2009) further stated that semi-
structured interviews provide access to “perceptions and opinions”, which are very useful for
gaining insight into a particular study subject.
As can be observed in Table 1, the dyadic interviewees have had a notable relationship
experience with each other (between 8–15 years).
Table 1: Overview of interviewees and relationship duration
Interview Interviewee Interviewee Duration

Reference Role Position of Relationship
1A Client Head of Shared Services
11 years
1B FM Service Provider Key Account Manager
2C Client Vice President

15 years
2D FM Service Provider Key Account Manager
3E Client Chief Financial Officer (CFO)

8 years
3F FM Service Provider Key Account Manager
Since the main data source was audio-recorded group interviews, analysis consisted of
examining, categorizing, structuring or, in some cases, reorganizing the transcribed data.
4 RESULTS
Based on the above model by Dwyer et al. (1987), the interviews identified three key stages and
certain drivers. The following excerpts present evidence regarding FM client’s value perception
along these stages. The presented results reflect only the client’s perspective and leave out the
provider’s side, because the main focus of this research is the client’s point of view. It can be
stated that during the interviews, the FM providers mostly agreed to the statements of their
respective clients. This section only describes the pure results without analyzing them. The
corresponding analysis is provided in the discussion section.
4.1 Relationship Stages
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4.1.1 Initiation stage
a) Selection criteria
 “We looked at offer price, performance, positive feelings and impression and word of mouth from
colleagues.” (1A)
 “We made comparisons with other FM service providers (…) by looking at FM providers
being able to do what customers want. Unfortunately, looking at (…) FM market,
providers are not able to meet all the demands of the customer. Other criteria we looked
at are history/background of FM providers, transparency, providers with good brand
name and providers with banking industry experience.” (2C)
 “We looked at offers which fit to a very large extent to the expectations of our
organization. Unfortunately, the FM market (…) is not large and there are only a handful
of providers who are capable of handling the size of our real estate portfolio; hence there
is no need to compare with other smaller FM providers.” (3E)
b) Value drivers
 “We want to have one face to the customer and not twenty, meaning that we, as a
customer, are looking for only one provider with good FM proficiency that can handle all
customer demands and that provider should fit with our strategy.” (1A)
 “We are looking for FM providers with good value for prize in addition to a good brand
name.” (2C)
 “For us, (…) we are looking for a FM provider with the right capability in terms of size,
good background, competency and ability to fulfill our requirement catalogue such as
capability to sort out infrastructural/technical points and capability to adapt to the
various phases of our projects as well as response time and, of course, value for
cost.”(3E)
4.1.2 Enhancement stage
a) Enhancement initiators
 “It was a consequence of past satisfactory performance that led to the enhancement of
the relationship by the customer through renewal of the contract.” (1A)
 “Our management goes to our service provider’s management to discuss the relationship
enhancement based on satisfactory performance; however, if there are changes in our
strategy, further questions will be raised.”(2C)
b) Value drivers
 “We should also be able to jointly develop processes with such providers; above all,
there should be a balance between prize and benefit.” (1A)
183
 “We perceived our provider as being able to: create new processes, innovate, reduce
cost, cancel non-value-adding processes, and provide qualified personnel (…) to fulfill
every need of the customer.” (1A)
 “I also wish to state that our long-term relationship of 11 years has generated a good
working process, but I would like to stress that there is also a consequence of not
changing a provider as a result of the long-term relationship.” (1A)
 “Our relationship is based on trust, which lies in the capability of the provider to deliver
on the promised services, but we have also - at a higher level - the contract with the right
set of KPIs, but first is trust which led to the enhancement of the relationship.” (2C)
 “It is worth noting that the cost of changing a provider within a short relationship
duration is much higher than the cost of maintaining the current relationship from
experience. Therefore, prior to entering into a B2B relationship it’s worth spending time
and resources to select the best provider to build a long-term relationship with.” (3E)
4.1.3 Dissolution stage

a) Relationship issues/problems
 “We do have issues with our provider. A good example is the issue with roof leakage;
however, we communicate the issue to our FM provider and since we have a process for
solving issues - as long as they stay within the time frame of resolving the issue according
to our process - we are satisfied.” (1A)
 “We believe that good process brings good value for money and satisfaction, which can
be achieved through adequate communication and explanation of the way forward.
Anything short of this could deteriorate the relationship.” (2C)
 “We had performance issues with our former provider (…). The issue was a combination
of several accumulated issues which we did communicate to the provider, but
unfortunately they were unable to address them in line with customers’ expectations.
Hence the contract was terminated.” (3E)
 “All problems start with expectations. Therefore, if you did not specify your work
package correctly at the beginning then you are lost afterwards.”(3E)
b) Changes in client strategy

 “Changes in our strategy in terms of finding new ways of doing things when compared to
other FM providers, could lead to the termination of our relationship with our current
provider, if we perceive that they are not able to fulfil our requirements.” (1A)
 “For us, the relationship could go bad when we have a change in our strategy in order to
get the best value for prize and quality which our current provider is not able to fulfil.”
(2C)
184
4.2 Dynamics of value, trust and control during the lifecycle

a) Dynamics of value expectations
 “I believe that the value expectations differ along the different stages. For example, high
communication in the beginning of the relationship and less trust, but at a later stage of
the relationship, less communication and higher trust and commitment.” (1A)
 “There are different value expectations; for example, in the beginning of the relationship,
a lot of communication is required for better understanding of needs, adaptations and
possibility to jointly work together, but as the relationship develops good processes are
put in place and less communication is required.” (2C)
b) Dynamics of trust and control

 “At stage 1 (…) of the relationship, I expect more control and less trust, then at stage 2
(…) I expect more trust and less control and finally, at stage 3 (…) of the relationship I
expect both equal trust and control.” (1A)
 “In the beginning of the contract (…), I would say 75 percent control and 25 percent
trust; during the contract (…) it changes, but if the performance of the provider is good
or even better, it can be 50 percent control (set on contractual requirement) and 50
percent trust.” (2C)
After showing various examples of the interview results, the coming section aims at discussing
these results and deriving implications for practice and research.
5 DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

5.1 Relationship lifecycle stages and corresponding drivers
The results show that three key stages can be differentiated: 1) Relationship Initiation, 2)
Relationship Enhancement, and 3) Relationship Dissolution.
In the initiation phase, two driver categories were identified. First, hard facts, such as supplier
size, one-face-to-the-customer, or industry experience, play an important role for supplier
selection. These facts can mostly be observed and assessed by the client before the contract is
signed. “Value for money” is also mentioned by all interviewees, but should not be confused
with the prize of the offering. As Coenen et al. (2013) pointed out, in FM, one might know the
costs of the offering and be able to calculate the price, but not be able to determine the value
since all stakeholders define the value in FM. Thus, the driver “value for money” is not as clearly
assessable as the above-mentioned hard facts. The second driver category, that is, soft facts,
include, for example, positive feeling, good brand name or positive word-of-mouth about the
supplier. These drivers are not as easy to measure, nor are they as valid, as the hard facts,
because they largely depend on the subjective perception of the individual client.
Satisfactory performance in the initiation phase leads to the enhancement phase, in which FM
suppliers can actively push and outperform their competitors by acting innovatively in process
development together with the client, reducing costs by, for example, eliminating non-value-
adding processes, or building up client trust, which lies in the provider’s ability to deliver on the
185
promised services. Besides these active factors, certain passive pull factors can enhance the
relationship. If, for example, the expected monetary and non-monetary costs of switching the FM
supplier exceed the expected benefits, the client will most probably stay in the current
relationship, despite not being fully satisfied. As described in Figure 1, this phenomenon might
very well increase as the parties’ mutual dependency grows during the course of the relationship.
Thus, for enhancing long-term relationships, expected switching costs should exceed perceived
retention costs. This rule of thumb does not apply only to the client’s perspective, but also to the
FM provider’s perspective, because both parties strive for reaching economic goals.
At any time during both of the above-described relationship phases, reasons for termination and
dissolution can appear. These problem-related drivers might include vaguely specified
expectations that lead to dissatisfaction, broken promises with regard to supplier performance or
costs, or a lack of communication between the two parties. In addition, there are also dissolution
drivers that originate in strategic changes. Strategy-related drivers, for example, a geographic or
functional expansion of the client’s core business, merger with other organizations or insourcing
of formerly outsourced services, might lead to termination of the supplier relationship, because
the FM provider is not able to match the client’s strategic scope. The above-described insights
are visualized in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Relationship lifecycle stages and drivers
Hard Drivers Soft Drivers Push Drivers Pull Drivers
Relationship Relationship
Initiation Enhancement
(Awareness/Exploration) (Expansion/Commitment)
Relationship Dissolution
Problem Drivers Strategy Drivers
Analysing the interview data shows that the client’s subjective trust and control perception varies
along the lifecycle stages. This phenomenon is described in detail in the next paragraph.
5.2 Client’s Trust and Control Perception within the Relationship Lifecycle
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At the initiation phase, the client perceives more need for communication and perceived control
to counteract the potential high risk at this stage of the relationship. Thus, service providers are
well advised to react to the client’s perceived risk by establishing an effective and consistent
culture of communication and offering the client a high degree of perceived process control
through, for example, introducing recurring rituals, such as meetings or status quo information
exchanges with relevant stakeholders. By doing so, the client most likely experiences a better
understanding of his needs, improved opportunities for process and outcome adaptations, as well
as better chances to co-create value.
During the enhancement stage, the perceived risk on the client’s side will most probably
decrease and trust will replace the control function. At this stage, clients may perceive a high
degree of supplier value because the benefits surmount the relationship’s sacrifices. By now,
trust plays a crucial role for both relationship parties, because the client needs trust in the
supplier to reduce control costs. On the other side, the supplier needs trust to be able to improve
and innovate with regard to service design, cost optimization, and process innovation.
If the dissolution of the relationship is based on supplier problem drivers, as explained in the
preceding chapter, the perceived value will most probably decrease, because the monetary and
non-monetary control costs will increase toward the potential termination of the relationship. In
the alternative case, that the dissolution is not initiated by problem drivers, but by strategy
drivers, the degree of perceived value and trust from the client’s perspective can still be
considerably high. In this case, the termination of the relationship is mainly based on a lack of
strategic fit of the involved parties, rather than on satisfaction-related issues with the contract.
5.3 Limitations and Future Research

Among the study’s limitations is the case study approach. As with any case study, the sample
size is limited. The three client organizations were industrial engineering and financial services
organizations and they may not represent the views of other industries. Additionally,
investigations on customer’s perceptions on a tactical level as well as on an operational level
(FM end users) might provide some more insight into FM relationship lifecycles.
With regard to future research in this field, there are various opportunities that promise
interesting insights. First, relationship lifecycle stages in FM can be further examined by using
the presented results to validate the findings with the help of a bigger sample size. This approach
would offer opportunities to include data from other industries, as well as from distinctive
customer types (client/customer/user), and other national and cultural backgrounds. It can, for
example, be assumed that relationship practices in Europe may vary significantly from practices
in Asia, Africa or the Americas. Second, the interplay between trust and control within the
different FM relationship lifecycle stages needs further exploration. Psychological contract
models might be of help exploring this field in depth. Third, reasons for retaining or terminating
the relationship with FM suppliers have to be looked at more closely. The trade-off between
switching and retention costs promises to be an interesting research field from both perspectives:
FM clients and FM suppliers.
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6 CONCLUSION
The purpose of this paper was to identify FM client value perceptions as well as the key drivers
of this B2B relationship. In this research we were able to detect three different main stages of the
relationship lifecycle: initiation (sub-stages: awareness and exploration), enhancement (sub-
stages: expansion and commitment), and dissolution. During these stages, the value perception of
the client is determined by various drivers (hard, soft, pull, push, problem, and strategy).
As can be seen from these insights, in FM, value co-creation and relationship management are
intertwined. The opportunities for FM suppliers to engage with their client’s value creation call
for a professional and client-centric relationship management approach. As one of our
interviewees stated, “the relationship is like an actual marriage and the do’s and don’ts are like
those in an actual marriage: I would recommend the provider to stick to the promise he made
(…) be honest, trustful and create partnership with the customer.” Only FM providers who are
able to not only manage the agreed services and therefore support the primary activities, but also
have expertise about efficient and successful relationship management with their customers will
be able to outperform their competitors in a sustainable way.
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190
Relationship value and relationship quality in FM

- Customers’ perspective
Ying Ying Cui
Institute of Facility Management, Zurich University of Applied Sciences Switzerland
Yingying.cui@zhaw.ch
+41 79 138 68 56
ABSTRACT
Purpose – Facing the challenge to maximize business productivity and to reduce costs,
companies (especially large size organizations) increasingly consider outsourcing non-core
activities, which are mainly FM services. Customers (who purchase FM services) and suppliers
(who provide FM services) thereby establish business relationships between organizations. This
study aimed to adapt a model of buyer-seller relationship with an emphasis on supplier
performance evaluation in the field of FM. The model was examined to explore the construct’s
links with key constituents of relationship quality, i.e. satisfaction and trust.
Theories – Facility management, relationship value and relationship quality constitute the
fundamental theoretical background of this research.
Design/methodology/approach – A two-stage research design was used. First, in-depth-
interviews were conducted with six senior-level FM managers from large international
companies in Switzerland. Second, quantitative data was gathered in Switzerland and several
European countries from an on-line survey among FM managers from customer companies.
Findings – The findings suggest that relationship value is an antecedent to relationship quality in
FM. Relationship value displays a stronger impact on satisfaction than trust. Satisfaction
positively influences trust.
Originality/value – This research emphasizes the crucial role of relationship value in marketing
in the field of FM. The two constituents of relationship quality (satisfaction and trust) can be
taken as indicators to assess the business relationship in FM.
Keywords
Facility management, Relationship value, Relationship quality, Outsourcing, Partial least squares
(PLS)
1 INTRODUCTION
Business-to-business relationships have been studied in the marketing field for few decades.
According to Ulaga & Eggert (2006), companies from many business markets witness a strong
trend towards closer relationships with their key suppliers. Along this trend, customers have
invested in supplier performance evaluation tools and supplier development programs. It is
191
beneficial to overall return on relationships if customers understand how to build and manage a
portfolio of supplier relationships (Gummesson, 2002; Johnson & Selnes, 2004)
Facility management (FM) provides supportive services to core businesses for companies (CEN,
2006), such as infrastructure maintenance, equipment maintenance, catering, etc. Facing the
challenge to maximize business productivity and to reduce costs, companies (especially large
size organizations) increasingly consider outsourcing non-core activities – FM (Maechling &
Bredeson, 2005). Business relationship is thereby established between the customer companies
and FM service suppliers.
In the FM research field, business relationship is increasingly considered as an important
research topic by academics. For example, dimensions of relationship value have been
investigated and measured (Coenen & Cui, 2013). The current research aimed to adapt a model
of buyer-seller relationship with an emphasis on supplier performance evaluation in the field of
FM. The model was examined to explore the construct’s links with key constituents of
relationship quality: satisfaction and trust.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Facility management and key relationships
CEN (2006) defines facility management as “integration of processes within an organization to
maintain and develop the agreed services which support and improve the effectiveness of its
primary activities.” From the organization’s point of view, there are three key stakeholders:
clients, customers and end users (CEN, 2006). Therefore, the key relationships are the
relationships between these three key stakeholders and FM suppliers.
CEN (2006, p. 5) defines client as “organization that specifies needs and procures facility
services by means of an FM agreement”; it defines customer as “organizational unit that
specifies and orders the delivery of facility services within the conditions of an FM agreement”.
However, in business relationships with external FM suppliers, the roles of client and customer
overlap, since both of them influence the buyer-seller relationship by specifying the needs and
contacting the suppliers. Furthermore, in reality, the client and the customer are the same person
in many companies, since there are no organizational units. Because this research focused on
business buyer-seller relationships in FM. Customer is used in this research as a general term,
meaning organization or organizational units, or people from demand side and who has
influential position in selecting FM suppliers and who can assess the relationship with the
supplier.
CEN (2006, p. 8) defines the FM service provider as “the organization that is responsible for the
delivery of one or more facility services”; and defined supplier as “the provider of a facility
service or a product”. To reduce the complexity, this research uses supplier (a general term) as
the external organization from supply side, who provides the customer with one or more facility
services or products.
Relationship value
Relationship value has always been the fundamental base for all marketing activities (Holbrook,
1994). Market exchanges happen because all parties involved expect benefits after the exchange
(Ulaga & Eggert, 2006). The higher the value received, the stronger the motivation to sustain the
business relationship.
Because the present study aimed to investigate from customers’ perspective, customer-perceived
relationship value was the focus. According to Zeithaml (1988), customer value can be defined
as the trade-off between the benefits (“what you get”) and the sacrifices (“what you give”).
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Ulaga and Eggert (2006) expanded the definition: “trade-off between the benefits and the costs
perceived in the supplier’s core offering, in the sourcing process, and at the level of a customer’s
operations, taking into consideration the available alternative supplier relationships”.
Although customer-perceived value has been conceptualized under different assumption and
perspectives, four general characteristics can be summarized:
(1) Value is a subjective concept (Kortge & Okonkwo, 1993).
(2) It is conceptualized as a trade-off between benefits and sacrifices (Zeithaml, 1988).
(3) Benefits and sacrifices can be multifaceted (Grisaffe & Kumar, 1988).
(4) Value perceptions are relative to competition (Gale, 1994).
Relationship quality
According to Bruhn (2002), relationship quality stands for the customer’s perception of the
relationship and is defined as the ability of the supplier to fulfil the customer’s relational needs.
Relationship quality is typically conceptualized as a higher-order construct, which is comprised
several positive relationship outcomes that reflect the overall strength of a relationship (Smith,
1998). For example, Crosby et al. (1990) and Wray et al. (1994) suggested relationship quality
should be composed of at least two aspects: trust and satisfaction.
Trust
Trust is one of the most widely accepted concepts in relationship marketing (e.g. Dwyer et al.,
1987; Ganesan, 1994). According to Morgan & Hunt( 1994), trust means having confidence in
the reliability and integrity of an exchange partner and a willingness to rely on this confidence.
Trust is thought to be a building block or foundation for satisfactory interactions (Wilson, 1995).
Satisfaction
Customer satisfaction is widely accepted by researchers as a strong predictor for long-term
business relationships (Ulaga & Eggert, 2006). Satisfaction is the emotional state that occurs in
response to an evaluation of interaction experiences in relations to alternatives (Westbrook &
Oliver, 1981). It serves to strengthen bonds of trust.
Quality and value are distinct constructs (Iacobucci et al., 1995; Ostrom & Iacobucci, 1995);
however, they have some common characteristics that make them hard to distinguish (McDougal
& Levesque, 2000). Customers subjectively evaluate performance atributes based on a set of
standards they observe when developing judgements on quality (Spreng & Mackoy, 1996).
Similar to this, the perceived value of various alternatives is evaluated relative to a multi-atribute
reference point (Powers & Dawn, 2008). According to (Ulaga & Eggert, 2006), relationship
value is an antecedent to relationship quality. They found out that relationship value is positively
correlated with relationship quality and directly affects satisfaction and trust. Satisfaction
positively affects trust. The research therefore developed two hypotheses:
H1: Relationship value positively affects relationship quality.
H2: Greater satisfaction leads to greater trust.
The research adapted a model of relationship quality and examined the two hypotheses in the FM
field (see section 4).
3 METHODOLOGY
Sampling procedure
Several steps were taken to develop the survey instrument. In a first step, depth-interviews were
conducted with six senior-level facility managers from different international companies in
eastern Switzerland. The participating companies were active in various industries, such as
pharmaceutical, agriculture and financial service. They purchased various FM services from
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external suppliers. The participants had a direct relationship with their FM suppliers and an
average 10 years’ experience in this kind of business relationship. The interviews lasted from 60
to 90 minutes.
In a second step, construct definitions and a list of items addressing each constructs’ underlying
dimensions were developed based on the analysis of previous interviews and a review of existing
literature.
In a third step, a questionnaire prototype was developed. The survey instrument comprised three
parts. In the first part, participants were asked to provide general information about their
companies. The second part contained items for evaluating the relationship constructs. All items
used seven-point rating-scales (1 = “strongly disagree “; 7 = “strongly agree”). In the third part,
participants were invited to respond to a set of questions describing themselves and the supplier
relationship. Finally, the prototype was submitted to three facility managers to ensure that
respondents correctly understand the directions and questions in the questionnaire.
The online questionnaire was sent to companies in Denmark, Germany, the UK and Switzerland
that outsourced FM services. The participants were selected from members of IFMA, FM
Alumni Switzerland, CFM Denmark, and personal contacts. The questionnaire targeted on senior
level FM customers in order to have high validity and reliability in the result. It required the
person “who has the direct relationship with the FM supplier and can assess their relationship” to
answer the questionnaire. Some people, who wanted to participate the survey; however, they
didn’t fulfil the requirement, they had to leave it. This requirement filtered out a large number of
respondents (this affected the response rate).
Overall, 478 e-mails with the online questionnaire were sent to targeted participants. Within six
weeks, 60 respondents completed the questionnaire (response rate: 12.55%).
Sample and respondent characteristics
From the returned questionnaire, six responses came from Denmark, three from Germany, two
from the UK, 47 from Switzerland and two from other countries. The respondents were from
different industries and held senior positions in their companies. They had an average of eight
years’ experience in this position and an average of 6.9 years in a relationship with their FM
suppliers.
All 60 respondents were taken into the quantitative analysis, although 11 of them from other
countries. Because they were all European countries and the 11 companies are international;
most of them have branch offices in Switzerland.
4 ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

For initial exploratory analysis, several steps were taken to assess the reliability, validity, and
dimensionality of the relationship constructs. After that, the conceptualized model of relationship
quality in FM was measured and visualized. The analysis used SPSS (statistical analysis),
AMOS and SmartPLS 2.0. software. AMOS enables researchers to specify, estimate, assess and
present models to how hypothesized relationships among variables. Models can be established
and analyzed in SmartPLS 2.0. The software accurately deals with regression analysis between
variables. Table 1 shows the items and formulations for the relationship quality model.
Table 1 Items and Formulations
Item Item formulation

Relationship Compared to the price we pay, we get reasonable quality from our current
value 1 FM supplier.
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Relationship Compared to the quality we get from our current FM supplier, we pay a
value 2 reasonable price.
Relationship The relationship with our current FM supplier delivers us superior net-value.
value 3
Satisfaction 1 Our company regrets the decision to do business with our current FM
supplier.
Satisfaction 2 Our company is very satisfied with our current FM supplier.
Satisfaction 3 Our company would still choose to use our current FM supplier if we had to
do it all over again.
Trust 1 Our current FM supplier keeps promises it makes to our company.
Trust 2 Our current FM supplier is genuinely concerned that our business succeeds.
Trust 3 Our current FM supplier considers our welfare as well as its own when
making important decisions.
Firstly, reliability analysis was conducted to test whether the different items, which represented
the measure of one variable, could indeed be combined within one scale (Field, 2010). With the
help of SPSS, Cronbach’s alpha indicated overall high reliability of the questionnaire. As Table 2
showed values of Cronbach’s alpha were approximately 0.69-0.78 (Field, 2010).
Table 2 Reliability Test
Relationship value Satisfaction Trust

Cronbach’s α 0.75 0.78 0.69
Valid N (Total 60) 55 56 50
N of items 3 3 3
Before testing the model of relationship quality (Figure 1), confirmatory factor analysis was
applied by using SmartPLS 2.0. Partial least squares (PLS) analysis was employed to explore the
links between relationship value and relationship quality.
An overall goodness-of-fit cannot be reported for the model of relationship quality because the
objective of PLS analysis is prediction versus fit. This is the characteristic of PLS analysis
method. It doesn’t influence the reliability of the result (Fornell & Bookstein, 1982). The adapted
model has been studied in marketing field. The purpose of this research was to investigate the
relation between relationship value and relationship quality in the FM field. The scale of the
model is shown in Table 3. Factor loading, t-value, average variance extracted (AVE) and
coefficient alpha indicated that the framework of relationship quality had an acceptable level of
convergent validity (Chin, Marcolin, & Newsted, 2003).
Table 3 Scale Properties of Relationship Quality
Item Factor t-value Average variance Coefficient

loading extracted alpha
Relationship value1 0.94 33.60 75% 0.83
Relationship value2 0.94 44.60
Relationship value3 0.70 4.78
Satisfaction0* 0.80 5.52 78% 0.86
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Satisfaction2 0.94 41.84

Satisfaction3 0.90 31.97
Trust1 0.81 12.96 65% 0.74
Trust2 0.76 5.50
Trust3 0.84 7.32
Note: satisfaction0* is recoded from satisfaction1 by SPSS.
Correlations between items of relationship value, satisfaction and trust were computed using the
Pearson correlation analysis (SPSS). This analysis is to verify the convergent and discriminant
validity. Table 4 shows the correlations between the individual items.
Table 4 Pearson Correlations between Items in Relationship Quality Construct
Construct
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Relationship value1
2 Relationship value2 0.89
3 Relationship value3 0.47 0.47
*
4 Satisfaction0 0.62 0.66 0.35
5 Satisfaction2 0.73 0.76 0.52 0.64
6 Satisfaction3 0.70 0.77 0.52 0.56 0.79
7 Trust1 0.71 0.70 0.37 0.47 0.74 0.62
8 Trust2 0.40 0.40 0.41 0.16 0.40 0.40 0.30
9 Trust3 0.38 0.47 0.39 0.28 0.49 0.39 0.43 0.74
*
Note: satisfaction0 is recoded from satisfaction1 by SPSS.
Correlations are between the items of relationship quality; minimum significance of
correlation is 0.05 (2-tailed).
Estimation of measurement and structural models more rigorously assessed validity of constructs
in the relationship quality was analyzed by AMOS. Table 5 shows the information for judgment
of convergent validity of relationship value, satisfaction and trust. The first column indicates the
paths in the measurement model corresponding to the paths showed in Figure 1. The next
columns show the covariance and its standard error for each path. The critical ratio that follows
these is the ratio of the covariance to the standard error. The “p-value” then gives the probability
of such a “critical ratio” occurring. The last column provides the correlation between the
constructs as generated in AMOS. The information in table 5 shows that the variances for the
paths from the relationship quality construct are all significant at p < 0.05, and they correlate at
greater than 0.5 with each other. There are good indications of convergent validity of the
construct in relationship quality.
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Table 5 Convergent Validity of Relationship Quality

Path Covariance Standard Critical p-value Correlation
error (SE) ratio
Relationship Value  1.35 0.42 3.24 0.001 0.91
Satisfaction
Relationship Value  0.97 0.35 2.77 0.006 0.59
Trust
Satisfaction  Trust 1.85 0.54 3.45 *** 0.61
Note: *** indicates the probability of occurrence of the critical ratio is less than 0.001.
Bootstrapping in SmartPLS 2.0 assessed discriminant validity. Two-hundred replications
calculated the correlations between the constructs of relationship quality, as shown in Table 6.
The last two columns show the mean ± 2× standard errors (SEs) for each pair of constructs. None
of these value ranges overlap the value of 1, supporting discriminant validity of the constructs in
the model (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988).
Table 6 Discriminate Validity of Relationship Quality

Bootstrapped Mean of Standard T statistics Mean Mean
correlation between bootstrapped error (SE) plus minus
correlation 2xSE 2xSE
Relationship Value  0.83 0.06 14.14 0.95 0.71
Satisfaction
Relationship Value  0.72 0.10 7.48 0.92 0.52
Trust
Satisfaction  Trust 0.28 0.14 1.82 0.56 0.00
From the output of SPSS, FM customers were quite satisfied with their current suppliers (M =
4.44, SD = 1.08). The customers also trusted their current FM suppliers (M = 5.41, SD = 1.27).
Satisfaction and trust indicated that the relationship between the customers and their current
suppliers was very well (M = 4.92, SD = 1.01). This result provided the basis for further
correlation analysis between relationship quality and relationship value.
The model assessed the relation between relationship quality and relationship value in the FM
field and verified the two hypotheses, which were formulated in section 2 (see p. 3). The final
results were computed by SmartPLS 2.0 and shown in Figure 1. The variance explained (R2) in
endogenous constructs is 71 per cent for satisfaction and 53 per cent for trust. The relationship
value is positively correlated with relationship quality. With a standardized path coefficient of
0.84, relationship value has the strongest impact on satisfaction. And its direct impact on trust
has a lower standardized path coefficient of 0.49. Satisfaction positively affects trust
(standardized path coefficient r = 0.26).
197
FMC 2014
Figure 2 C
Conceptual M
Model of Rellationship Q
Quality in FM
M
Therefoore, the resuults of measuring thee relationshhip quality model connfirmed the first two
hypotheeses. Relatioonship valuue positively affects reelationship quality andd greater saatisfaction
leads to greater trusst.
The reseearch applieed PLS techhnique in thhe final regrression analysis. The PLS analysiss is a non-
paramettric methodd. The generral idea of PLS is to eextract the latent factoors, accounting for as
much off the manife fest factor vaariation as possible
p whhile modelinng the respoonses well (Fornell
( &
Cha, Paartial least ssquares, 19994). The ressearch aimedd to examinne the existiing knowleddge in the
FM fielld, trying too find the caausal relatioon between relationshipp value andd relationshiip quality.
The oveerall goal off conductingg PLS was to measuree the relationn between vvariables annd explore
potentiaal trends in tthe FM fieldd.
5 C
CONCLUS SION
The rellationship quality
q bettween the customers and the F FM suppliers was asssessed by
satisfacttion and truust. The reesult indicatted a good relationship
r p between thhe customerrs and the
externall FM supplliers. The result
r has a number of o implicatioons for theories, as w well as for
practitiooners: customers and FM M supplierss.
Theorettical impliccations
As exam mined in thiis research, satisfactionn and trust can be adopted to evaaluate the reelationship
quality between a customer aand a FM supplier s (frrom custommers’ perspeective). Based on the
model oof relationsship qualityy in FM (F Figure 1), reelationship value can be an anteecedent to
relationship qualityy. Relationsship value positively influences relationshipp quality. In I another
word, thhe higher cuustomers peerceive the relationshipp value, thee better relaationship quuality they
have wiith the FM ssuppliers.
Manageerial impliccations
Althouggh the reseaarch took the t customeer perspectiive, both cuustomers annd FM supppliers can
benefit from the reesults to undderstand thee relation beetween relattionship quality and reelationship
value. AAssessing thhe satisfaction and the trust of cusstomers couuld help the buyers andd sellers of
FM servvices to finnd out the quality situuations of theirt busineess relationsships. Basedd on this,
customeers and supppliers can fuurther identify opportunnities for impprovement oof their relaationships.
Especiaally for FM suppliers, ccontinuouslly examininng the qualiity of their business reelationship
with thee customerss could prollong the buusiness coopperation. Byy doing thiss, FM custoomers will
198
perceive that they are considered as important. Consequently, they will have the confidence of
their suppliers.
As the relationship value is an antecedent to relationship quality, the more benefits customers
can achieve from the relationship, the better quality of the relationship they will perceive. The
customer perceived relationship value can increase their satisfaction and trust on the FM
suppliers. If the customers are satisfied with the relationships, they will also trust their FM
suppliers.
Further research
This research provides basis for further in-depth investigation in the study of relationship value
and relationship quality in FM. The model of relationship quality (Figure 1) comprises
satisfaction and trust. Recent marketing studies construct the model with also commitment (e.g.
Smith, 1998; Ulaga & Eggert, 2006). Therefore, a next step could include commitment in the
model to test the correlations.
In this research, how does relationship value affect relationship quality and how does
satisfaction infuence trust were examined (see the two hypothesis and the model). Further
research could analyse the other affect direction to analyse whether relationship quality
positively affects relationship value, and whether greater trust leads to greater satisfaction.
It might be also interesting to analyse the outcome of the relationship quality to see whether FM
customers would like to enlarge the scale of outsourced FM services or tend to change the
current suppliers. For example, adding expansion and leave in the relationship quality model to
analyse the corelation between the relatioship quality (satisfaction and trust) and the outcome
(expansion and leave).
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The Path to Excellence:

integrating customer satisfaction in productivity measurement in
Facility Management
Arno Meerman
Münster University of Applied Sciences
meerman@fh-muenster.de
+49 251 20 80 39 81
Vanessa Lellek
vanessa.lellek@fh-muenster.de
+49 251 83 65 460
David Serbin
serbin@fh-muenster.de
+49 251 20 80 39 83
ABSTRACT
This paper addresses the challenge of including customer satisfaction in the productivity
measurement process in Facility Management (FM). Following an initial literature review, two
focus groups, namely a Student Group as well as an Academic Group have been put in place to
extend Bernhold et al.'s (2012) productivity measurement process by adding a 'customer
satisfaction component'. The adapted model integrates several concepts, such as SERVQUAL,
the NPS and CLV. As a result, the paper presents a new way how FM firms can integrate the
measurement of customer satisfaction in their productivity measurement process.
Keywords
Customer Satisfaction Measurement, Productivity Measurement, NPS, SERVQUAL, CLV
1 INTRODUCTION
There is little known on productivity measurement in service organizations, more specifically in
FM (Johnston & Jones, 2003). As services have high heterogeneous characteristics, the
measurement of productivity in service industries (incl. FM) offers a wide range of
complications (Baumgärtner & Bienzeisler, 2006). The Service Productivity Measurement
Model (SPMM) of Bernhold et al. (2012) measured productivity in FM mainly through tangible
monetary factors (e.g. revenues, labor costs, product costs) as well as the amount of (and costs
induced by) reclamations and complaints. Several studies (e.g. Vuorinen et al., 1998) also
vouched for the inclusion of customer satisfaction measurement mechanisms in a productivity
measurement model, as without the integration of customer satisfaction, the level of productivity
201
will be incomplete and not fulfill its initial purpose: control (e.g. Anderson et al., 1997; Drucker,
1954).
This paper aims to contribute to addressing the above mentioned challenge by integrating the
‘customer satisfaction component’ in the productivity measurement process. We will set out the
challenges in productivity measurement in the service industry, as well as the complexity of
customer satisfaction measurement which includes selecting the right measures (e.g. Net
Promoter Score, SERVQUAL) and understanding their importance as well as the influence of the
customer lifetime value (CLV) on the productivity measurement and cost reduction. To achieve
this, theory on both productivity and customer satisfaction measurement is combined with the
results of two focus groups, resulting in a modified SPMM.
2 THEORY
This chapter provides the results of a literature review on the two parent theories involved in this
research, namely productivity measurement and customer satisfaction. More precisely, the
following section will provide a foundation for measuring productivity and presents the SPMM
by Bernhold et al. (2012). The subsequent section details the concept of customer satisfaction as
well as different approaches related to its measurement (e.g. customer retention, NPS and
SERVQUAL)
2.1 Productivity measurement
The economic definition of the classical productivity term refers to the measurement of
production factors and the determination of the relationship between production results and used
resources (Dellmann & Pedell, 1994). According to this definition productivity is to be
understood as a quantitative yield of the transformation process based on the ratio of process
output and input (Sink, 1985). The productivity ratio is thus an indicator for assessing and
monitoring the company’s performance based on its production processes (Corsten & Gössinger,
2009). It is used in order to identify poor production processes, which contain a sub-optimal use
of resources, and to replace those with alternatives that lead to better economic results (Dellmann
& Pedell, 1994).
Productivity measurement of services is closely related to the classical understanding of
productivity, though transferring the concept from manufacturing industry to services remains
difficult due to the different characteristics of goods and services (Baumgärtner & Bienzeisler,
2006; Grönroos & Ojasalo, 2004,; Johnston & Jones, 2004). Another challenge for the
development of a service productivity concept and the design of a consistent measurement model
is the distinction between services (Bernhold, 2010; Corsten & Gössinger, 2007). Services have
very heterogeneous characteristics, making it difficult to identify the significant productivity
factors and their specifications (Baumgärtner & Bienzeisler, 2006). But in general service
productivity is mostly seen as the classical input-output relation which is added by further
service quality dimensions referring to the achievement of a particular service aim. (Grönroos &
Ojasalo, 2004; Johnston & Jones, 2004)
Service productivity in FM can be measured by using the SPMM by Bernhold et al. (2012). In
transferring the SPMM into a process model, the input as internal production factors is first pre-
combined by the service provider and then transferred to the primary service output. After the
delivery of services a quality check is following referring to the assessment of the product-
related technical quality. This can be done internally by the service provider in counting and
assessing quality gaps or externally by customers measured in incoming complaints. The latter is
divided into a technical quality assessment based on the number of complaints which refer to
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variationns from thee contractually agreed sservice quallity and a heedonic quallity assessm ment which
is basedd on the nummber of com mplaints due to the custoomers perceived servicee quality.
In both ways, whether the quaality is checcked internaally or exteernally, bad quality results cause
additionnal inputs ffor rectifyinng the servvice results. But theree lies a diffference in incoming
complaiints: if the service qualiity is varyinng from the contractual agreed servvice result, the
t service
providerr is legally forced to ccorrect the quality gaps; if the inccoming com mplaint is bbased on a
subjective assessmeent of qualiity failures, it depends on the servvice provider whether hhe’s acting
on goodd will and reeworking thee expected sservice resuult.
Since thhe rectificaations of coontractual aand subjectiive complaiints cause additional effort e and
expensees for servvice provideers, they hhave to be consideredd as additiional inputts for the
determinnation of service prooductivity. Therefore the measurrement of service productivity
includess all requireed inputs upp to the finaal completioon of the seervice, meaning until all a deficits
that havve been commplained aboout are proccessed. The input of thee initial prodduction of thhe service
and the additional iinput due to processed complaints
c have to be iincorporatedd in the calcculation of
service productivityy and relateed to the quuantitative seervice outpuut. As a ressult, the meaasurement
of servicce productivvity has to occur
o dynam mically, wheereas the serrvice producctivity scoree has to be
t service productivityy remains comparable over time.
computeed at particuular time inttervals, so that
The servvice productivity score in the SPM MM consists of quantitattive output iin relation tto the total
input of the contrractual agreeed service delivery, including aall additionnal input foor acts of
generosity. The desscribed proccess of prodductivity meeasurement is shown inn the follow wing figure
(Figure 1).
Figuree 1: SPMM based
b on Beernhold et aal. (2012)
2.2 C
Customer ssatisfaction
n and its meeasurementt
This secction is foccused on thhe second pparent theorry of this reesearch – ccustomer saatisfaction.
Startingg with a disccussion of different
d view
wpoints andd highlightinng the mostt prevalent m
model, the
main paart of this section is on relatedd concepts which can be used to t measure customer
satisfacttion.
Customer satisfaction
2.2.1. C
Custom mer satisfacttion can bee defined aas either ann outcome or as a prrocess (Hahhn, 2002).
Outcom me-oriented ddefinitions focus on saatisfaction aas the outcomme of an evvaluation prrocess; for
examplee “the buyeer’s cognitiive state off being adeequately or inadequateely rewardeed for the
sacrificees he has unndergone” (H Howard & S Sheth, 1969, p. 145). Compared to this, processs-focused
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definitioons have been

b develooped aroundd the activiities whichh result in satisfactionn, such as
perceptuual, evaluatiive and psycchological pprocesses, as referred too by Vavra (1997).
(
The moost prevalentt model on customer satisfaction iis the custoomer satisfacction / dissaatisfaction
model (CS/D)
( whicch defines ssatisfaction as the “outtcome of a complex innformation pprocessing
process”” (Herrmannn et. al., 11997, p. 1000) in whicch customerrs evaluate their satisffaction by
compariing the suubjectively perceived performancce of the product oor service with the
mance they expected before the pproduct or sservice wass bought (V
perform Vavra, 19977; Gerson,
1994).
2.2.2. Concepts
C related to custtomer satisffaction
Custommer Retentionn
Custommer retentionn entails the entire lifetiime of conttact with a ccustomer. Itt is not limited to just
providinng the custoomer with thhe desired pproduct and service to tthe expectedd level of quuality, but
also enttails principples such ass CRM and marketing (e.g. Blattbberg et al., 22001; Thom mas 2001).
Custommer retentionn plays an important rrole when it i comes too business ssuccess, as stated by
Flemingg and Aspluund (2007), engaged cuustomers geenerate 1.7 ttimes more revenue thaan regular
(non-retturning) cusstomers. Tuurning existiing customeers in promooters of the facility maanager can
also redduce staff coosts. For m
more than 300 years, cusstomer satisfaction has played a key k role in
marketinng and achiieving finanncial growthh for a comppany (Forneell 1992), acccording to Reichheld
(2003) hhowever, finnancial grow wth is achieeved rather through proomotion andd recommenndation by
customeers than soleely customeer satisfactioon.
Custommer Lifetime Value
A profittable custom
mer is “a perrson, househhold, or commpany whosse revenues over time eexceed, by
an acceeptable amoount, the coompany cossts of attraccting, sellingg, and servvicing that ccustomer”
(Kotler & Armstronng, 1996, p.p 52). The pprofitabilityy of a singlee customer iis also labellled as the
CLV i.ee. “the pressent value oof all the fuuture cash fflows attribuuted to a cuustomer relaationship”
(Pfeifer & Bang, 22005, pp. 448-66). The investmentts made in a specific customer nneed to be
outweigghed by the future revennues generaated by this customer (i.e. ROI). Decision
D cann be based
on the height
h of thee CLV, how
wever, even with a posiitive CLV, a company still has to decide on
how to most effecttively invesst its budget to increasse its ROIs.. Venkatesaan and Kum mar (2004)
defined the calculattion of CLV
V as follows:
CLVi = lifetime vallue of custom

mer xi,m,l = numbber of contaacts to custtomer i in
CMi,y = predictedd contributtion operatting cchannel m inn year l
margin of customerr i in purchaase occasionn y, ffrequency = predicted purchase frequency
measureed in € ffor customerr i
r = discoount rate forr money n = number ofo years to fforecast
ci,m,l = unit
u marketiing cost forr customer i in
channel m in year l
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Ti = preedicted numbber of purchhases made by pperiod

customeer i until tthe end of the planning
The CL LV calculatioon by Venkkatesan and Kumar (20004) has beeen selected as it offers a generic
CLV. One can make the calculaation of thee CLV as complex as desired.
interpretation of C
Howeveer, more coomplicated CLVs alsoo severely ccomplicate the practiccal applicatiion of the
SPMM.
SERVQ QUAL
In the 1980’s
1 theree was an inncrease of ffocus towardds the quality of the products
p andd services
produceed and its coontribution tot efficiencyy and produuctivity (Phiilips et al., 11983), severral studies
have shown that quuality plays a large rolee in future bbuying behaaviour and customer saatisfaction
ml, 1988; B
(Zeitham Bolton & Drrew, 1991). Parasuramaan et al. (19988) developped the SER RVQUAL
model, also
a referredd to as the G GAP Modell. This model is a 22-item measureement instruument that
allows tthe user to aaccess to thhe perceptioon of custom mers on the quality of services.
s Thhese items
can be aassigned to five dimenssions, later also referreed to as the RATER M Model (Zeithaml et al.,
1990), being
b reliabiility, assurannce, tangiblles, empathyy and responnsiveness.
Figurre 2: Gaps Model

M of Seervice Qualiity (Parasurraman et al., 1988)
The SE ERVQUAL questionnnaire entailss a doublee-measurem ment system m, resultingg in two

statemennts of the respondent, with on onne hand 'how w-it-should--be', and onn the other 'how-it-is'.
The respponses are valued on a Likert scaale of 7 (completely aggree) to 1 (ccompletely disagree).
The difference bettween the rresponse onn the 'percepption scale' and the 'expectation scale' can
result inn a service parameter value betw ween -6 andd +6. The hhigher the value,
v the hhigher the
perceiveed service quality
q in resspect to the single serviice parameteers (Babakuus.& Mangoold, 1992).
Net Proomoter Scorre
The NP PS is a meassurement meechanism too measure a customer’ss feelings annd thinking towards a
companny (Net Prom moter Systeem, 2013). It I measures the relationnship between the ‘provvider’ and
its ‘custtomer’ in rrespect to loyalty,
l profit and passsion. The NPS
N is exppressed in ddetractors,
passivess and prom moters, rankeed on a scaale of -100 to +100. W Where the single promoter score
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focussess on a singlle client, thee NPS is caalculated byy detracting the % of prromoters byy the % of
detractoors (Fredericck Reichheldd, 2003).
N (Focus Arrow, 2013)

Figure 3: NPS
The NPS is measurred by a singgle questionn:
“
“How likelyy is it that yoou would reccommend C Company X tto a friend oor colleaguee?”
With those that ansswered betw ween 0 and 6 being cateegorized as ‘Detractorss’ (i.e. negattive worth
of moutth), 7 to 8 beeing ‘Passivve’ and 9 to 10 being laabeled as ‘Prromoters’ of o the compaany, brand
or produuct/service.
3 RES SEARCH D DESIGN
In order to integraate customeer satisfactiion and rellated conceppts in the existing productivity
measureement proceess (see figuure 1), focuss group reseearch was iddentified as the most apppropriate
method.. A focus group
g can bee regarded as a “Careffully planneed discussioon designedd to obtain
perceptiions on a defined arrea of interrest in a ppermissive, non-threattening enviironment.”
(Kruegeer, 1988, p. 18).
The usaage of focuus group ressearch was justified byy two prim mary reasonss. First, botth the FM
sector as
a well as tthe conceptts of producctivity and customer ssatisfaction measuremeent can be
regardedd as rather complex soo that it is hhard for an individual to capture the t entire complexity
e.g. the large set oof different stakeholderrs in FM, the t innovatiion taking pplace in this industry
(Mudrakk et al., 2005) and the t compleexity involvved in the multi-dimeensional cooncepts of
productiivity measuurement andd customer satisfaction. As it is diifficult for a single inddividual to
take all these conceepts into acccount, a form m of interacction througgh a group oof people waas deemed
crucial. Second, inn addition too managing the compleexity of thee research seetting, it waas seen as
crucial tto bring toggether peopple with diffferent backggrounds in order to finnd theoreticaally valid,
but alsoo practical soolutions forr integratingg customer ssatisfaction in the produuctivity meaasurement
process in the FM ssector.
As suchh, two focuus groups w were set up. The first group (herreafter nameed “Student Group”)
consisteed of 12 B Bachelor stuudents curreently studyiing businesss at one oof Germanyy’s largest
universiities of appplied sciennces. The ssecond grouup (hereaftter named “Academicc Group”)
consisteed of 4 academics who are involvedd in FM research and/oor business rresearch.
The Stuudent Grouup undertoook a 4 day long workkshop (Octoober 2013) aiming too integrate
customeer satisfactioon in the SP PMM. Sincee the studennts had not or o only margginally beenn involved
in FM, pproductivityy measurem ment and cusstomer satisfaction, the group was expected too critically
questionn the integrration of thee three aspeects. While the lack off experiencee of the stuudents was
regardedd as a valuaable factor iin the creatiion of a new w productivvity model, it i was seen as crucial
to also include
i a ‘rreview comm mittee’ which overlookks the proceess and the rresults of thhe Student
Group and highligghts challennges respecctively givees directionn. This role was takeen by the
‘Academ mic Group’ which met on the first and third daay of the woorkshop to uundertake thhis review.
Both the Student aas well as thhe Academ mic Group w were moderaated by an eexperiencedd statistics
and marrket researchh lecturer off the busineess departmeent of the unniversity whhere the reseearch took
206
place. While the lecturer has actively influenced the Student Group by giving feedback to their
individual questions, his primary role was to moderate each focus group meeting and transfer the
results from the Student Group to the Academic Group and vice versa.
4 RESULTS
Both the Student as well as the Academic Group used the SPMM by Bernhold et al. (2012) as a
starting point, and have identified central concepts in customer satisfaction research (see section
2.2.) and combined these in order to further advance the SPMM by integrating a customer
satisfaction perspective. This section presents the two main results from the research, namely the
extended SPMM (figure 4 and 5) and a two-step measurement approach for surveying customer
satisfaction amongst FM customers.
4.1 The extended SPMM
The original SPMM, concentrates solely on the financial aspects of reclamation and complaints
and resolving these based on a customer rating. The diagram has been adjusted by adding a
‘customer satisfaction measurement’ pathway. The measurement of customer satisfaction makes
an indirect contribution to the monetary output (i.e. increase of revenue through customer
retention), and indirectly reduces the monetary input (i.e. reduction of costs through efficient
management of complaints). Through improving customer retention, and decreasing a negative
NPS, future input (through customer acquisition and positive marketing) is reduced or can be
spent more effectively.
The process itself has been extended through surveying important customers (based on CLV as
the customer rating factor in the SPMM), and customers whose complaints have been resolved
(which includes all customers). The focus groups vouched for excluding customers whose
complaints have not been resolved. As not every complaint will be resolved (depending on the
complaint and the CLV), surveying those customers whose complaints have not been resolved,
does not serve a clear purpose from a practical perspective.
The results of the surveys are included in the analysis stage, and result in a quality index as well
as a NPS index which will then be included in the productivity calculation. Both indexes can
affect the productivity, e.g. a low quality perception might make the customer leaving, or a low
NPS index might result in negative Word of Mouth (WOM). On the contrary, a high NPS might
result in recommendations of the service to potential new customers, which can be considered as
a positive output in the “input-output relation” (section 2.1).
4.2 Measurement approach
As surveying customers can be an expensive procedure, a two-step surveying method is
suggested with at first solely surveying the NPS of the customer to measure the level of WOM.
Respondents with a positive WOM will not be further surveyed, however the remaining
respondents will be further analyzed using the SERVQUAL method.
As in the industry of FM similar services are provided on a daily basis, a survey after each
service provision will result in extensive costs and/or time for the provider as well as for the
client. Therefore only important customers (from the provider’s perspective) and complaintives
will be surveyed measuring their perspective on the service provider and measuring their
customer advocacy towards the service provider. According to the variant stakeholders in FM it
is important to differentiate between respondents during the measurement of customer
satisfaction: practitioners of the German FM sector remarked within a workshop where the
extended SPMM has been presented, that this measurement approach should be addressed either
to principals or user of buildings, depending on the survey and announced information scope.
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Figure 4: Adjusted SPMM based on Bernhold et al. (2012)

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Figure 5: Customer Satisfaction in SPMM

6 CONCLUSION
Customer satisfaction can make a large contribution to productivity measurement in FM. The
model of Bernhold et al. (2012) has been adjusted and expanded by incorporating customer
satisfaction into the equation. The inclusion of customer satisfaction and CLV in the SPMM
model offers the opportunity to a more effective and efficient method for resource allocation, in
the end, leading to a higher customer retention rate of those customers that are identified as
essential based on their CLV. Additionally, a regular measurement of the NPS, leads to a deeper
insight in the current WOM level of the individual customers, thereby allowing the service
provider to more effectively manage the WOM level on a short-term basis.
Measuring customer satisfaction amongst customers allows a service provider to make strategic
decisions in respect to resource allocation (i.e. which complaints to resolve) and customer
relationship management.
Acknowledgements
The German Federal Ministry of Education and Research funded this work in the scope of the
research project ProMIse, promotion sign 01FL10059. In addition, we gratefully acknowledge
the support provided by the project management agency German Aerospace Center (PT-DLR).
We also thank the whole research team (see www.projekt-promise.de) for the great collaboration
in developing the presented results.
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SECTION SEVEN:
FACILITIES INFORMATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Introduction
Facilities information management systems (FIMS)
Prof. Dr. Torben Bernhold

Fachhochschule Münster
Papers
Sustainable Facilities Management through Building Information Modelling
Giulia Carbonari and Keith Jones.
Usage of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Building Information Models (BIM)
in Facility Management at Botanischer Garten Berlin
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Markus Kraemer and Benjamin Peris M.Sc..
FM Knowledge Modelling and Management by Means of Context Awareness and

Augmented Reality
Janek Götze, Christian-Andreas Schumann, Egon Müller and Michael May.
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Introduction
FACILITIES INFORMATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (FIMS)
Prof. Dr. Torben Bernhold

Fachhochschule Münster
Creating and operating a sustainable built environment based on resource efficiency and
ecological design is one of the major challenges in Facility Management. Therefore professionals
generally seek to find a balance between the impact that buildings have on the environment, the
benefit that buildings bring to society and the economic costs for owners/occupiers. One step to
achieve the objective is to develop whole-life performance models that draw information from
building performance monitoring systems linked to integrated databases that allow a building to
be managed in a sustainable manner (Carbonari). In this context the University of Greenwich, the
research project ArcoFaMa and the research project FMstar focus on Facilities Information
Management Systems.
The University of Greenwich uses Building Information Modelling (BIM) to support the
sustainable facilities management of a multiuse commercial building. Currently BIM is not
generally used in FM, but a lot of facility managers already see its potentials in making FM more
efficient. The benefits of BIM are multifaceted, e.g. the function of a digital model is very useful.
It contains an accurate representation of the building "as-built" and includes all the associated
design, installation, commissioning, certification, operation, and management documentation to
enable better maintenance management decisions. Moreover, if the BIM also gathers information
of the building operation it is useful for facilities managers to understand the building structures.
It also gives the opportunity to develop and test alternatives of operational interventions through
intelligent modelling applications. (Carbonari)
The project AcroFaMa studies the usage of geografic data (GIS) and BIM in FM, which contains
significant economic benefits regarding various fields, e.g. in maintenance planning of technical
property management. It can be used for previous analysis to avoid risks of disasters due to exact
knowledge of geographic positions. The main objective of ArcoFaMa is to enable an easy-to-use
integrated data processing of geographic data linked with multiple data sources, especially a
standard Computer Aided Facility Management (CAFM) system. (Kraemer)
The project FMstar highlights the access to data via mobile devices, which enable the efficient
support of maintenance and approval processes in FM. The project contains the development of
concepts and technologies for semantic modelling and linking of distributed life cycle data of
industrial properties and their flexible and context-based presentation on mobile devices through
Augmented Reality (AR). The project focuses on a mobile information system interacting with a
FM-technician and the reduction of complexity to achieve a higher reactivity. The relevance is
the determining criterion for the selection of provided information. Consequently, the interaction
between the user and the system should be reduced to a minimum. This can be achieved by an
automatic capturing of context information and its AR-based provision. (Götze)
213
Sustainable Facilities Management through

Building Information Modelling
Giulia Carbonari
University of Greenwich
G.Carbonari@greenwich.ac.uk
Telephone +442083319108
Prof. Keith Jones

University of Greenwich
K.G.Jones@greenwich.ac.uk
ABSTRACT
Building Information Modelling (BIM) is an approach to improving the efficiency of the
building process and potentially providing the key data set needed by facilities managers to
operate buildings in a more sustainable manner. Whilst the design/construction phase of BIM is
well advanced, the facilities management phase is not. Although attempts to develop similar
facilities management models have been tried before, they have failed because of the complexity
of data analysis and the inadequacies of the available computing technologies. However, the
BIM concept could overcome these problems and provide the basis for a new information model
for sustainable building operation and management. This paper will present the initial stages of a
three-year project to develop a BIM solution to support the sustainable facilities management of
a multiuse commercial building. The paper summarises the theoretical application of BIM to
facilities management and presents the results of a small questionnaire survey and stakeholder
workshop to ascertain facilities managers understanding of, an attitudes towards, BIM. The paper
concludes that, whilst BIM isn't currently widely used by facilities managers, they are aware of
its development and its potential applications in facilities management. The paper also concludes
that facilities managers generally perceive BIM to be a potential facilitator to their work rather
than an inhibitor.
Keywords
Facilities Management, Sustainability, BIM
1. INTRODUCTION
In 2011, the UK business sector was responsible for approximately 174 Mt of CO2 (28.5% of the
UK’s total) emissions (DECC, 2013), the vast majority of which resulted from the consumption
of energy to provide space heating/cooling, lighting and other support services. Achieving a
reduction in CO2 emissions in line with UK targets (80% by 2050) will require buildings to
perform much more efficiently. Whilst improved energy performance of new buildings can be
driven through green certification or changes to Building Regulations, the same instruments
cannot easily be applied to existing buildings. Given the current rate of new building in the UK
Commercial Building sector it is estimated that approximately 75% of the buildings that will
exist in 2050 have already been built (Ravetz, 2008). Thus reducing the energy consumption
214
from commercial buildings by 2050 will have to come primarily from extensive fabric retrofits to
existing buildings; through more efficient operation of buildings; or a combination of both. This
paper will focus on the improving the operational performance of commercial buildings.
The performance of many buildings in use does not match their design expectations. Whilst
some of the problems may be associated with poor commissioning or inappropriate design,
others are attributed to a lack of understanding of how people actually use the buildings they
occupy (Zieler et al, 2014) or the links between organisational structure, occupant behaviour and
the energy-efficient design strategy (Christina et al, 2014). A study of green buildings in New
Zealand identified the importance of the facilities manager in setting energy performance
strategies and the need for improved operational level management tools to ensure the building’s
energy-efficient performance in use (Zieler et al, 2014). This paper will examine the extent to
which building information modelling (BIM) can provide the platform for the development of
improved facilities management models and tools.
Currently BIM comprise a set of tools that allow the implications of alternative building
solutions to be evaluated prior to their adoption. The system effectively comprises a virtual
model of a building which designers, constructors and clients can manipulate to explore a wider
range of design solutions beyond those that would typically be available through CAD alone.
Whilst BIM is currently being used at the design and construction phase of the building life cycle
it has the potential to transform building operation and management through the provision of real
time feedback on the performance of the building in use. Further, if building user attributes can
be integrated into the BIM system this will allow occupant behaviour to be modelled in a way
that informs facilities management solutions.
This paper summarizes the initial phase of a study of how BIM could be used by facilities
manager to operate buildings in more a sustainable way. The paper presents an analysis of the
literature and identifies theoretical relationships between facilities management, sustainability
and BIM. The paper also highlights potential barriers to BIM implementation and presents the
findings from a small questionnaire survey that examined attitudes towards BIM amongst
facilities managers. The paper suggests that BIM could become an enabling tool which facilities
managers could use to support the sustainable management of buildings
2. SUSTAINABLE BUILDINGS
Whilst there are numerous definitions of sustainability development, most of them embody the
concept offered by Brundtland (1987) that “Sustainable development is development that meets
the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs”. In applying this principle built environment professionals generally seek to find a
balance between the impact a building has on the environment, the benefit that the building
brings to society and the economic cost to the owner/occupier. To this end the Counseil
International du Batiment (CIB) defined the goal of sustainable construction as “…creating and
operating a healthy built environment based on resource efficiency and ecological design”
(Kibert, 1994) and identified seven principles of sustainable construction: reduce resource
consumption; reuse resources; use recyclable resources; protect nature; eliminate toxins; apply
life-cycle costing; and focus on quality, which should drive every phase of the building life
215
cycle. In recent years different countries have developed green building certification systems
(e.g. BREEAM, LEED, DGNB etc.) that seek to ensure design and construction addresses the
sustainability principles and, whilst these systems are beginning to have an impact on new
buildings, they are not yet routinely applied to existing buildings. It is these buildings that pose a
major challenge to both policy makers and built environment professionals as they seek to
deliver a more sustainable built environment.
Whilst sustainability covers a wide range of issues, climate change, and by association energy
use and CO2 emissions, are currently perceived as the most critical issue that society needs to
address. Adaptation of the existing built environment to meet changed weather patterns
associated with inevitable climate change; and mitigation of future climate change through CO2
reduction targets are forcing built environment professionals to re-examine their approach to
building management (Desai and Jones, 2012). Whilst considerable attention has been paid to
reducing CO2 emissions from domestic buildings, very little research has focussed on
understanding the drivers of energy use in commercial buildings. Indeed, one of the major
challenges facing facilities managers is to develop whole-life performance models that draw
information from building performance monitoring systems linked to integrated databases that
allow a building to be managed in a sustainable manner (Ravetz, 2008).
3. SUSTAINABLE FACILITIES MANAGEMENT
Businesses address energy use and CO2 reduction through their sustainable facilities
management (SFM) strategy which integrates the operation of buildings (physical, technical,
human and support systems) with the primary business objectives of the organisation. Regular
monitoring of energy consumption informs adaptation; long term strategic objectives, linked to
corporate social responsibility and primary business strategies drive mitigation (Desai et al,
2012). Adaptation and mitigation are also informed by the policy framework in which the
business operates. Facilities managers, architects, engineers, building owners and users are
responsible for assessing options, developing solutions and overseeing their implementation.
However, whilst the broad principles that underpin a SFM strategy are known, it is less clear
how such a strategy should be developed or implemented.
Facility managers need to develop sustainable solutions that integrate people, place, technology,
products, values and services together to achieve a more sustainable operating environment (Lee
and Kang, 2013). Facilities managers also need to provide an “umbrella” service that ensures any
new sustainable (e.g. energy, water, waste management etc) ways of working do not adversely
affect the ability of primary business units to effectively perform their primary function (Nielsen
et al, 2009). The components of a successful SFM strategy were investigated in the BIFM
sustainability survey (2013). The survey identified health and safety, waste management and
energy management, together with staff wellbeing and achieving KPIs as the most important
aspects of a SFM strategy. The BIFM study also confirmed the generally held view that
legislation/regulation, corporate image and organisational ethos were the main drivers behind the
successful implementation of sustainability practices.
Finally facilities mangers shave to be aware of the role that end-users play in the performance of
buildings in use (Azizi et al, 2014). In particular facilities managers need to consider the comfort
216
of occupants in any energy management strategy (Hodges, 2005) and integrate individual user’s
behaviour (through user-centred approaches) into energy control systems to optimize a buildings
energy performance in use (Zieler et al, 2014; Christina et al, 2014). If organizational,
operational and end-user data can be effectively integrated into BIM then facilities managers
could have a very powerful tool to help them manage their buildings more sustainably.
4. CAD and BIM
Technology has played an integral role in the construction industry for the past 40 years. In 1973
the first 3D design tools were produced that allowed designers to create, manipulate and edit
solid 3D models of building entities (Eastman et al. 2011). In the early 80s 3D modelling
morphed into the first Computer Aided Design (CAD) systems that linked digital designs to
construction documents and facilitated the first real-time electronic communication between the
different stakeholders involved in a construction project (Day 2002). In the early 1990s object-
oriented CAD (OOCAD) was developed which linked building graphics with non-graphical data
about common building elements (e.g. doors, walls, windows etc.) thus simplifying building
section drawings (Autodesk, 2002). The latest technological evolution that the industry has faced
is the development of BIM. In BIM both the technical and functional aspects of a building
element (e.g. materials, quantities, suppliers, warranties and maintenance procedures) are stored
as attributes of a “smart" building object. This said, BIM is much more sophisticated than a
collection of smart objects suggests.
In 2008, Mervyn Richards and Mark Bew developed the BIM Maturity Diagram (Figure 1) in an
attempt to explain the tools and techniques that are available or envisaged at the different levels
and stages of BIM implementation. Level 0 BIM is effectively unmanaged CAD with minimal
automated data exchange. Level 1 BIM envisages a managed environment where 2D or 3D CAD
drawings provide a common data environment that has (ideally) standard data structures and
formats but which supports little integration outside the dedicated application. Level 2 BIM
seeks to integrate the 3D CAD environment with external tools and data that support time based
scheduling and costing information. The relationship between data is generally managed through
an enterprise resource planning system. Essentially this level is a practical realisation of the
OOCAD models developed in the 1990s and is what the UK Government will require from all
publically funded projects from 2016. Level 3 BIM envisages a fully open process where data
integration between applications is managed by a collaborative model server. Level 3 BIM
(iBIM or Integrated BIM) also extends the modelling regime into lifecycle management
(potentially Level 4 BIM - Intelligent BIM) and it is at this phase that the facilities manager
could potentially use BIM to better manage the operation of a building. However, if this is to be
achieved new tools and models need to be developed that allow the facilities manager to draw on
the information contained in the BIM hub. The hub will also need to contain operational specific
data (non-building data) that facilities managers need to make strategic and operational
decisions.
217
FMC 2014
Figure 1 BIM Maturrity Diagram

m
Source:hhttp://www.bimtaskgrooup.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/003/BIS-BIM
M-strategy-R
Report.pdf
5. L
LINKING BIM TO F
FACILITIE
ES MANAG
GEMENT
Althouggh the beneffits of BIM are alreadyy being realiised at the ddesign and construction
c n phase of
the building life cyycle, very feew studies have
h examined it potenntial applicaation at the operation
and maiintenance phhase.
One of the few buildings thatt have impleemented BIIM for facillities managgement is thhe Sydney
Opera H House. Ann analysis oof the advanntages of B BIM (CRC Constructioon Innovatiion, 2007)
identifieed: consistency of dataa; intelligencce of the moodel; multipple represenntations (2D
D and 3D);
operatioonal reports;; an integratted source oof informatioon for thirdd party softw
ware applicaations; and
integrateed queries ffor data minning to suppport what-iff scenarios aas those attrributes that would be
most useful to the facility
f manager. Of theese,
Consisteency of datta: is probaably the moost immediiate useful attribute off a BIM FM M model.
Having a digital moodel that conntains not only
o an accuurate represeentation of the
t building "as-built"
but alsoo includes aall the assocciated designn, installatioon, commisssioning, ceertification, operation,
and mannagement documentatio
d on should enable
e betteer maintenannce manageement decisions to be
reachedd and ultimaately could support jusst-in-time m maintenancee planning aalong similaar lines to
that useed in the auutomotive aand aerospacce industriees. Such a B BIM could also contaiin data on
portablee assets, inccluding guaarantees andd maintenannces instrucctions etc., which
w shouuld in turn
support routine inspection annd statutoryy compliancce testing aand reportinng using thhird party
softwaree.
218
An intelligent FM BIM could also support data mining of what-if scenarios. The ability to drill
down through data to establish performance patterns across temporal and spatial domains is
something that would allow facilities managers to identify recurrent faults in psychical systems
or underperformance across building attributes (e.g. space usage etc.). Further, if the BIM also
gathered information about the operation (performance) of the building in use (e.g. energy use of
buildings) it would allow facilities managers to better understand the buildings they were
managing and would allow them to develop and test alternative operational interventions through
intelligent modelling applications. Attaching intelligence to spaces within a BIM would allow
alternate space management strategies to be evaluated and attaching end-user feedback would
allow user behaviour to be integrated into building performance modelling. The examples given
above are all consistent with the theory of integrated logistic support and through life business
modelling applied to the sustainable management of building services outlined by John et al
(2005).
However, whilst BIM could offer the facilities manager many potential benefits; are facilities
managers ready for BIM solutions? or is BIM another example of a solution looking for a
problem?
6. RESULTS OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY AND BIM FM WORKSHOP
In order to understand how facilities managers are responding to the development of BIM a
questionnaire survey was distributed to facilities mangers existing web base platforms. The
questionnaire sought to identify the current level of use of BIM FM and to identify those aspects
of BIM FM that were thought to be most useful to the profession at this time. The questionnaire
contained contextual questions about the experience of the person completing the survey; the
size of the organisation they worked for; the FM software that they used; their approach to
building management (including gathering user feedback); and their use (or intention to use)
BIM. The questionnaire was available for 40 days online between September and October 2013
through specialized groups on LinkedIn ( BIM” Construction Informatics, Sustainability &
Green Building; BIM Experts; British Institute of Facilities Management; Facilities Management
Association; Facilities Management Group; Facilities Management Professionals UK; Facility
Management Knowledge Forum; Facility Management made in Italy; Royal Institution of
Chartered Surveyors). Eighty four responses were received of which 55 were partially complete
and 29 were fully complete.
The questionnaire was accessible from all over the world and responses were received from
several countries: the largest numbers were the United Kingdom (30 responses) and United
States (18) and Italy (16 responses). Approximately 37% of the respondents were Facilities
Managers, 15% Directors, 7% Project Managers and 7% Property Managers. All respondents
had several years’ experience in their field.
Most respondents (56%) routinely used facilities management software to help them manage
their buildings. Software used ranged from central CAD systems through bespoke building
maintenance systems to mobile devices. However, the majority of respondents (72%) didn't use
BIM software. Further, those respondents who had used BIM had only used it for design and
219
construction, and not for facilities management. Among those who don’t currently use BIM, 36%
of respondents indicated that BIM will be used in future, both to remain competitive for public
bids and to satisfy the UK Government Soft Landings 2016 requirements.
To the question “which facilities management tasks can be assisted by using BIM?” respondents
mainly concentrated on the strategic and building perspective: creating accurate description of
the assets; developing preventative maintenance schedules; and tracking and maintaining
lifecycle information about the building structure were identified as being the most useful
(Figure 2). In addition to the predefined options to this question, respondents also listed other
benefits in free text form. These included: commissioning and retro-commissioning activities;
energy modelling; future remodelling; additions; expansions and replacement of systems at end
of life; adequate preparation on maintenance activities; providing bill-of-quantities information
on which to base maintenance investments; sustainability performance; and comments and
advice on design. The answers to this question suggest that, although BIM isn't being widely
used at present, there is a level of understanding and clear identification of potential applications
that suggest that the facilities management profession are aware of BIM and of its potential to
facilities management.
Although the majority of respondents perceived BIM as a facilitator rather than a hindrance for
their job, there were concerns associated with the integration of BIM with existing technology
and CAFM systems; and with the potential implementation costs and training (Figure 3).
Respondents were also asked how they thought BIM would affect their day-to-day work. Here
respondents were equally divided between those who didn't think there would be substantial
changes to their working practices (beyond reducing errors and improving efficiency) and those
who did (more protocols and processes and longer work tracks). Finally, almost all the
respondents believed that BIM will act as a facilitator, rather than an inhibitor to their work.
Accurate preventative maintenance

schedule
Disaster planning and response to

minimise safety risks
Allocating, managing and tracking

spaces Very Useless
Measure how the building actual Useless

performance compares to design… Neutral
Tracking and maintaing lifecycle Useful

information about the building… Very Useful
Create accurate description of the
assets
Assess the design's performance and

effectiveness to the spacial…
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
220
Figure 2 Evaluation of potential BIM benefits
Legal issues
Unknown technology
Time Very Insignificant

Insignificant
Data management
Neutral
Significant
Training
Very Significant
Integration with current technology
and CAFM systems
Cost of implementation
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Figure 3 Evaluation of BIM concerns
A one day stakeholder workshop was held in January 2014 to explore practical problems
associated with integrating BIM into FM services and to identify gaps in knowledge that need to
be addressed. Attendance at the workshop was by invitation only and the audience was pre-
selected to represent a knowledgeable (expert) and diverse stakeholder group representing FM
service providers, clients, academia, UK Government, professional bodies and FM contractors.
The meeting was held under “Chatham House Rules”. Twenty two people attended the
workshop. Whilst the workshop confirmed many of the findings of the questionnaire survey (the
potential, focus and practical issues associated with developing BIM FM solutions) it also
identified the need to develop new tools and models that: address soft services; accommodates
cultural and behavioural characteristics; are responsive to changes in business strategy (in
particular the sustainability agenda); and can demonstrate added value to core business if BIM
FM is to really have an impact on the facilities managers perform their functions. The challenge
of developing these tools and models forms the next phase of the current research project.
7. CONCLUSIONS
The results from the questionnaire addressed the potential acceptance of BIM by facilities
managers. Respondents were generally aware of the topic and perceived BIM as a potentially
useful tool for their work. Despite some doubts on how it could be integrated with existing
CAFM software, and issues around training, facilities managers seem to be ready for its arrival
and aware of its potential benefits to their work. The results of the questionnaire also confirm the
range of potential applications that BIM FM could address, which include energy management
221
and sustainability issues alongside the more obvious building management applications. In
essence the questionnaire would seem to suggest that facilities managers are ready for the hand-
over of Level 2 BIM models that will be generated over the next few years and, whilst they are
unsure about how these models will be integrated with their existing systems, they do believe
that these models will help them better manage the building. What were less certain from the
questionnaire were attitudes toward Level 3 BIM. Whilst some respondents were aware of the
potential of BIM to support whole life-cycle modelling, and the ability to integrate soft facilities
management services into the model, the majority were not. This conclusion was reinforced in
the stakeholder workshop where the need to develop new tools and models that supported
integrated FM solutions (both hard and soft) was identified. The expert stakeholder group
believed that the potential of BIM to provide facilities managers with an accurate "smart" model
of their buildings will provide the basis for better building performance monitoring and control.
The group also recognised that to realise this potential will require user behaviour to be modelled
and integrated into BIM. This will be particularly relevant if BIM FM is to support sustainable
facilities management. The next phase of this project will be to develop and test a series of BIM
FM solutions to support the sustainable facilities management.
REFERENCES
Autodesk (2002). ‘Building Information Modelling’. Available online:
http://images.autodesk.com/apac_sapac_main/files/4525081_BIM_WP_Rev5.pdf (Accessed 20
Feb 2014)
Azizi, N., S., M, Wilkinson, S. and Fassman, E. (2014) ‘Management practice to achieve
energy-efficient performance of green buildings in New Zealand’, Architectural Engineering and
Design Management, Volume 10, Issue 1-2, pp 25-39
British Institute of Facilities Management (2013). ‘Sustainability in Facilities Management’
Report. Available online: http://www.sustainabilityinfm.org.uk/resources (Accessed 20 Feb
2014)
Brundtland, G., H. (1987) ‘Our Common Future’, Oxford University Press.
Christina, S., Dainty, A., Daniels, K. and Waterson P. (2014) ‘How organisational behaviour and
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223
Usage of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Building

Information Models (BIM) in Facility Management
at Botanic Garden Berlin
Prof. Dr.-Ing Markus Krämer

Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Berlin
markus.kraemer@htw-berlin.de
+49 30 5019 4236
M.Sc. Benjamin Peris

Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Berlin
benjamin.peris@htw-berlin.de
+49 30 5019 3630
ABSTRACT
The usage of geographic data and BIM in FM promises significant economic benefits, however
their application in practice is still rare. This submission shows the most significant benefits of
GIS and BIM application in FM based on a systematic analysis and an empiric survey done in
the research project ArcoFaMa. Furthermore the implementation of an integration platform for
Botanic Garden Berlin is described, which connects geographic data to heterogeneous data
sources like Building Information Models via IFC standard and CAFM databases.
Keywords
Geographic data, CAFM, BIM, Integration, IFC
1 THE USAGE OF GEOGRAFIC DATA AND BIM IN FACILITY MANAGEMENT

Using geographic data and Building Information Models (BIM) in Facility Management (FM) on
an extended scope promises significant economic benefits regarding various fields, e.g. in
maintenance planning of technical property management. Moreover it can be used for early
watch applications to avoid risks of disasters due to exact knowledge of geographic positions.
However, even if the benefits of using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) or a digital BIM
in FM is well accepted, the application in practice is still rare. Some of the reasons are the
significant efforts to gather geographic data and link them to FM specific alphanumeric data.
Also, ongoing data management to keep geographic data up to date frequently exceed available
workforce capacities. Especially at this point, missing interfaces between the numerous FM
specific information systems used in FM’s daily business today have strong negative impact.
The main objective of ArcoFaMa, a joint research project of Hochschule für Technik und
Wirtschaft Berlin (HTW Berlin) and Beuth Hochschule für Technik Berlin, is to enable an easy-
to-use integrated data processing of geographic data linked with multiple data sources, especially
a standard Computer Aided Facility Management (CAFM) system. In contrast to similar research
224
EF
projectss, which needs an exteensive pre-pphase to acquire geogrraphic data,, ArcoFaMaa aims on
derivingg geographicc data from existing CA
AD-drawinggs and otherr available ssources of thhe Botanic
Garden Berlin. Bassed on thesee objectivess the follow
wing researcch questionss should be answered
by ArcooFaMa reseaarch project:
 Whichh approachhes can be found to simplify thhe process of data aacquisition regarding
geoggraphic data in FM?
 Whichh FM businness processses will bennefit on usiing geograpphic data poositions on a broader
scopee, even in day-by-day business?
b
 How will an inteegrated datta managem ment based on open sttandards wiill look likee to make
geoggraphic data accessible, able to queery, maintainnable and liinkable to vvarious heterrogeneous
inforrmation systtems and daata sources uused in FM??
Therefoore, within AArcoFaMa pproject an inntegration pplatform is uunder devellopment whhich serves
as an innformation hub for geeographic ppositions linnked to alpphanumeric data sourcces (e.g. a
CAFM data base). By leavingg the linkedd data in theeir original shape, withhout migratiing it to a
joint daata base, exxisting inforrmation systtems can sttill be usedd, without raaising efforrts of data
management or needs of channging existinng applicatiions. The reesearch proj oject is fundded by the
Institut für angewaandte Forscchung Berliin (IfaF). Inn addition tto Botanic Garden and Botanic
Museum m Berlin twwo other tecchnology paartners join the projectt: Fell & Kernbach
K GmmbH with
respect tto GIS and Aviant GmbbH with resspect to CAF FM systemss.
2 T
THE INITIIAL SITUA ATION OFF BOTANIC C GARDEN N BERLIN
Botanic Garden andd Botanic Museum
M Berrlin Dahlemm (BGBM, http://www.b
h bgbm.org ) both look
back onn 300 years of history. BGBM offfers an enoormously vaariety of plaants, that coount more
t
than 20,0000 types. N Not only
a
according to this nuumber of
t
types or itts large surrface, but
a due to the well doocumented
also
s
scientific plant coollections,
B
Botanic Garrden Berlinn is one of
t largest and most important
the
b
botanic garddens in thee world. It
i an attrraction forr around
is
3
300,000 to 500,000 vissitors each
y
year. Besidees competennt visitors,
i
interested inn special floowers and
p
plants or vissitors just seeeking for
r
recreation, B
BGBM is allso visited
b a great number of scientists
by
r
regarding its extensive
i
internationa al netwoorks of
r
research acctivities.Withh a space
o approx. 443 hectare ssubdivided
of
i park arreas, meaddows and
in
m
mountain sites and a total
F
Figure 1: geoographic mapp of Botanic Garden Berlin
225
EF
amount of more thhan 17,000 ssqm of greeenhouse spaaces BGBM M is the ideal project ppartner for
ArcoFaM Ma (figure 1). Just looking at the irrigation aand buildingg gravity draainage systeem, which
is suppllied among others by 80,000 to 1130,000 m³ well waterr each year and storm tanks for
house arreas with appprox. 1,0000 m3 storagge capacitiess (sufficient for two hott and rainlesss weeks),
operatioon and mainntenance is a huge challlenge for BGGBM.
Just to ggive an exammple, big paarts of the ppipe networkk was impleemented starrting at 1899 with the
premisee, that its tecchnical equipment, succh as hydrannts, inspectiion shafts annd block vaalves have
to be innstalled hiddden for the guests and today (parttly) even foor the housee technicianns. For the
outdoorr area 300 C CAD drawinngs exist, whhich were produced
p bettween 20088 and 2010. The CAD
data inccluded historical data seets, the illusstration of aaxis views aand accuratee measuringg positions
of quitee a lot of relevant tecchnical equuipment. Fuurthermore, a lot of innformation from the
ecologiccal perspecttive is provided.
In recennt years BG GBM has laaunched extensive refuurbishment activities. Hence, H in 22006 until
2009 the Great Pavvillon (GP) w was topic of
o an energeetic refurbishhment projeect, which foocused on
keepping the basic
b historiical structuure of the
buillding and aalso reducedd the poweer demand
by 50%. The hhistoric dom me structuree made of
steeel and glaass (60m / 29,5m / 29m)
encompassed a base area of approx. 1,750 m2
andd a volume of 40,000 m3. Therefoore nearly
the complete building
b auttomation syystem was
repllaced. The high pow wer efficiennt heating
systtem consists of seven local ventillation and
Figure 2: B
BIM „Great PPavillon“ air conditionning equippment to control
mperature and air humidity. Besides
tem
redevelooping the building
b sheell, both a brand
b new heat
h protecttion glazingg and special glazing
bars streeamed by heated
h wateer were buillt. Based onn this speciaal technologgy a blastinng heating
frontagee, which taake effect too the interiior space, ccould be reealised. Thee new and extensive
buildingg technologgy of the G GP, which comprise around 7000 data checkpoints, eenable the
systemaatic controlliing, regulatiion and monnitoring of tthe technicaal facilities.
Due to these refurrbishment projects

p adeequate data of the buiilding serviices is also available
within tthe project, including eexact positiions of equiipment in m most of the cases. Unfortunately
there will be no acccess to a 33D BIM, whhich has beeen used paartly by the architects withinw the
refurbishment project of GP. Hence, the research teeam has deecided to crreate its ow wn BIM as
shown iin figure 2. In this wayy, a test moddel will be developed ffor validatinng the interfface using
IFC6 sttandard to ArcoFaMaa integration platform m. In conseequence, A ArcoFaMa inntegration
platform
m will accesss not only ooutdoor objeects, but alsso indoor eqquipment. Therefore, thhis BIM of
GP will be successiively detaileed accordingg to the dem
mands of thee project.
6
IFC: Inddustry Foundaation Classes
226
FMC 2014
3 M
METHODO
OLOGY / S
SYSTEMA
ATIC APPR
ROACH
To achieeve the already mentiioned projeect goals,

ArcoFaM Ma followss the syystematic approach
illustratedd in figure 3.
The analyysis phase, which will be introducced below
in detail, is already completed. Based onn the draft
concept of ArcoFaaMa integrration platfform, the
implemenntation of esssential com mponents, suuch as the
NoSQL ddatabase forr integratingg heterogeneeous data,
as well ass the interfacce to the staandard CAFFM system
WaveFaciilities by Loy & H Hutz is sttill under
developmment (see chapter 4). The impleementation
phase willl be finalizeed in May 22014 as plannned. The
validationn of the inteegration plattform will bbe done by
Figure 3: Systematic approach A
ArcoFaMa field testts conducteed at Botanic Gardeen Berlin
starting in April 2014. Thherefore tw wo pilot
applicattions will bee used, whicch are descriibed in chappter 5.
3.1 I
IDENTIFIC CATION O OF USE CA ASES
The maain goal of the first steep in ArcoF FaMa projeect was to gget an overrview of alll fields of
applicattion, where geographicc data and BIM B may beb useful inn FM organnizations. Thhe project
team staarts by analyysing well eestablished standards inn FM, incluuding DIN EEN ISO 152221-1 until
-5 and GEFMA 100. Each F FM business process ddescripted iin the standdards, each managed
equipmeent (FM obbjects) and eache offeredd FM produuct / service mentioned, has beenn analysed
accordinng to the folllowing basiic benefits oof using geoographic datta:
 locatinng of equipm
ment and obbjects,
 route aand round trrip planningg,
 distannce calculation betweenn objects,
 radiuss research off objects / eqquipment,
 route ooptimizationn regarding round tripss,
 Zoom
m functionaliity.
For eachh identifiedd FM process or for eaach FM object, in whicch these baasic benefitss seems to
make seense, separaate use casses has beenn defined. In parallel 300 CAD drawings oof Botanic
Garden Berlin has been evaluaated in term ms of actuality, completeness and detailing. D Due to this
analysiss the alreadyy defined usse cases, whhich dependds on geogrraphic data aavailable inn the CAD
drawinggs has been prioritised.. This initiaal cataloguee of use cases were disscussed in workshops
w
with emmployees off Botanic G Garden andd experts of the technnology partnners involvved in the
227
FMC 2014
project. As a result, all use casse of the catalogue has bbeen condennsed to fourr clusters (cluster 1 to
4), whicch can be matched to alll relevant use cases listted in the caatalogue (according to ffigure 4).
Figure 4: use case cluusters of usinng geographic data in FM

M
Cluster 1 „locatingg of (techniical) objectss“ covers alll use casess, in which individual oro a small
number objects of the same kind can be located by geographic data (homoogenous object data).
The clusster also inccludes use ccases with inndoor and ouutdoor objeects. The target group of cluster 1
are maiinly internall employees of FM orrganization,, which usee the functioonality in ttheir daily
operatioonal businesss.
In contrrast to clusteer 1 the use cases in cluuster 2 “ordder manageement” focuus on a bigger amount
of objeccts (few to m
many) of vaarious types (heterogeneeous objectss). This clusster comes aalong with
a relatioonship to oorders (timee frame: daays to a few w weeks). FM objectss have to bbe always
referencced by ordeer entities. DDiffering froom cluster 1 the addreessees of theese use cases will be
extended by contraactors (exteernal servicce providerss), which arre mainly rresponsible for order
executioon (operatioonal businesss). In addiition to clusster 1, not oonly “locating objects”” but also
route planning and radius searcch are important.
With cluuster 3 “plaanning and coordinatioon” use casees were sum mmarised, w which focus ono tactical
or strateegic planninng activitiess (time fram
me quarters to years) innstead of opperational taasks. This
cluster comes
c alongg with visualisation of FM objects (planning items) as well
w as referrencing to
strategicc order mannagement (e.g. inspectioon plans of whole
w manuufacturing plants).
p
In the fourth
fo clusteer “disaster managemeent/risk avoiidance” a faast reactivityy is essentiaal. All use
cases innclude fast locating off objects (seee cluster 11) and furthher functionnality, such as radius
search oor retrieval oof local conditions to esstimate poteential risks iin case of diisaster.
3.2 U
USER SUR
RVEY TO V VALIDATE E USE CAS SE CLUST TERS
The fouur identifiedd clusters seerve as basiic requiremeents to outlline the initial design cconcept of
ArcoFaM Ma’s integrration platfoorm (chapteer 4) as weell as for thhe pilot applications. Inn order to
validatee these identtified clusters, a surveyy asking diffferent comppanies whichh use geograaphic data
in their FM businesss was condu ducted.
228
FMC 2014
Besside getting feedback reegarding thee assumed

bennefits of using
u geogrraphic dataa in each
cluster, also evvidence abouut the actuaal usage of
geoographic datta and GIS in practice should be
gathhered. In tootal 118 commpanies werre asked to
atteend the suurvey and 25 compannies have
actuually responnded on the questionnaaire, which
is a fairly good response rate of appprox. 30%.
Thee spectrum m of the analysed enterprises
e
commprises the categories shown in figure 5.
Thee position “oothers” inclludes furtheer property
orgganisation (ee.g. real estaate investorss, housing
soccieties) and non-properrty organisaation (e.g.
Figure 5: Paarticipants of the survey airpports, publiic transportaation servicces, public
autthorities).
In the ffirst part off the surveyy we find out,

o that
already 48% of all intervieweed companiies have
already geographicc data in use in theeir daily
businesss. But as sstated previiously, its usage
u is
limited to specific, individual ccases. Theree was no
usage of geographiic data on a broader scoope. The
mentionned use casses of the respondentts partly
complem ment the alrready identiified use caases (e.g.
positionning of aircrrafts at an aairport). Exccept one
use casse, which usesu GPS coordinatess within
service managemennt (which bbelongs to ccluster 2)
Figure 6: Agreement tto the 4 Clussters
all addiitional menttioned use cases matchh cluster
1.
In the ssecond partt of the suurvey the agreement too the benefits of eachh cluster w was asked.
Therefoore each individual benefit associatted to a clusster was reddrafted into a theses, which
w were
evaluateed in termss of agreem ment (two different
d levvels) or dissagreement (again twoo different
levels). The value oof percentagge in figure 6 shows thhe weighted average andd provides with
w more
than twoo-thirds of aagreement eevidence aboout the clustters definitioon.
In clusster 2 (ordeer managemment) more
than five theeses are included
(corespponding wiith designaated bene-
fits). F
For each oof these theesis again
more than tw wo-thirds of the
interviiewee conttinuously aagreed on
(figuree 7). In case of optimizing
o
activityy sequencess / route pllanning of
orders,, more than 80% agreed whereof
Figgure 7: Agreement to the thesis of cluuster 2 "job

controlliing" 229
FMC 2014
40% sccore the higghest agreem ment level (fully agreeement). Beecause of thhese high aagreement
values aand becausee cluster 2 encompasse
e s all benefitts of clusterr 1, the projject team haas decided
to conduuct the pilott applicationns with a usee case of cluuster 2. As a further reqquirement, tthe project
team haas to keep inn mind, that almost 60% % of the inteerviewees raate searchingg FM objects inside a
buildingg as critical. Furtherm more approxximately 500% of all responding companies evaluated
instructiing externall service prroviders to llocate / idenntify FM obbjects as really time coonsuming.
We idenntified nearrly the samee trend regaarding FM objects outsside the buiildings, butt with less
importaance among the particippants.
As a connclusion of the survey, it can be sttated that thhere is a cleaar interest of extending the usage
of geogrraphic data in FM in daaily businesss. Another outcome off the surveyy is, that feattures such
as radiuus search or route plannning have too encompasss not only F FM objects of one typee (e.g. fire
protectioon flap), buut also of diffferent typess (heterogenneous objects) which caan be foundd indoor or
outdoorr.
4 A
ARCOFAM
MA INTEG
GRATION PLATFOR
P RM AND PIILOT PRO
OCESS
The ArccoFaMa appproach assum me that all iinformation resources oof the Botannic Garden Berlin
B will
be kept unchangedd and existinng informattion systemss can still bbe used. In oorder to achhieve this,
the ArcooFaMa system architeccture (shownn in Figure 8)
8 offers thee integrationn platform, w
which can
be usedd either by web browssers, mobile devices oor using weeb services by any otther client
applicattion, such ass CAFM sysstems.
F
Figure 8: ArccoFaMa systeem architectuure
230
4.1 INTEGRATION OF EXISTING DATA RESOURCES AND DATA

PREPARATION
An example of the data sources available via integration platform is the BoGART database of
Botanic Garden, which uses Microsoft's DBMS7 SQLServer. The database contains nearly the
complete collection of plants of Botanic Garden, which are already located using a grid network
with coarse geographic locations. Figure 8 shows also the already mentioned CAD drawings and
other file based recordings (such as Excel files). The extraction of spatial information from the
CAD drawings (depicted by an arrow labeled with “import FME”) is done with a software called
“Software Feature Manipulation Engine” (FME) offered by the software vendor SafeSoft. FME
is an ETL8 tool, which is able to read various input formats, including Autocad DWG and DXF
formats and convert them in various output formats. The extraction and transformation can be
customized individually and single objects, their attributes or even complete CAD layers can be
translated to the desired export formats.
An important aspect of this research project is the use of complete open standards for integration,
such as CityGML and IFC. CityGML is used to store and exchange 3D city models. The
standard is available since April 2012 in version 2.0. CityGML has reached a rich level of
details, which allows systematic modeling of nearly all kinds of objects within urban areas, even
underground infrastructures. The CityGML standard of the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC)
is based on an XML-based format. The data model of CityGML is object-oriented. In order to
manage the data and its complex data structures efficiently, a simple 1:1 mapping of object to
table schemata is not possible. Regarding these performance issues, specialized database
schemata and converters of 3DCityGML have been firstly developed for DBMS Oracle Spatial
(cf. [Kol09], [NagSta08]). Another implementation of 3DCityGML based on PostgreSQL is
done with the extension PostGIS (according to [Kun13]), which is actually used in the research
project. First experiences with the PostgreSQL implementation, storing geographic data of CAD
layers converted by FME software are available and are promising. The conversion and
management of other layers will be happened gradually.
For representing indoor objects (within building), a BIM of GP of Botanic Garden Berlin will be
integrated as an example (see chapter 2). The model will be available as openBIM using IFC
standard. It is generated using Revit software. Based on the well-established standard to
exchange product data models (STEP), used in manufacturing industry, the association “Industry
Alliance of Interoperability” (IAI, since 2010 buildingSMART) specified the Industry
Foundation Classes (IFC) to cooperate and exchange building information models in AEC9
industry sector. The IFC standard is registered as ISO standard 16739 and is available in version
IFC 4 by now. IFC 4 offers the “Basic FM Handover View”, which is able to transfer nearly all
data from the planning and construction phase to FM. Within the project the free implementation
of the BIMserver (formerly IFCserver) will be used, which already includes partly CityGML
interfaces today. First analysis of using IFC in practice to exchange the data of BIM to CAFM
has been done within the research initiative “ZukunftBau”, which was funded by the German
7
DBMS: Database Management System
8
ETL comprises procedures for extraction, transformation and loading of data to data bases / data warehouses.
9
AEC: Architecture. Engineering, Construction
231
government (Bundesamt für Bauwesen und Raumordnung, BBR). The result were encouraging10
and there are several ongoing activities, e.g. by GEFMA (research group “data exchange”).
4.2 STRUCTURE OF THE INTEGRATION PLATFORM

The ArcoFaMa integration platform, which links existing data sources and the new data derived
from CAD drawings to geographic locations will use a graph database as core component instead
of a traditional, relational database. These NoSQL databases are more suitable in mapping
complex, meshed up relationships. A critical aspect of this approach is handling metadata. All
the metadata of any connected data source is stored in the graph database. The 0graph of
metadata, using nodes, edges and properties, will be generated fairly automatically by importing
the data schemata of the connected data sources. This graph of metadata will be used later to
query the connected data sources and to analyze its data.
In the first step graph structures of metadata are generate for each connected data source
separately. In a second step these different graph structures will be linked using special
connecting nodes, which have been developed within the project. Finally an integrated graph of
all metadata, encompassing all kinds of data sources (even the once with different types of data
models), will allow querying heterogeneous data, coming from different data sources. Queries
can now seek the graph of metadata to find data or to aggregate values. The migration of source
databases is not necessary anymore to query multiple sources, because the graph of metadata can
handle sematic or structural differences of the source databases.
Using this infrastructure enables ArcoFaMa integration platform to query existing databases such
as BoGART and new databases such as City-DB, BIM Server or the database of the CAFM
system WaveFM in a single step. Hence, it will be no problem anymore to select FM object
located within buildings (served by the BIM-Server or CAFM database) or outside in the park
(served by City-DB or BoGART) in one query for planning maintenance routes. The provision
of such information can be used via web services, browser and mobile devices or even straight
from the CAFM system.
4.3 PILOT PROCESS FOR THE TRIAL IN FIELD TEST

In order to validate the described system architecture two pilot applications are being developed
by the research project team. As an example of a FM business process the maintenance of FM
objects will be used (see BPMN11 representation in figure 9). The first part of the maintenance
process is handle by the first pilot application. It will focus on the internal FM-employees.
Consequently the ArcoFaMa integration platform will be used directly by the standard CAFM
system, in which maintenance planning will happen (see upper lane of figure 9). The ArcoFaMa
integration platform offers additional services to the CAFM System, e.g. to extend the amount of
maintenance objects already selected by the CAFM database by using a radius search. This
radius search will including other types of objects, which are not yet part of the CAFM database
such as geo-referenced objects from City DB and indoor object from BIMServer.
10
Hieke, S.; Liebich, T.; Weise, M.: Modellbasierter Datenaustausch von alphanumerischen Gebäudebestandsdaten
(nach BFR GBestand) mit der produktneutralen Schnittstelle IFC, Endbericht Forschungsinitiative ZukunftBau,
2008.
11
BPMN: Business Process Model and Notation
232
FMC 2014
The second part of the pilot prrocess is shoown in the llower lane oof the BPMN N process inn figure 9.
Both lannes are connnected usingg a link object with thee name “maintenance date”d (circle icon with
an arrow
w), which iss used in botth lanes. Thhis lane reprresents an exxternal service providerr who will
execute the mainttenance ordders. The external seervice provvider get aaccess to ArcoFaMa A
integratiion platform
m using a web browsser applicattion on a mobile m deviice, such as
a a tablet
computeer (native mmobile apps are possiblee as well). W With the moobile devicee the servicee provider
will dowwnload a m map of Botaanic Gardenn depicting locations of o the objects to be ppart of the
maintennance order. In additionn a sequencee of object m may be show wn as a maiintenance rooute. After
executinng the mainntenance acctivities thee service prrovider willl finalize hiis services orders by
signing the prepareed maintenannce documeents. In a lasst step, whicch is again ppart of the uupper lane,
the FM employee verifies thee documentss and close the mainteenance ordeers within thhe CAFM
System..
Fiigure 9: BPM
MN model of the pilot proocess
233
5 CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK

Only an integrated data management of geo-referenced data and FM related technical data will
justify the efforts of data acquisition and data management necessary to handle geographic data
on a broader scope in FM. ArcoFaMa will contribute to achieve this objectives by reducing the
efforts of data acquisition. Therefore the ETL-tool FME helps to derive geo data from existing
sources (e.g. CAD drawings). Furthermore the ArcoFaMa integration platform enables an easy-
to-use access to geo-referenced objects from different applications, including a standard CAFM
system or a web browser used in day-by-day business. The consequent usage of open standards
(such as IFC and CityGML) offers the opportunity to use software products of various
manufactures (e.g. other CAFM systems) and adapt the ArcoFaMa integration platform to
existing IT environments. In addition this integrated data management of geo-spatial data will
enable new use case scenarios in Facility Management or beyond. In case of Botanic Garden
Berlin it is discussed to use the infrastructure to help visitors by planning visiting routes
individually through the garden from the Alps to Caucasus or the Tropical Rainforest. Another
interesting aspect is the integration of IFC data for operational purposes. The authors are sure,
that the availability of BIM data and the exchange of it using IFC standard will be more
important in future, since the BIM method will become more and more popular in planning and
construction.
REFERENCES
Krämer, Markus; Sauer, Petra, (Krä 2013), „Integration von Geodaten und Daten des Facility
Managements zur Verbesserung der Liegenschaftsverwaltung.“, Angewandte Forschung zur
Stadt der Zukunft, Beuth-Hochschule Berlin, Logos Verlag Berlin GmbH, S. 49-52,
ISBN 978-3-8325-3352-6.
Hieke, S.; Liebich, T., Weise, M., (Hie 2008), „Modellbasierter Datenaustausch von
alphanumerischen Gebäudebestandsdaten (nach BFR GBestand) mit der produktneutralen
Schnittstelle IFC“, Endbericht Forschungsinitiative ZukunftBau, Berlin.
Heuschkel, Steffen; Sauer, Petra; Herrmann, Frank (Heu 2010), „Management von Geo- und
Standortdaten in Freizeitanlagen mit Oracle-Technologien.“, presented at DOAG-Konferenz,
12/13/2010, Nürnberg.
Nagel, C.; Stadler, A. (NagSta 2008): Die Oracle-Schnittstelle des Berliner 3D-Stadtmodells,
available at:
http://www.3dcitydb.net/3dcitydb/fileadmin/downloaddata/Nagel_Stadler_31072008.pdf,
(03/01/2014).
Kolbe, T. ; König, G.; Nagel, C.; Stadler, A. (Kol 2009): Die 3D-Geo-Database for CityGML
Version 2.0.1., available at:
http://de.scribd.com/doc/50456198/2009-3DCityDB-Documentation-v2-0 (03/01/2014).
Kunde, F. (Kund 2013): CityGML in PostGIS, available at:
http://opus.kobv.de/ubp/volltexte/2013/6365/pdf/kunde_master.pdf (03/01/2014)
234
FM Knowledge Modelling and Management by Means of Context

Awareness and Augmented Reality
Janek Götze
University of Applied Sciences Zwickau
janek.goetze@fh-zwickau.de
+49 375 536 3448
Daniel Ellmer
University of Applied Sciences HTW Berlin
daniel.ellmer@htw-berlin.de
Philipp Salzmann
philipp.salzmann@htw-berlin.de
Christian-Andreas Schumann
University of Applied Sciences Zwickau
christian-andreas.schumann@fh-zwickau.de
Egon Müller
Chemnitz University of Technology
egon.mueller@mb.tu-chemnitz.de
Michael May
m.may@htw-berlin.de
ABSTRACT
One challenge for future IT systems in FM is the automatic processing of large heterogeneous
and distributed data and their context-based utilization, e.g. in maintenance management.
Regarding the user interface, the access via mobile devices constantly gains significance.
Reasons are the increase of multi-functionality, the price decline and the benefit to access data at
any time and any place.
The lack of the intuitionally understandable presentation of data on mobile devices still
represents a barrier for practical use. The search for information in menu bars, tables or PDF files
on limited smartphone displays is too time-consuming and requires too much finger precision
from a user perspective.
The conceptual paper presents new approaches of information modelling and -supply, which
enable the efficient support of maintenance and approval processes in FM. The ongoing research
project FMstar, initiated for this purpose, develops concepts and technologies for semantic
modelling and linking of distributed life cycle data of industrial properties and their flexible and
context-based presentation on mobile devices, through Augmented Reality (AR). Three
universities and four enterprises partake in this project, funded by the German Federal Ministry
of Economics and Technology.
Keywords
Facility Management, Augmented Reality, Context Awareness.
235
FMC 2014
1 I
INTRODU UCTION
The rannge of taskks in Facilitty Managem ment coverss planning, execution and optim mization of
support processes tto secure prrimary processes of a ccompany. A Amongst othhers, the maaintenance
and the approval oof facilities are importaant fields off activity. W Work patternns, which aare carried
out in tthese proceesses, are m marked by a high dem mand for infformation. Nowadays important
informaation gets lost during thhe life cycle of a facilityy and is no llonger availlable for FM
M-tasks. A
sustainaable use of life cycle ddata is hindeered by the amount of data, the vvariety of daata format
used byy the differennt partners, who are invvolved in thhe planning,, as well as by differennt usage of
terminology. This iis often accoompanied byy an insufficcient reactivvity of the FFM-staff.
The ressearch projeect FMstar addresses the t questionn how the realization of FM-taskks can be
supporteed and impproved by m means of cuurrent Inform mation Com mmunicationn Technoloogy (ICT).
Besides approachess to improvee the inform mation supplly, one focuus is mainly set on imprroving the
Human--Computer Interaction (HCI), speecifically onn the basiss of mobilee devices. ((Figure 1)
These approaches deal withh the conttext-based provision of informaation and graphical
represenntation by mmeans of A Augmented R Reality. Thiis paper foccusses on aapproaches aassociated
with thee context-baased provisioon of inform
mation.
Figure 1: O
Overview FMsstar approach
h
The conntext-basedd informatioon supply is concerneed with thhe question,, how onlyy relevant
informaation can be provided too users. Thee relevance of informattion is definned by the R
Relevance
Theory, in particullar through a function of the proccessing effoort and posiitive cognitiive effect.
The proocessing effo
fort reflects the energy,, which the recipient neeeds to expend to commprehend a
specific piece of information and to utillize it. If innformation is particulaarly importaant in the
236
current situation of the recipient, a positive cognitive effect will be achieved, which means the
demand of information is satisfied. The higher the positive cognitive effect and lower the
processing effort, the higher the relevance of a piece of information. (Wilson/Sperber 2002) Thus
the relevance is highly dependent on the knowledge about the user’s situation. If the situation of
the user is clear, the subjective and objective information demand can be determined and
potentially relevant information be provided. The situation of the user can be specified by the
context of the Human-Computer Interaction. According to Dey, context is „[…] any information
that can be used to characterize the situation of an entity. An entity is a person, place, or object
that is considered relevant to the interaction between a user and an application, including the user
and applications themselves“ (Dey 2000). To describe this context information, various context
factors exist. Koch identifies eight categories of context factors: User/person, activity/task, social
environment, place, time, information/information sources, IT-environment/devices and the
physical environment. (Koch 2010) In conversations between people, context-information is
transferred implicitly, without being mentioned explicitly. In human-machine communication,
context data must be collected and conveyed explicitly to be taken into consideration. Context
sensors capture the parameter values of the context factors. The term context sensor, at this point,
means an abstract service to determine a context value and can be represented by a sensor for air
humidity, as well as a software service to determine the current task of an FM-technician. The
use of this context information to specify the user’s situation is referred to as Context Awareness
in the field of ICT. Vice versa, Context Adaption describes the ability to adapt the system
behaviour on the basis of context information. (Sitou 2009) The adaption process refers to the
provision of information, processing of functions or applications, or configuration of the user
interface. (Koch 2010)
2 OBJECTIVE
The objective of the mobile assistance system, which will be developed in the project FMstar, is
to provide only relevant information concerning the FM-user’s scenario. Thus, the relevance is
the determining criterion for the selection of provided information. Consequently, the interaction
between the user and the system should be reduced to a minimum. This can be achieved by an
automatic capturing of context information and its AR-based provision. Finally, a complexity
reduction and a higher reactivity of the FM-staff will be accomplished.
3 APPROACH
3.1 Developing AR application scenarios
In order to demonstrate the various possibilities of using AR technology in FM and especially
maintenance management (MM) six application scenarios have been developed. They show how
MM stakeholders can be assisted in their routine business. In the following, two of those
scenarios are described in more detail.
Scenario 1: Get familiar with technical equipment

When technicians, owners, or operators are not yet familiar with the built environment and
related equipment they need fundamental information on those systems. This information could
be provided by FMstar. Technical data, schematic representations, drawings, instructions, etc.
could easily be provided to the user. The information can be presented graphically, acoustically,
or even in a haptic manner. As a major benefit those information cannot be overlooked thereby
helping to prevent failures. This information can assist the user in better understanding the
237
function of technical systems and their interrelations. In order to understand complex systems on
a rather small display surface of a mobile device the user can navigate “inside” the virtual
components. The schematic model of the equipment can be viewed from different angles. By
overlaying the real system with the virtual one and by providing additional information on the
system’s components the user easily understands their structure and function. In this way s/he is
supported in his decision making process.
Scenario 2: Equipment know-how across trades

Technicians are supposed to understand trades outside their own special subjects. Only then they
are in a position to solve problems that relate to more than one trade. By highlighting
components on a mobile AR system, interconnected parts can be displayed across the respective
trades. For instance, this filter function allows to locating a certain HVAC component that is
controlled by a building automation system. Consequently, a technician is able to find a
ventilation damper in a building without detailed know-how of HVAC systems and at the same
time to check the function of the ICA (instrumentation, control and automation) system.
Additional AR scenarios might be:
 Inspection and approval

 Troubleshooting
 Training
 Routine maintenance
3.2 User requirements on AR utilization in FM

As one of the initial steps within FMstar a user requirements analysis was conducted based on an
online survey. 16 selected partners from different industries took part in the survey. The
questionnaire was addressed to companies from the fields of maintenance, planning, and
inspection/approval. The survey focussed on verifying the potential benefits of AR and the
definition of application scenarios.
Day-to-day work in maintenance, inspection and approval is characterized by a number of
obstacles. In the survey the respondents addressed missing information to be the most serious
problem when maintaining, commissioning or repairing technical installations. This concerns
completeness, location and maintenance of relevant data. Consequently, we can find
dysfunctional maintenance programmes due to the lack of information. The majority of
respondents claimed user interfaces of current systems to be too complicated and not user-
friendly enough. Furthermore, they stated that important information such as memos and notes
are overlooked frequently resulting in unnecessary effort and cost.
The assistant system to be developed within FMstar is intended to reduce or overcome the
obstacles mentioned. The survey introduced the participants to various application scenarios, as
mentioned in chapter 3.1. They rated both the frequency of appearances and possible benefits of
these scenarios on a scale from 1 to 6 (1=best, 6=worst).
238
FMC 2014
Figure 2: F
Frequency and
d benefit of d
different AR u
user scenarioss
Figure 2 displays thhe corresponnding resultts. Obviouslly, the potenntial AR useers expect thhe biggest
benefitss from the scenario “G Get familiaar with techhnical equiipment”. It turned outt that this
scenarioo is the one that prevaills in most organisation
o s. The potenntial benefitts of AR in education
and trainning were cconsidered tto be ratherr low. An exxplanation ccould be thaat the particcipants are
with orgganisations w which are not
n much invvolved with education aand trainingg issues.
As show wn in figuree 3 all respondents inddicated a high need forr graphical support esppecially in
maintennance managgement. Maainly they rrequired thee display/ovverlay of eqquipment scchematics,
facility data and insstructions. In
I addition, photos are supposed too be displayyed but also taken and
interlinkked with thee correspondding system ms or compoonents. In thhis way, worrk order maanagement
(e.g. failure detectioon and docuumentation) can be impproved signiificantly.
44% off the compaanies statedd that they are alreadyy using moobile devicees with acceess to the
Internett and/or WiF Fi if availabble. No onee did refuse future utilisation of m
mobile technnologies in
FM. Thhis is a major prerequiisite for succcessfully im mplementinng and explooiting FMsttar in FM
practicee.
239
Figure 3: The need for graphical assistance
Animated visualisation of complex work steps
Take photos
Show checklists
Display connected components
Show floor plans
Redlining floor plans
Show system diagrams
Show instructions and notes
Show facility data
Select components and related data
0% 50% 100%
Inspection and approval maintenance management
Furthermore, the survey showed that the majority of companies interviewed are already using
CAFM technology (May 2012) or are familiar with its use. A substantial part of information
needed for FMstar is already available in CAFM systems. That’s why the respondents support
the idea to integrate AR with CAFM and related data bases, which actually will be part of the
FMstar prototype development.
In summary, the survey was able to reveal information deficits in current maintenance and
inspection/approval processes and to point out potential benefits of AR application scenarios in
FM.
3.3 Information modelling concerning context adaption

For capturing of context information during a Human-Computer Interaction the following
approach was chosen. First, context factors were identified, which describe the usage situation,
and classified into context categories (figure 4). In the following, these factors were integrated in
a model for context-based information provision for FM processes by means of a mobile AR-
application. This represents the current state of context adaption within the project FMstar. The
future work steps will be the description of existing interdependencies between context factors
and their weighting and modelling in a context model.
Context factor identification and description

The selection of the context factors was based on a top-down process analysis of the usage
situation “mobile maintenance”. The factors were classified into four context categories. Context
sensors capture the present parameter values of the context factors. A context model transforms
the set of context parameter values into an information demand. This will be converted into an
information request and transferred to an information resource system. In FMstar this is
represented by a semantic database (figure 4, eResources), providing an extensive base of
information for industrial facilities. After determining the relevant information the result will be
provided to the user. In the project this is realised by transforming the data into an AR-image.
240
FMC 2014
Afterwaards the userr decides w whether the information demand is satisfied or a modificattion of the
context parameters will be necessary.
From a current prrospective tthere is noo mandatoryy sequence of consideered contexxt factors.
Implem mentation alggorithm migght start witth factors w with the highhest filter effect or witth the first
availablle factor parrameter. Thee descriptioon of the moodel for conttext-based iinformation provision
starts w
with the proccess-related context cateegory at thee right hand--under quaddrant in figuure 4. This
categoryy stands forr the determmination of pparticularly tthe objectivve informatiion demand in a work
context.. The user’ss role assiggns basic reesponsibilitiies and infoormation acccess. By means m of a
process model, the current tassk leads to aactivities, linked docum ments, objeccts (e.g. a ccomponent
of a faccility), (IT-)) tools or uutilities. Addditionally, nnecessary ppersonnel suupport can bbe linked.
These pprocess-relatted context factors cann be specifieed by persoonnel contexxt factors. T The set of
basic coonfigurationns within a user profille could moodify the A AR-image onn the mobiile device.
Occupattional qualiification givves hints ffor the perm missibility oof an activvity, especiaally when
considerring event-ddriven processes e.g. inn trouble shhooting. Furrthermore, tthe experiennce of the
user reggarding a speecific activiity can be uttilised to filtter probablyy known infformation.
Figure 4: Model of context-based
c d information provision
Afterwaards, the coontext factoors of locatiion and envvironment reduce the informationn demand
accordinng to the acctual work eenvironmennt (figure 4). This appliies among others
o to thee location,
the real view sectioon of the user’s tablet computer oor the deteccted distance to relevannt objects.
The anaalysis of thee environmeent includess existing objects, peopple (staff) aand parametters of the
physicall environmeent but also available IT T environmeent (e.g. servvices) or doocuments.
Contextt parameter values of thhe current ssession willl be recordeed in a timee context (depicted as
“sessionn t0, t1”). Thhey will be available foor future adaptions of tthe informattion demandd, to learn
from thee user’s behhaviour.
241
13th EurroFM Reseaarch Sympo
osium EFM
MC 2014
Examp ple of a conttext-based informatioon provision n based on AR

The folllowing exaample of co ontext-basedd informatio on provisio
on using AR R in a main ntenance
processs helps to understand
u the
t potentiaal of contex xt awarenesss. A techniician wantss to start
with onne of his or her
h tasks, noted
n in the schedule. The
T inspectiion of a cooolant installaation for
the prooduction of company X is schedduled. The task is parrt of a proccess model for the
maintennance. The related process leads tto informatiion on the facility,
f to bbe inspected, about
necessaary documennts, but also o essential aauxiliaries as ools. Initial assistance could
a well as to c be
to proviide all neceessary tools/auxiliaries before exeecuting the task
t and to provide naavigation
to the ffacility. For this set of
o informati tion, an AR R-based info
formation prrovision is not yet
requiredd. In front of the facility, the vview section n of the tabblet compuuter determ mines the
relevantt informatioon by recog gnizing the rreal visible objects. Th
he evaluatioon of the disstance to
the faciility allows a differentiated depictiion of data by
b using information laayers. For instance,
i
detailedd informatioon will just be visible by closely focusing on a componnent of the facility.
Animattions, colouuring or sim mply labellinng can be su uperimposeed by textuaal informatiion such
as objecct attributess (3 bar in figure 5), ddepending ono the required qualityy of supportt for the
techniciian. Docum ments linked with this taask can be requested
r an
nd updated.
This exxample preseents only a small sectioon of potenttial contextss, which couuld be incorrporated
in a sysstem interacction betweeen a FM-tecchnician and d a mobile informationn system. However,
H
it is suittable to dem
monstrate th
he potential of context- based inforrmation proovision by means
m of
AR.
Figu
ure 5: Examp
ple of a AR-b ased assisten
nce system forr FM- techniccians
242
REFERENCES
Dey, A. K. (2000), Providing Architectural Support for Building Context-Aware

Applications, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta.
May, M.; Williams, G. (Eds.) (2012), The Facility Manager's Guide to Information
Technology – An International Collaboration, International Facility Management
Association, Houston.
Koch, O. (2010), Kontextorientierte Informationsversorgung in medizinischen
Behandlungsprozessen, Vieweg + Teubner, Wiesbaden.
Sitou, W. O. (2009), Requirements Engineering kontextsensitiver Anwendungen. Institut für
Informatik der Technischen Universität München, München.
Wilson, D.; Sperber, D. (2002), “Relevance Theory”, Horn, L., Ward, G. L., Handbook of
Pragmatics, Blackwell, Oxford, S. 251.
243
Introduction
EuroFM RESEARCH WORKSHOPS
Chairman, EuroFM Research Network
keithalexander47@gmail.com
Once again this year, EuroFM has provided an opportunity for a broader range of research
papers to be presented and discussed as part of the overall programme for the annual research
symposium.
The workshops have been organised in response to requests by members of the research
network for an opportunity for discussion of more theoretical and methodological issues
associated with FM research. They provide an opportunity for the presentation of research in
progress to provide invaluable feedback for the further development of results and findings.
The workshops also provide an important opportunity to support the development of
academic staff and for exchange amongst registered postgraduate students.
All papers included in the workshops responded to the general call for papers for the 13th
EuroFM Research Symposium and went through the same double-blind refereeing process as
all papers in this publication.
The research workshops, this year locally hosted by HTW University, comprise three parallel
sessions to discuss theoretical research, research in progress and contributions from
elsewhere in the world. In addition there will be another open session for registered
postgraduate students to share experience and to identify ways in which EuroFM might
provide more effective support for their needs and requirements.
The papers in the Advancing knowledge in FM workshop focus on the improvement of

scientific enquiry in FM. Papers in thematic workshops present ongoing research to generate
discussion about the conduct of current work. The Postgraduate Research workshop presents
research being conducted as part of a programme of study for higher degree, at different
stages of development.
A further objective of the workshops is the opportunity to meet researchers, academic staff
and research students of local Universities and to encourage their involvement in future
activities in the network. This year we welcome the opportunity to hear more of relevant
work being undertaken by researchers in Germany. We are sure that the contribution will
strengthen our understanding of the development of FM in Europe.
244
SECTION EIGHT:
ADVANCING KNOWLEDGE IN FACILITIES MANAGEMENT
Introduction
Advancing knowledge in Facilities Management
Keith Alexander
Papers
Knowledge Map of Facilities Management

Suvi Nenonen, Göran Lindahl and Per Anker Jensen.
Analysis of FM research subjects: A quantitative investigation of academic facility

management publications between 2006 and 2012
Christian Coenen and Viola Läuppi.
Competencies for Multi-, Inter and Transdisciplinary Research in Facilities

Management Research
Suvi Nenonen and Göran Lindahl
245
Introduction
ADVANCING KNOWLEDGE IN FACILITIES MANAGEMENT
The European FM research community, driven by the dictates of academic performance and
scientific enquiry, has tended to focus on developing FM as a body of knowledge. For
example, Junghans and Olsson (2014) discuss FM as an academic discipline and provide an
overview of the state-of-the art of the field as currently framed.
Following this trend, the papers in this section address Facilities Management as a discipline,
primarily using reviews of literature in the field to identify a knowledge base (Nenonen and
Lindahl), methodologies (Coenen and Läuppi) and competencies and skills (Nenonen et al) to
inform further research.
Although the papers argue for it to be considered as a management discipline, much of the
analysis shows that, on the whole, FM as a research area it is treated more as a field of
management engineering. Each of the papers are based on narrowly defined literature reviews
with a focus on journals with a bias towards property and (built) asset management issues.
Although other commentators argue for deeper coverage of these issues, a growing counter
movement argues that FM is essentially a business service discipline and needs to engage
with relevant research in social science, service marketing and anthropology.
Unpublished work by Alexander and by Nelson and Tammo (forthcoming), as part of a
project called ‘Back to the Future’ to celebrate EuroFM’s 25 year history, has revisited the
portfolio of work published in EuroFM conferences since 1990, including the twelve prior
Research Symposia. The work reflects on the contribution to EuroFM objectives and assesses
the extent to which the research efforts have advanced knowledge. Conclusions suggest
stagnation rather that evolution and call into question the extent to which the field has
advanced.
Discussion at the symposium should focus on a debate about more effective ways of
advancing knowledge in FM. The current research approach could also be seen to delimit the
contribution that this research is able to make to EuroFMs overall objectives.
For some, refocussing attention on creating a community of knowledge, rather than on
defining a body of knowledge offers a better way forward. In the context of EuroFM, there
should be more focus on creating a cycle of theory, action and reflection that helps us analyse
our efforts in order to improve our ideas. Previous usability research offers a framework
(Alexander et al, 2013) for producing knowledge in the context of use and action, to more
directly address EuroFM’s mission and objectives.
References:
Alexander, K, et al (2013), ‘Usability: managing facilities for social outcomes’, CIB World
Congress, Brisbane;
Alexander, K and Price I Managing Organizational Ecologies: space, management and
organisation, New York: Routledge.
Junghans, A, editor, (2014), ‘Facilities management research in Europe ‘, Special issue,
Facilities, Vol. 32 Iss: 1/2;
Junghans, A, and Olsson, N O E, (2014) "Discussion of facilities management as an
academic discipline", Facilities, Vol. 32 Iss: 1/2, pp.67 – 79;
246
Knowledge Map of Facilities Management
Suvi Nenonen
Aalto University
suvi.nenonen @aalto.fi
+358 505 985 342
Per Anker Jensen

pank@dtu.dk
Göran Lindahl
Chalmers University of Technology
ABSTRACT
Purpose This paper aims to draft a knowledge map of the fragmented and multidisciplinary
research of and relevant to Facilities Management (FM). The Facilities Management
knowledge map indicates what knowledge, methods and theory can be found in Facilities
Management research. Knowledge mapping is a step in creating an inventory of knowledge
(i.e. the knowledge base) and developing/improving the processes of knowledge sharing in
research, education and practice.
Theory Knowledge mapping and the knowledge map are discussed in terms of knowledge
management and as connected to the facilities management profession, research and
education. The knowledge map aims to contrast perspectives on how to map interdisciplinary
research.
Design/methodology/approach The Facilities Management Knowledge Map is based on a

classification of 83 articles, including volume 2013 of Facilities (40 articles) and of the
Journal of Facilities Management (21 articles) and all volumes (2010-2013) of the
International Journal of Facility Management (22 articles), except 2013, issue 3.
Findings. The Facilities Management knowledge map integrates eight different disciplines.
Management is still the dominant discipline followed by engineering.
Originality/value. Based on the knowledge map, both the research community and FM-
practitioners can develop new models for identifying knowledge needs and gaps and improve
knowledge sharing and knowledge flow and thus the fulfilment of their mission and goals.
The knowledge map can also help in organizing research activities and analysing of the
related flow and impact of knowledge
Keywords
Facilities management, Knowledge management, Knowledge mapping, Knowledge map,
Disciplines, Interdisciplinary
1 INTRODUCTION
Facilities Management, FM, is developing towards an academic discipline in its own right
with a focus on creating new knowledge that develops and supports the competences needed
by professionals within FM. To succeed in this, FM has to be a multidisciplinary and applied
247
research field. As a professional management discipline, Facilities Management has

developed since around 1980, starting in large corporations in the USA, and it is today a
global profession, particularly in more developed countries. Facilities management has in the
last decades gone through a paradigm shift from a narrow technical focus towards a broader
management focus (Andersen et al. 2012).
Scientific inquiry in the field of Facilities Management, FM, will increasingly be found at the
boundaries of traditional disciplines. The study of complex systems, such as integration
between several disciplines such as management, technology and facilities, requires an
approach that crosses disciplinary boundaries. FM research has its roots at the beginning of
the 21st century and it is discussed from the perspectives of different disciplines, a
development also seen in other socio-technical fields such as work organization, sociology of
work, development of evidence-based research in health care, etc. (Nenonen and Lindahl
2012).
This paper aims to draft a knowledge map of the fragmented and multidisciplinary research
of and relevant to Facilities Management. The Facilities Management knowledge map
indicates what knowledge, methods and theory can be found in Facilities Management
research. FM in general integrates knowledge from civil engineering, architectural planning
and business management. Knowledge mapping is a step in creating an inventory of
knowledge (i.e. the knowledge base), identifying knowledge needs and gaps and
developing/improving the processes of knowledge sharing in research, education and practice
(Tandukar 2005).
The paper presents an introduction based on the fields of FM and knowledge management,
thereafter follows a section with findings from the a recent study, after which comes a
conclusion pointing to relevant and crucial issues for knowledge management and
development within the field of FM.
2 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT, KNOWLEDGE MAPPING AND THE

KNOWLEDGE MAP
2. 1 Concepts
Research interest in knowledge management has grown rapidly. A large amount of research
on knowledge management is conducted in academic and industrial communities (Suyeon et
al 2003). The terms knowledge, knowledge mapping and knowledge map need to be defined.
Knowledge is a set of data and information, to which expert opinion and experience is added,
resulting in a valuable asset which can be used or applied to aid decision-making. Knowledge
may be explicit and/or tacit, individual and/or collective. Knowledge mapping is an on-going
quest within an organisation to survey, audit and synthesise the knowledge within an
organisation. Auditing knowledge within an organisation identifies a knowledge gap and
classifies, sorts and identifies the knowledge flow within the organisation. Synthesis is the
ultimate stage in knowledge mapping where the processes, people and knowledge mapping
tools are cleverly linked to each other and the relationships between them are elucidated.
However, the absence of knowledge management approaches in the organisation, arguably,
causes deficiency of structured and purposive knowledge mapping (Yasin and Egbu, 2011).
According to Tandukar (2005), a Knowledge Map describes what knowledge is used in a
process and how it flows around the process. It is the basis for determining knowledge
commonality, or areas where similar knowledge is used across multiple processes. It
describes who has what knowledge (tacit), where the knowledge resides (infrastructure), and
how the knowledge is transferred or disseminated (social). The process of making the
knowledge map is as important as the final product because it is impossible to create a single
map that would meet the needs of every situation. The knowledge map is a navigation aid to
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explicit (codified) information and tacit knowledge, showing the importance and the
relationships between knowledge stores and the dynamics of knowledge utilization.
2. 2 Facilities management and knowledge mapping

According to Ventovuori et al. (2007), FM gradually became accepted as a service profession
within the property and construction industries during the early 1980s. Nevertheless,
academic research, publications and theoretical investigation into FM did not start until the
1990s (Price and Akhalghi, 1999).

The first comprehensive review, evaluation and classification of academic research that has
been published in the field of Facilities Management was conducted in a European context in
2007 by Ventovuori et al. Qualitative data was gathered from academic papers published in
FM-related journals (i.e. Facilities, the Journal of Facilities Management, and the Nordic
Journal of Surveying and Real Estate Research – Special Series) and in conjunction with
academic conferences (i.e. the European Research Symposium in Facilities Management and
the CIB W70 Symposium) between 1996–2005. In this study, the research papers were
classified according to the FM topics examined in them, the type of research performed and
the reporting of data-gathering methods used in the study, the background of the authors, the
research field, and the research sector. The evaluation of the academic papers indicated that
the reporting of the methods used, data collection and limitations is inadequate in many
academic papers. However, to draw valid conclusions and align FM research, methodological
issues should be clearly delineated in research papers. In order to progress, the FM discipline
must increasingly employ hypothesis testing and more robust data analysis techniques.
Ventovuori et al. (2007) added a further remark that many papers could have been developed
into pure research papers by referring to the existing body of knowledge. Then again, they
also put forward the mitigating observation that “this is characteristic of a completely new or
emerging area of research”.
The need for knowledge management has been identified both in practice and in research on
Facilities Management, for instance by Pathirage et al. (2012), who study the knowledge
management practices in facilities organizations by using an intellectual capital framework.
Another study was undertaken by Jensen (2009), who claims that one of the problems in the
building industry is the limited degree of learning from experiences of use and operation of
existing buildings. The development of professional FM can be seen as the missing link to
bridge the gap between building operation and building design. He presents a typology of
knowledge transfer mechanisms from building operation to building design based on a
combination of knowledge push of requirements from building operation and knowledge pull
from building design. The typology is further developed in Jensen (2012a), including
knowledge pull of performance validation from FM and knowledge push from building
construction. Knowledge transfer mechanisms have recently been studied more generally by
Zuo et al. (2013). However, these studies of knowledge management practices and
knowledge transfer mechanisms are concerned with how knowledge is managed, while
knowledge mapping is concerned with which knowledge is used or the characteristics of this
knowledge.
The interest in knowledge management and knowledge mapping is global. E.g. the literature
review and survey interviews amongst facilities managers in Malaysia reveal that it is crucial
to identify knowledge assets in an organisation very early on (Yasin and Egbu 2011).
Through knowledge mapping, expected benefits can be fully exploited. Facilities managers in
Malaysia realise the importance of their knowledge rich organisations being mapped. This is
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to ensure that they do well in the competitive business environment and gain recognition of
their important role in supporting the prime activities of the clients’ organisations. Thus
cultural differences and maturity of markets need to be considered as well when reflecting
such results from the point of view of the European context.
Pullen et al. (2009) continue that a lot could be learned from anthropologists always
describing their own perspective. Extrapolation of strengths and weaknesses, in other words,
needs to be in the sight of FM researchers. Alexander (2008) has noted: “FM research should
respond to the need for real world, people-centred and action-oriented concepts and tools so
that facility managers can act as “reflective practitioners”. Jensen (2012a) points out that
Facilities Management research in the different Nordic countries has developed based on
local conditions and opportunities. According to Pullen et al. (2009), facilities can be seen as
business resources serving organizational goals. FM studies and specifically the usability
studies seem to fill this gap because they study buildings and their effects from the
perspective of the built environment. In the last two decades, there have been studies
claiming that science is becoming ever more interdisciplinary. Science maps are used e.g. to
investigate whether science is becoming more interdisciplinary. Porter and Rafols (2009)
claim that interdisciplinary research is developing but in small steps — drawing citations
mainly from neighbouring fields and only modestly increasing the connections to distant
cognitive areas.
An identified challenge in FM research, either in a multi-, inter- or a trans-disciplinary
approach, is to manage both collaboration between fields of research and collaboration with
the business life and other third parties in order to bring the results into practice. Another
challenge is related to the interpretation of research results: the problems solved may well be
complex but the industry and persons in practice might still articulate and interpret the results
from the perspective of mono-disciplinarity.
The research process, furthermore, varies depending on different approaches. It is always

demanding to collaborate with representatives from a variety of disciplines, as there is the
obvious risk of being considered weak and fragmented due to lacking research rigidity. One
major challenge is, therefore, to design the research in such a way that a common language
can be found. The common goal has to be shared by all representatives but the ways to
achieve it can
be designed differently, depending on the relevance of conducting the research in a multi-,
inter- or trans-disciplinary way.
In order to develop FM research and to manage the integration of methods, the research
community has to engage in a discourse concerning the development of a possible FM
methodology. As no method or approach is complete, the FM field will have to develop its
own variety of research approaches and do that in a very conscious way. As it is not likely
that specific FM research methods will develop, the capability to manage multi- and trans-
disciplinary approaches will be one determinant of quality within the FM research, focusing
on people and spaces and how these relate both socially, economically and technically. This
brings FM in the field of mixed methods approaches. Emphasis needs to be placed on the
interdisciplinary nature of making patterns, as well as the collaborative construction of
knowledge (Nenonen and Lindahl 2012).
Doleman and Brooks (2011) have used grounded theory analysis to test the supposition of a
Facility management Knowledge construct in a three-phase study focusing on analysing
international tertiary Facility Management courses, critiquing course content through
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linguistic analysis to extract the knowledge categories. They identified: 24 most common
Facility Management knowledge categories: Management, Business, Product, Environment,
Facilities, Organisation, Systems, Organisational, Change, Analysis, Financial, Customer,
Planning, Quality, Interior, Marketing, Development, Communication, Process, Materials,
Service, Skills, Research and Design.
Jensen (2012b) claims that in research FM has to be a multidisciplinary and applied research
field – it integrates Strategic Management, Change Management, Sourcing Theory and
Service Innovation, Organisational Economics, Value/Supply Chain Management and
Performance Management, Sustainability, Environmental Management and Real Estate
Management, including Space Management.
3 FACILITIES MANAGEMENT KNOWLEDGE MAP

Processes of knowledge mapping have been discussed by various authors such as Kim et al.
(2003), Egbu (2006), Ebner et.al (2006),Yang (2007), Grey et al (2009). The approaches
towards knowledge mapping could be classified into three main categories: 1) gathering and
capturing knowledge, 2) analysing knowledge and 3) linking the knowledge. Beyond the
three activities of knowledge mapping, Kim et al. (2003) suggest that knowledge map
validation should be included. Our study was exploratory with a focus on gathering and
analysing knowledge from recent FM research with the aim to create an overview of the
disciplines and theories that characterise the FM body of knowledge.
3.1 Sample
Various knowledge types in 83 articles from academic journals were detected. They include
volume 2013 of Facilities (40 articles) and of the Journal of Facilities Management (21
articles) and all volumes (2010-2013) of the International Journal of Facility Management
(22 articles), excluding 2013, issue 3, which was published just after the data analysis and
includes conference papers for World Workplace 2013. The sample does not cover all
Facilities Management perspectives such as building maintenance, refurbishment or strategic
asset management, which are published in Built Environment journals.
The analysed papers represented Facilities Management studies geographically in the

following way: 25 papers were from Europe, 22 from Asia, 19 from North America, 12 from
Australia and New Zealand, 4 from Africa and one from South America.
3.2 Method
The articles were analysed by a thorough scrutiny of the abstracts, supplemented by a
screening of each full article to understand the use of theory and methodology, etc. For each
article the following general information was collected:
 Authors
 Title
 Country (categorized by first authors)
 Purpose (as stated in the abstract)
 Keywords (as stated)
 Paper type (Conceptual, Empirical, Other).
The articles were categorized according to the
 Object of study (one main object for each article)
 Focus of the paper (one main focus area for each article)
 Theory (one or a combination of two theories for each article)
251
 Basic discipline(s) (two disciplines for each article – one was also possible but not
relevant)
 Disciplinarity (Mono-, Multi-, Inter-, Trans-)
The categorization of the subject, focus, theory and basic discipline(s) was done inductively
without predefined categories, but more general groupings were made based on the detailed
categorisation. The more detailed categorization of the research was done deductively based
on a model called ‘research onion’ (Saunders et al., 2012) in a slightly adapted version with
the following parameters and categories:
 Philosophy (Positivism, Interpretism, Pragmatism)
 Approach (Deduction, Abduction and Induction)
 Methodological choice (Quantitative, Qualitative, Mixed method)
 Strategy (Survey, Archival, Case study, Literature study, Combinations)
 Time horizon (Cross-sectional, Longitudinal
 Techniques and procedures (No predefined categories).
4 RESULTS
4.1 Background analysis
When analysing the papers by paper type, there were 17 conceptual papers and 63 empirical
papers. One of the papers was opinion paper and two were more based on practice. The
research philosophy mostly applied was interpretism (n=33), positivism was dominant in 27
papers, and pragmatism was applied in 23 articles. Articles characterised by interpretism
were often based on analyses of subjective and qualitative data for instance based on
interviews, while articles applying positivism typically calculated and/or analyses
quantitative data, and articles characterised by pragmatism often developed normative models
and decision support frameworks. Inductive approach was most used in the articles (n= 61).
Deductive approach was used in 19 articles, while only two was seen to use a combination
with abductive approach.
The objects of the research were grouped into 6 different types as shown in Table 1. Most
papers concerned specific processes or activities such as cleaning, construction and
refurbishment (n=27), specific facility or industry types such as education, healthcare and
shopping (n=22), specific building or asset types such as green buildings, historic buildings
and real estate (n=15) or specific space types such as a psychiatric milieu, a workplace and
outdoors (n=13). Some papers concerned specific equipment types such as ICT, building
automation and air conditioning (n=5), and one paper was HR-related.
Table 1 Subjects of research
Object Facilities JFM IJFM Total
Facility/industry type 9 8 4 22
Process/activity type 10 10 7 27
Equipment type 1 1 3 5
Space type 9 1 3 13
Buildings/assets 11 1 4 16
HR‐related 0 0 1 1
Total 40 21 22 83
The focus of the research was grouped into 5 different areas as shown in Table 2. Most
papers had a management process related focus such as decision making, procurement and
design process (n=26), a performance-related focus on output such as building performance,
energy performance and FM service performance (n=23), or an impact-related focus on
outcome like design impact, FM service impact and stakeholder perceptions (n=23). A
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number of papers had focused on special considerations such as accessibility, design features
and maintenance (n=9), and two papers gave research overviews.
Table 2 Focus of research
Focus Facilities JFM IJFM Total
Impact‐related 16 5 2 23
Performance‐related 7 2 14 23
Management process related 11 9 6 26
Special considerations 4 5 0 9
Research overview 2 0 0 2
Total 40 21 22 83
The research strategy was in 4 cases archival research. Surveys were used in 27 papers, 27
papers were based on case studies and a literature study was the basis of 14 papers.
Additionally, two papers had both survey and case studies.
The methods were mostly mixed methods (n=34). When a paper had only one method, it was
qualitative in nature in 23 papers and quantitative in 25 papers. It was possible to find
mentions about the time perspective from 71 papers: most of the studies were cross-sectional
(n=57) and only 14 represented longitudinal studies.
4.2 Analysis of Disciplines and Theories

In relation to disciplines, there were no mono-disciplinary studies, and thus all studies
combined knowledge from two or more disciplines. Almost all were categorized as inter-
disciplinary, but 3 papers concerning space management, workplace management and safety
management, respectively, were seen as trans-disciplinary.
The most common combination was by far without comparison management and engineering
(n=35), but combinations of management and psychology (n=9) and architecture and health
(n=8) were also quite frequent. Altogether nine basic disciplines were present as shown in
Table 3. The field of sustainability and environment is included as part of management and
engineering.
Table 3 Basic Disciplines
Basic disciplines Facilities JFM IJFM Total
Architecture 15 1 2 18
Economy 1 7 2 10
Engineering 22 10 8 40
Health 9 1 1 11
Informatics 0 0 1 1
Management 25 17 10 52
Organisation 0 0 4 4
Psychology 7 4 3 14
Sociology 1 0 1 2
Total 80 40 32 152
For each paper the most important theory was chosen, and these were then grouped as shown
in Table 4. The most common group of theories was related to performance management
(n=11), including Post-Occupancy Evaluations (POE). Theories related to green buildings,
energy and sustainable FM (n=11), value management/engineering/theory (n=9),
environment-behaviour (n=8) and risk and safety (n=7), and design-related theories (n=6)
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were also quite commonly applied. A number of other theories were only used once or a few
times.
Table 4 Theories
Theory Facilities JFM IJFM Total
Performance Management, incl. POE 6 4 4 14
Green buildings, energy and sustainable FM 5 6 11
Value management/engineering/theory 8 1 9
Environment‐Behaviour 7 1 8
Risk and safety 1 5 1 7
Design‐related theories 6 0 0 6
Cost and valuation 3 1 4
Sourcing and bidding 3 3
Decision process and support 1 1 1 3
Service management and quality 2 1 3
Human factors 1 2 3
Workplace and space management 3 3
Lean management and partnering 2 2
Hygiene 1 1
Industrial management 1 1
Knowledge Management 1 1
Leadership theory 1 1
Profession 1 1
Systems thinking 1 1
Urban FM 1 1
Total 40 21 22 83

4.3 Summary of Results
Based on Table 3 but with the inclusion of environment as a new basic discipline and
reducing both engineering and management correspondingly and including informatics in
engineering and organization in sociology, we reach a consolidated overview of basic
disciplines as shown in Table 5.
Table 5 Disciplines mostly applied to FM
Basic disciplines Facilities JFM IJFM Total
Architecture 15 1 2 18
Economy 1 7 2 10
Engineering, incl. informatics 17 10 3 30
Environment 5 0 6 11
Health 9 1 1 11
Management 20 17 4 41
Psychology 7 4 3 14
Sociology/organisation 1 0 5 6
Total 70 40 20 130
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The results are illustrated in the spider diagram in Figure 1, providing a knowledge map of
FM with the frequency of the 8 basic disciplines.
Figure 1 The Facilities Management Knowledge Map
Architecture
50
40
Psychology Engineering
30
20
10
Management 0 Environment Frequency of discipline
Economy Health
Sociology
Table 5 and Figure 1 show that Management is still the dominant discipline followed by
Engineering. The remaining 6 disciplines have much lower frequency. It might be surprising
for some that Economy has considerable lower frequency than Psychology, but a reason
might be that Economy often is incorporated in Management and Engineering. It might also
be surprising that (Sociology/organisation) has the without comparison lowest frequency, but
a reason might be that particularly Organisation often is incorporated in Management.
However, the overall picture confirms that FM basically is a management discipline, but also
more specifically that FM as a research area is dominantly a Management Engineering
discipline.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The Facilities Management knowledge map provides a broad overview of current research
and enables to understand the set of contexts within which the research exists. Based on the
knowledge map it is also possible to discover unknown synergies and it can be used for
communication purposes in the field of Facilities Management research. Both the research
community and FM practitioners can develop new models for identifying knowledge needs
and gaps and to improve knowledge sharing and knowledge flow and thus the fulfilment of
their mission and goals. A knowledge map can also help in organizing research activities and
analysing of the related flow and impact of knowledge.
The overall picture from our study of the disciplines that FM is based on, confirms that FM
basically is a management discipline, but also more specifically that FM as a research area is
dominantly a Management Engineering discipline. The Facilities Management knowledge
map provides information about the main areas upon which research has focused on so far. It
is likely that it also points to an area where the research in the near future will be conducted.
The management aspect of course also signals the focus on service management and FM
organization being viewed as services rather than delivery of engineered products.
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The field of FM is likely to need to develop a view on the knowledge base not only from
thematic or factual perspectives but also from a perspective encompassing the basis for
service delivery, namely knowledge about clients’ needs. This would best be illustrated in the
future by also looking more into the areas of sociology and psychology. Comparing and
analysing of the Facilities Management knowledge map with knowledge maps in different
fields would also increase the validity of the current work.
The lack of empirical validation of this knowledge map is a weakness of this paper, although
the map is presented for starting generic discussion rather than as final research. When
integrating FM perspectives on a communal level, new challenges and issues can be
identified. One such area could be the issue related to participation, which is also relevant for
the emerging area of evidence-based design. How do we develop evidence-based designs
from an FM perspective and what kind of approach is needed for a design that is tested and
proven – perhaps evidence-based services?
Subsequent research should demonstrate whether the knowledge map covers relevant
perspectives and how it could be applied in different industry settings, including follow-up
evaluations. Related to this question, it would be interesting to match a knowledge map with
adequate information technology applications. In conclusion, it thus seems that the
knowledge map shows the steps to be taken towards new Facilities Management research
territory.
REFERENCES
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Usability of Workplaces. Phase 2. CIB W111 Research Report. Rotterdam, CIB Report 316.
Andersen, P., Rasmussen, B. and Jensen, P.A. (2012), Future trends and challenges for FM in
the Nordic Countries, In: Facilities Management Research in the Nordic Countries: Past,
Present and Future. Eds. Jensen, P., A. and Balslev Nielsen, S. Lyngby: Polyteknisk
Boghandel og Forlag, 2012, pp. 310-320.
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(2006), Knowledge mapping as a technique to support knowledge translation, Bulletin of the
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Egbu, C. (2006), The Role of Knowledge Communication and Knowledge Mapping in a
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study, Journal of Knowledge Management, 7(2), pp. 34-55.
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practices in facilities organisations: a case study. Journal of Facilities Management 6(1), pp.
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Price, I., & Akhlaghi, F. (1999), New patterns in facilities management: Industry best
practice and new organisational theory, Facilities, 17(5/6), pp. 159–166.
Pullen, W.R., Van der Voordt, T.J.M. and Hanekamp, J. (2009), Input for the 2015 FM
research and action agenda, Proceedings EFMC 2009 Research Symposium, Amsterdam, The
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257
Analysis of FM research subjects:

a quantitative investigation of academic facility management
publications between 2006 and 2012
Christian Coenen and Viola Läuppi
E Mail: coen@zhaw.ch
ABSTRACT
Background and Purpose: In other fields of research, meta-literature reviews are a common
way of obtaining an overview of the covered content and key subjects of the discipline. In
FM however, there are only a very few approaches for gaining an insight about key
developments of the field. The purpose of this paper is to provide a comprehensive overview
and analysis of the main subject areas of international academic facility management
publications.
Design/methodology/approach: This paper is based on a quantitative literature review. Data

was gathered from academic papers published in FM journals (Facilities and Journal of
Facilities Management) between 2006 and 2012.
Findings: Almost 400 articles were classified into the 10 FM subject areas defined in EN
15221-1 (2006). The analysis and presentation of results shows that more than 70 percent of
these articles fall within the areas of accommodation issues, technical infrastructure, and
other support services. Only 15 percent of the research publications were based solely on
quantitative data collection.
Limitations: Only two of the journals were selected, although other outlets in fields such as
engineering, architecture, and management also publish FM-related papers.
Originality/value: In addition to a comprehensive presentation of results in relation to

subject areas, this study also provides evidence of the development of topics between 2006
and 2012 and the balance of qualitative vs. quantitative methodologies.
Practical Implications: The authors offer recommendations to FM authors and editors and
present implications with regard to the future of the scientific FM discipline.
Keywords
Facilities Management, Publications, Analysis, Qualitative Data, Quantitative Data.
258
1 INTRODUCTION
The discipline of FM is growing in importance and is now seen as a key business sector,
based on its economic importance and the number of jobs it has created. The steady growth
of FM has also led to an increase in the demand for independent, high-quality, and evidence-
based knowledge in this field. The FM literature is driven by a rapidly growing population of
FM scholars and the loose-knit system of publication outlets that has emerged to publish their
works. Such knowledge enables facility managers to make informed decisions about
comprehensive assets and resource-intensive services.
The international FM community is endeavouring to express this relevance through
publications in research journals, thereby providing the FM community with the most
important findings from research and practice. Regular reporting on topical content and
projects can be found in a number of peer-reviewed research publications.
Although there has been considerable publication activity in recent years, less attention has
been directed to a systematic categorization of these scientific publications. There is no
overarching transparency about the subject areas in which the recent published content is
located and how the diversity of topics has developed in recent years. As far as we could
ascertain, the only classification in the field of FM dates back several years and covers the
period between 1996 and 2005 (Ventovuori, Lehtonen, Salonen and Nenonen, 2007). This
suggests a need for further and more current investigations in order to obtain a structured
overview of scientific FM publication activities within the last decade.
Therefore, the primary objective in this meta-study is to provide a comprehensive overview
of the main subject areas in international scientific FM publications since 2006. The
subsequent sub-goals of this research can be described as follows:
 Which topics have been covered in scientific peer-reviewed FM publications since 2006?
 What kind of research methodology was employed in the research field?
 What implications can be derived from the findings?
Accordingly, emphasis is given to the value of a comprehensive analysis of the current state
of FM literature for both academia and practitioners who need to understand the intellectual
pillars of FM and the progression of the field.
2 PREVIOUS RESEARCH AND STARTING POINT
In other fields of research, such as services marketing and international business, meta-
literature reviews are a common way of obtaining a clear overview of the covered content
and key contributors of the discipline. Most of these studies have determined the state of the
field according to ratings by experts or authors (Fisk, Brown and Bitner, 1993; Inkpen and
Beamish, 1994; Zeithaml, 2000; Grove, Fisk and John, 2003). Some of the reviews have
researched topics in specific journals (Furrer and Sollberger, 2007; Pilkington and Chai,
2008), while others have determined research agendas using quantitative measures such as
citation analysis (Kunz and Hogreve, 2011).
As mentioned, the only previous noteworthy publication that the authors could identify in the
field of FM dates back to 2007 in an article in Facilities (Ventovuori et al., 2007). In their
article, the Finnish group of authors reported on research that covered publications within the
period from 1996 to 2005. The authors used an inductive approach to categorize the various
publications of two scientific journals – Journal of Facilities Management and Facilities –
and two conference proceedings – CIB W70 and EFMC. In total, the authors categorized 584
publications within these 10 years, which represents an average of 58 publications per year.
According to their work, the following key FM topics could be identified in the literature:
technical issues, performance measurement, procurement, workplace, sustainability, and
general trends in FM. The authors summarized their category findings by stating that “the
empirical research papers published were most often classified under the topic FM general.
259
This is quite logical, because this kind of research is needed to gain an understanding of the
content and position of the new discipline and profession” (Ventovuori et al., 2007, p. 232).
They also noted that the number of technical and performance papers was relatively equal
and, together, these two categories comprised one-third of all the papers. The most common
type of research performed was exploratory studies. The number of hypothesis-testing papers
was relatively low, with only 26 papers (9.1 percent of the total) falling into this category.
According to the authors, there were no methodology reviews. In the period between 1996
and 2005, case studies accounted for over 60 percent of the data gathered, and surveys
accounted for up to 25 percent. Under the topic of FM general, surveys were defined as the
most common data-gathering method (Ventovuori et al., 2007). The authors concluded that
previous studies were rarely cited and that the research method or data gathering was often
not described. They proposed that “to link practice and research more tightly, more papers
should be related to the prior body of knowledge and previous research” (Ventovuori et al.,
2007, p. 234).
3 RESEARCH METHOD AND ANALYSIS

3.1 Selection of Publications
Based on the findings of the Finnish authors, and also with regard to our above-mentioned
research goals, we conducted an analysis of key scientific publications in Facility
Management in order to provide an extensive overview of relevant FM publications. The
secondary data analysis approach was applied to published FM research, because it provides
a rigorous way to analyse and summarize the results of the previously published studies
(Vartanian, 2011).
Criteria for selection of the publications were as follows:
 Specific FM focus: Key FM topics are covered without overlapping with neighboring
disciplines.
 Peer-reviewed: Specific scientific quality can be assumed.
 No works-in-progress: Only output-based publications that describe completed research are
included.
Considering these key criteria, we selected the two most prominent scientific journals in the
field – Journal of Facilities Management and Facilities – and excluded other publications
from the analysis. Both journals cover the multidisciplinary topics of people, property and
process management as stated by EuroFM as key foundations of FM. Both journals can be
considered as strategic level journals for Heads of Facilities. In addition, Facilities is a CIB
Encouraged Journal. Other potential journals from the built environment like e.g. Journal of
Corporate Real Estate, Property Management or Engineering, Construction and
Architectural Management were not included in the data analysis, because they show
significant overlap with neighboring disciplines such as construction, architecture or
engineering. Apart from the fact that conference presentations and corresponding proceedings
are not generally considered as regular scientific publications, another reason for not
including conference proceedings of CIB W70 and EFMC is the fact that the relevant and
high-quality research content of these conferences typically appears (after a certain time gap)
as scientific, peer-reviewed articles in one of the two selected journals.
260
As Table 1 shows, we identified a total of 399 research publications (that is, an average of 57
publications per year over the seven-year period), which is similar to the figure that
Ventovuori et al. (2007) found in their study.
Table 1: Overview of selected journal publications

Year Facilities Journal of FM Total
2006 39 15 54
2007 40 20 60
2008 35 20 55
2009 36 21 57
2010 39 20 59
2011 38 19 57
2012 37 20 57
Total 264 135 399
3.2 Selection of Topics and Coding Procedure

The current research does not leave the Finnish findings about topics unaccounted for, even
though we perceived the given category framework as too narrow. At approximately the same
time as the Finnish publication (Ventovuori et al., 2007), a common and well-accepted EN
norm (15221) was published that defines facility management and key terminology in this
field. In our research approach, therefore, we used the EN norm to deductively categorize the
published scientific work between 2006 and 2012.
According to the EN norm, the scope of FM is split into two key parts and described as
follows (EN 2006, p. 12ff.):
1. Space and Infrastructure

 Accommodation
 Workplace
 Technical Infrastructure
 Cleaning
 Other Space and Infrastructure
2. People and Organization

 Health, safety and security
 Hospitality
 ICT
 Logistics
 Other Support Services
In addition to categorizing the nearly 400 publications according to the EN norm topic
categories, we also observed and documented the corresponding authors’ names, publication
year, type of article, and research methodology. The selected articles were analysed and
categorized according to the EN norm terminology. Appendices B.2. and B.3 of EN norm
15221 (2006, p. 12ff.) were used as a code book in coding the selected publications. These
appendices describe in detail the scope of the respective categories. Proper coding was
achieved by thoroughly reading the abstracts and, if necessary, the entire publication. Each
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publicattion was thhen matched to one o f the 10 ab bove-mentiooned sub-toopics of Sp

pace and
Infrastruucture and People and d Organizatiion. Likewiise, the documentationn and catego orization
regardinng the choosen researcch methodoology of ev very publiccation was conducted. In this
content analysis approach,
a th
he authors were able to determiine the keyywords in order o to
determiine the mosst importantt content of the writing g. When thee coding out
utput was deebatable,
the authhors discusssed the result and agreeed on an accceptable solution.
4 RESULTS S
This secction descriibes the outccomes of thhe quantitatiive analysis of the journ
rnal papers in
i focus.
This seection onlyy describess the puree results without
w anaalyzing themem for reaasons or
justificaations. The analysis is provided
p inn the discusssion section
n.
The 3999 research publications
p s were writtten by 672 different au uthors. Sevventy percennt of the
publicattions were published by b 57 perceent of the au uthors. A tootal of 540 writers (that is, 80
percent) (co)authorred only on ne publicatioon, while 20
2 percent (132 authorss) participatted in at
least tw
wo articles.
4.1 Key Topics

d 2006–20122, the distribution of reesearch pubblications acccording
During the publicaation period
to the toopic scope of
o the EN norm can be described as
a shown in n Figure 1.
30,0%
25,0%
20,0%
15,0%
Namings in %
10,0%
5,0%
0,0%
Figure 1: Key topics according to the

t scope of EN
E norm
In categgorizing thee key topicss, the authorrs analyzed

d the publicaation titles and created
d a word
cloud thhat represennts the keyy terms of aall 399 pub blication tittles. The sizze of the words
w in
Figure 2 reflects thhe frequenccy with whhich they arre mentioneed in the puublication tiitles. By
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leaving out terms like facilityy, facilities aand management, it beecomes appparent that the
t most
frequenntly mentionned terms in
nclude buildding, construuction, mainntenance annd performaance.
Figure 2: Word
W cloud representing thee frequency off used termino
ology in publiication titles
4.2 Type of Publlication

The twoo journals inn focus have a commonn categorizaation of pub blication typpes, as descrribed
below1. The authorr of each pu ublication chhooses the type
t when submitting
s tthe manuscrript to
the edittor.
Researcch paper. This
T categorry covers paapers that report on an ny type of rresearch und dertaken
by the author(s). The researrch may innvolve the constructio on or testinng of a model
m or
framew work, action research, teesting of daata, market research orr surveys, em mpirical, sccientific,
or cliniccal researchh.
Viewpooint. Any paaper whose content is ddependent on o the autho or’s opinionn and interp pretation
should bbe includedd in this cateegory; this aalso includees journalisttic pieces.
Techniccal paper. Describes
D an
nd evaluatess technical products,
p prrocesses or services.
Concepptual paper.. Papers thaat are not bbased on reesearch, butt do develoop hypothesses. The
papers are likely to be discurrsive and w will cover ph hilosophical discussionns and com mparative
studies of others’ work
w and thinking.
Case sttudy. Case studies describe actuaal interventiions or experiences wiithin organiizations.
They m may be subjeective and do d not generrally report on research h. A descripption of a leegal case
or a hyppothetical case study ussed as a teaaching exerccise would alsoa fit into this categorry.
Literatuure review. It is expeccted that alll types of paper
p cite any
a relevannt literature, so this
categoryy should onnly be used d if the mainn purpose ofo the paperr is to annootate and/or critique
the literrature in a particular subject areea. This cou uld include a selectivee bibliograp phy that
providees advice onn informatio on sources, or a more comprehens
c sive attemppt to cover thet main
contribuutors to the developmeent of a topicc and explo ore their diffferent viewss.
Generaal review. This
T categorry covers tthose paperrs that prov vide an oveerview or historical
h
examination of som me conceptt, techniquee, or phenom menon. Thee papers aree likely to be b more
descripttive or instrructional (“hhow to”) thaan discursivve.
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77,4%
8,0% 8%
4,8 4,5% 2,8% 1,3% 1,3%
%
Figure 3: Disttribution of pu
ublication type
1
Source: E-Mail correspondence wiith Emma Steeele, Editor of Emerald Grou
up Publishing on April 15th
h, 2013.
More thhan three-quuarters of th

he almost 4 00 publicattions were categorized
c as research
h papers,
while oonly 8 perceent were cattegorized caase studies. Fewer thann 5 percent of the publlications
were caategorized as
a conceptuaal papers orr literature reviews (seee Figure 3).
4.3 Timeline
When w we split thee time perio
od of seven years into two separate time winndows of 3– –4 years
(that is,, 2006–20099 and 2010–2012), wee only deteccted a few abnormalitie
a es between the two
time peeriods. Mostt key topics are represeented in a more
m or less balanced wway in both periods.
Howeveer, key topics like ICT and Healthh, Safety & Security sig gnificantly ggrew in imp
portance
in termss of the num
mber of publications (seee Figure 4)).
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Naming
gs in %
30%
O
Other Support
Services
Accommodattion
25%
20%
2006 - 2009
Workplace Techn nical

15% Infrastru
ucture
10%
Health
h, safety and
5% security
s
Logistics
O
Other Space and
a
Infrastructure T
ICT
Hospitality
Cleaning
0%
0% 5% 10% 15%
% 20%
% 25%
% 30%
%
2010 - 2012
2
Figure 4: Publication
ns regarding kkey topics in period
p 2006–2
2009 and 20100–2012.
4.4 Research Methodolog

M gy
Almost two-thirds (64 percen nt) of all thhe publishedd papers caan be assignned to a qu
ualitative
methoddology. Whiile 21 perceent cover quualitative asa well as quantitative methodolog gy, only
15 percent deal excclusively wiith quantitaative method
dology.
100%
90% 15%
80%
21%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30% 64%
20%
10%
0%
Quantiitative
Qualita
ative and Qu
uantitative
Qualita
ative
Figure 5: Research methodology
265
As can be seen in Figure 6, at least two research methodologies were represented in all
publication types. Unsurprisingly, the most heterogeneous methodology field can be found in
research papers and technical papers. Case studies and conceptual papers have the highest
degree of qualitative methodology. Since research papers are by far the most present
publication type (see Figure 3) and make up almost 80% of all papers analyzed, it can be
stated that over half of these papers (57 %) base their findings solely on qualitative data,
while almost one out of five papers use only quantitative data.
100% 6% 11% 9% 11%

90% 18% 20% 20%
80%
70% 25% 20%
60%
50% 94% 89% 91% 89%
40% 80%
30% 57% 60%
20%
10%
0%
Qualitative Qualitative and Quantitative Quantitative
Figure 6: Research methodology per publication type
100% 9% 7%
17% 11% 14%
90% 22% 20% 25% 22%
80% 19% 33%
15% 27% 32%
70% 25% 20% 20% 22%
60%
50%
40% 71% 75%
70% 64% 67%
30% 58% 58% 60% 56% 61%
20%
10%
0%
Qualitative Qualitative and Quantitative Quantitative
Figure 7: Research methodology per key topic
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5 DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

The presented research results provide some interesting insights into the evolving field of FM
research. This section discusses the key findings and provides some implications for this
field.
 Key Topics:
With respect to the various fields of interest, it is apparent that the key topic “Other Support
Services” is by far the most published area. This field covers articles about HRM, financial
reporting, marketing, procurement, project management, and quality management. These
areas mostly represent strategic tasks that have to be addressed by the general management
with regards to FM. Ventovuori et al. (2007) found that most papers were in the field of “FM
general”, and our results confirm this for the time period of 2006–2012.
To the extent that these publications reflect the dynamics and evolution of the FM field as a
whole, the following important question about the future of the FM field can be raised: “Is
the FM field likely to concentrate toward an overriding paradigm or to fragment itself into
numerous subfields?” A tendency towards one dominant direction could indicate that the FM
literature has not yet reached its full maturity and is still evolving. In any case, further
research is needed to gain more insight into this question.
 Type of publication:
On one hand, it seems clear that the vast majority of papers (77.4 percent) are categorized
within the publication type research paper as scientific research journals have been analysed.
On the other hand, it can be assumed that the authors of the submitted publications are not
fully aware of the range of various publication types and are therefore too hasty to categorize
their publication as research papers. For example, the above-discussed publication by
Ventovuori et al. (2007) who focused on an analysis of FM publications between 1996 and
2005, was categorized by the Finnish authors as a research paper. As the only meta-literature
review during the time period in focus, it entirely fulfils the criteria for being categorized as a
literature review. Therefore, in the future, categorization of the publication type should be
communicated more carefully by editors and selected more carefully by authors to make sure
that the categorization is appropriate. There is a clear need for more diversity within the
publication types.
 Time line:
While most of the 10 key topics are distributed fairly equally along the time line of seven
years, ICT and Health, Safety & Security significantly gained importance with regard to the
number of publications. There are several reasons for this. Legal specifications and safety
regulations have attracted increasing attention in the FM field, which means that the increase
in publication output seems plausible. Likewise, for a field like information and
communication technology (ICT), seven years is quite a long period with a number of
innovative modifications that enable facility managers to better service the needs of clients,
customers, and users. Consequently, the publication activity in this topic is above average
within the last three-year period.
 Research methodology:
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To assess the methodological state of the FM literature, it was useful to study the relative
importance of conceptual and empirical papers and the relative importance of qualitative and
quantitative studies. Thirty-six percent of the analysed publications involve quantitative
methodology. Within the research paper category, the quota of quantitative methodology is
even higher, at 43 percent.
Due to the above-described different methodological approaches in assessing the quantitative

and qualitative methodology in use, it is not possible to directly compare the results of
Ventovuori et al. (2007) with those of the present study. Nevertheless, it should be noted that
the Finnish authors assessed 53 percent (that is, 308 empirical papers), of which 64 percent
involved qualitative methodology, such as case study or action research. Therefore, the
quantitative share of approximately one-third of the research paper category remains stable
compared to the 1996–2005 time window.
There is no doubt that qualitative and quantitative methodology both have great relevance for
scientifically discovering and exploring the field of FM. Both methodologies have their
raison d’être for scientific progress in the FM field, but one might expect that after the period
of “Crawling Out” with a majority of qualitative and normative research, the number of
quantitative approaches increases during the “Scurrying About” and “Walking Erect” periods
(Fisk et al., 1993). According to the present findings, however, this is not the case. While
some progress has been made to further explore the field of FM, there still seems to be a lack
of best available scientific evidence that facilitates managerial decisions and organizational
practices. This could also be one reason for the apparently intense discussion and justification
of the FM community about the strategic relevance (Ware and Carder, 2012; White, 2013)
and the value of FM (Jensen, van der Voordt and Coenen, 2012; Coenen, Alexander and Kok,
2013). In order to progress, the FM discipline should continue to increasingly employ
hypothesis testing and more valid data analysis techniques.
Limitations
This study has certain limitations. One limitation is the number of selected journals. We
selected only two of the journals, although other outlets in fields such as engineering,
architecture, and management also publish FM-related papers. Conference proceedings,
books, and dissertations are also important sources of FM research. The large amount of FM
publications made it virtually impossible to include all such publications in the analysis.
Future research along these lines should attempt to include other academic publications from
neighbouring scientific fields. However, we are confident that the selection of these FM
journals makes the results valid and reliable. One important question that the scope of this
paper did not allow to be answered is: “What are the major theoretical developments that
have occurred in the field?” From a theoretical point of view, it would have been interesting
to investigate what kind of theories have been generated and whether these are the most
likely to advance the FM knowledge base. Future research should act on this suggestion and
emphasize the theoretical developments and applied frameworks within the FM research
field.
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6 CONCLUSION
FM has undoubtedly become more significant within the business community during the last
two decades and the common European norm was a substantial step in getting a common
understanding of this heterogeneous field. On the other hand, it must also be stated that, with
regard to the scientific maturity of the discipline, FM can still be considered to be in an
evolving state. Therefore, as a rather adolescent scientific discipline, FM remains in search of
evidence for itself and for the primary activities.
As an interdisciplinary research field, FM covers disciplines such as built environment,
engineering, and management. The various researchers of these disciplines always have a
choice regarding whether to aim to be published in an FM-specific publication or to submit
their research work to a journal that focuses on a specific field of interest, such as architecture
or management. To become more attractive for potential authors, the discussed FM journals
should strive to improve their journal impact factors by stressing scientifically sound research
work.
Insights from this study and implications can serve as a basis for the improvement of research
in FM. Additionally; the results should encourage an open discussion regarding the current
state and future needs of FM research. Such discussion could result in more rigour in the FM
discipline and, consequently, a better understanding of FM and FM research.
REFERENCES
Coenen, C., Alexander, K. and Kok, H. (2013), “Facility Management Value Dimensions
from a Demand Perspective”, Journal of Facilities Management, 11, 4, 339-353.
EN European Norm (2006), Facility management - part 1: Terms and definitions, EN 15221-
1, BSI, UK.
Fisk, R., Brown, S. and Bitner, M. (1993), “Tracking the evolution of the services marketing
literature”, Journal of Retailing, 1, 61-103.
Furrer, O. and Sollberger, P. (2007), “The dynamics and evolution of the service marketing
literature: 1993–2003”, Service Business, 1, 2, 93–117.
Grove, S. J., Fisk, R. P. and John, J. (2003), “The future of services marketing: Forecasts
from ten services experts”, Journal of Services Marketing, 17, 2, 107–121.
Inkpen A. and Beamish, P. (1994), “An analysis of twenty-five years of research in the
Journal of International Business Studies”, Journal of International Business Studies, 25,
703–713.
Jensen, P. A., van der Voordt, T. and Coenen, C. (2012), The Added Value of Facilities
Management, Polyteknisk Forlag, Lyngby.
Kunz, W. and Hogreve, J. (2011), “Toward a deeper understanding of service marketing: The
past, the present, and the future”, International Journal of Research in Marketing, 28, 231-
247.
Pilkington, A. and Chai, K.-H. (2008), “Research themes, concepts and relationships: A study
of International Journal of Service Industry Management (1990–2005)”, International
Journal of Service Industry Management, 19, 1, 83–110.
Vartanian, T. P. (2011), Secondary data analysis, New York/Oxford.
Ventovuori, T., Lehtonen, T., Salonen, A. and Nenonen, S. (2007), “A review and
classification of academic research in facilities management”, Facilities, 25, 5/6, 227-237.
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White, A., D. (2013), “Strategic facilities management, 1st edition, RICS Professional
Guidance, Global”, available at: http://www.i-fm.net/documents/RICS-Strategic-FM-
Guidance-Note%2011_13.pdf (accessed November 11 2013).
Ware, J., P. and Carder, P. (2012), “Raising the Bar: Enhancing the Strategic Role of
Facilities Management, RICS Research”, available at:
http://www.joinricsineurope.eu/uploads/files/17503RICSRaisingtheBarReport1_1.pdf
(accessed November 12 2013).
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270
Competencies for Multi-, Inter- and Transdisciplinary Research in

Facilities Management Research
Suvi Nenonen
Aalto University, Finland
+358 505 985 342
Göran Lindahl
Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden
ABSTRACT
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to map the skills and competencies needed in multi-,
inter- and interdisciplinary research of facilities management.
Design/methodology/approach – This paper is based on literature review in terms of multi-,
inter- and transdisicplinary research in facilities management. Additionally interviews with
researchers in interdisciplinary research projects in the field of facilities management were
conducted.
Findings –The results reflect the findings of the literature review, which point out that
competencies in connection communication, collaboration and continuous learning are
essential. The results provide guidance and support for research community in developing the
integrated research approach to the field of facilities management.
Research limitations/implications – This research offers insights into the characteristics of
research where more than one discipline is needed. One limitation of this paper is the small
amount of interviewees. The longitudinal study during the research process could provide
data also from development of competence and capability.
Originality/value – This paper helps researchers to identify the challenges of integration of
different disciplines. The results can be used also in educational purposes in terms of training
researchers towards future research challenges.
Keywords
Facilities Management Research, Multidisciplinary, Interdisciplinary, Transdisicplinary,
Competences
1 INTRODUCTION
Integration is a concept used in connection with facilities management profession to point to

the need and possibilities related to complementing professional skills and knowledge.
Integrated facilities management can refer e.g. to the proportion of diverse services,
integration of variety of networks, integration of strategic, tactic and operational processes.
Facility management (or facilities management or FM) has been defined by IFMA
(International Facilities Management Association) an integrated multidisciplinary,
interdisciplinary field devoted to the coordination of space, infrastructure, people and
organization, often associated with the administration of office blocks, arenas, schools,
271
convention centers, shopping complexes, hospitals, hotels, etc. The latest definition is:
Facility management is a profession that encompasses multiple disciplines to ensure
functionality of the built environment by integrating people, place, process and technology
(Anon. 2014). What does this integration mean for facilities management research? How can
a multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary field be investigated in a coherent and methodically
reliable way? Facilities Management studies, and specifically the usability studies, have
focused on buildings and their effects from the perspective of the built environment thus
stepping right into a multidisciplinary area of both research, practices and users.
Facilities management research has its roots in the beginning of the 21st century and the
starting point was a discussion if facilities management is a discipline or not (Wagenberg
1997). By now Junghans and Olsson (2014) states that based on recent developments in the
field, facilities management meets several of the criteria that qualify a subject as an academic
discipline. However an identified challenge in FM research, whether in a multi-, inter- or a
trans-disciplinary approach, is to manage both collaboration between fields of research and
collaboration with the business life and other third parties in order to bring the results into
practice (Nenonen and Lindahl 2012). In order to develop FM research and to manage the
integration of methods, the research community has to engage in a discourse concerning the
development of a possible FM methodology. As no method or approach is complete, the FM
field will have to develop its own variety of research approaches and do that in a very
conscious way. As it is not likely that specific FM research methods will develop, the
capability to manage multi- and trans-disciplinary approaches will be one determinant of
quality within the FM research, focusing on people and spaces and how these relate socially,
economically and technically. This brings FM in the field of mixed methods approaches.
However, a mixed methods approach without a conscious methodological approach of over
several research projects will not support the development of the FM discipline research.
Emphasis instead needs to be placed on the interdisciplinary nature of making patterns, as
well as the collaborative construction of knowledge (Nenonen and Lindahl 2012).
This paper aims to answer questions concerning what kind of competences are needed in
order to respond to demands on research integrating different disciplines. This is done by
applying the concepts of multi-, inter- and transdisicplinary research to facilities management
research as well as by collecting and analyzing qualitative empirical data.
2 MULTI – INTER – TRANSDISCIPLINARITY AND FACILITIES MANAGEMENT

RESEARCH
Terminology in connection with more than one discipline is not quite consistent. E.g. Klein
(2006) provides a taxonomy of interdisciplinarity and he offers a synthesis of discussions on
“the genus Interdisciplinarity”, including multidisciplinarity, interdisciplinarity and
transdisciplinarity. Multidisciplinarity is distinctly different from Interdisciplinarity because
of the relationship that the disciplines share. Within a multidisciplinary relationship this
cooperation may be mutual and cumulative but not interactive (Augsburg 2005).
The variety of studies in facilities management needs support from several scientific
approaches. The multidisciplinary approach targets the theoretical and methodological
development of facilities management. The starting point is often situated in technical
sciences, building performance and built environment. Additionally some studies of facilities
management lean on business sciences. However also the humanities: the psychological,
social, cultural-historical and socio-economic dimensions to human actions are needed to
complement the field of facilities management. A multidisciplinary theory may be based also
on the following disciplines: psychology, cognitive science, socio-psychology, aesthetics,
272
design research, communications research, media sciences (information and communication

technologies), art history, ethnology, cultural anthropology, sociology, economics, consumer
economics, environmental sciences, work sciences, physiology, chemistry, physics,
information technology and computer science. In order to have a visual tool to position the
relevant disciplines and methods beyond diverse disciplines, Nenonen and Lindahl (2012)
presented a three-dimensional prism of different disciplines, an application of a model
developed by Anttila (1999). A research environment in general includes also sub-
environments: the human, social, cultural, technical, economical and natural environments. In
the prism model the research object can be positioned in the three-dimensional prism and it
can be moved around in order to position the research object among different disciplines
(Figure 1).
Figure 1 A three-dimensional prism of different disciplines
Human being
Psycho-physical
environment
Nature Culture
Natural Environment of
environment artefacts
RESEARCH
OBJECT
Technology Economy
Technological Economical
environment environment
Community
Social
environment
Interdisciplinarity blends the practices and assumptions of each discipline involved.

(Augsburg 2005). The most widely cited definition of interdisciplinarity is that used the
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (see e.g. Madsen, 2012):
Interdisciplinary - an adjective describing the interaction among two or more different
disciplines. This interaction may range from simple communication of ideas to the mutual
integration of organizing concepts, methodology, procedures, epistemology, terminology,
data, and organization of research and education in a fairly large field. An interdisciplinary
group consists of persons trained in different fields of knowledge (disciplines) with different
concepts, methods, and data and terms organized into a common effort on a common problem
with continuous intercommunication among the participants from different disciplines.
Alexander (2008) has noted: “FM research should respond to the need for real world, people-
centred and action-oriented concepts and tools so that facility managers can act as reflective
practitioners.” This statement relates to the disciplines of human and organisational
behaviour within business and economic studies. Jensen (2011) also points out that Facilities
Management research in the Nordic countries has developed based on local conditions and
opportunities. The business environment in cultural context seems to be relevant both in
practice and research. The previous approaches can be identified also from the statement by
Pullen et al. (2009): “Facilities can be seen as business resources serving organizational
goals.” In the last two decades, there have been studies claiming that science in general is
becoming ever more interdisciplinary. Porter and Rafols (2009) claim that interdisciplinary
273
research is developing but in small steps — drawing citations mainly from neighbouring
fields and only modestly increasing the connections to distant cognitive areas. Additionally
Nenonen and Lindahl (2012) state that in order to develop facilities management research the
FM research community have to be more skilled in integrating methods.
In Facilities Management research the interdisciplinary nature has been identified e.g.
through the development of the Facilities Management knowledge map (Nenonen et al 2014,
forthcoming). The knowledge map provides a broad overview of current research and enables
understanding of the set of contexts within which the research exists. The FM Knowledge
Map confirms that FM basically is a management discipline, but also more specifically that
FM as a research area is dominantly a Management Engineering discipline. The management
aspect signals the focus on service management and FM organizations being viewed as
services rather than delivery of engineered products.
A visualization of the approach to interdisciplinary workplace management research is the

design workplace discipline clock. The idea behind this visualisation is a philosophical
statement by Wilenius (1972). He stated that the phenomena can be viewed as thoroughly
investigated after approaching it from 12 different perspectives. If one sets the research object
workplace into the middle of the workplace discipline clock, one can form different kind of
research designs with research questions and methods suitable for understanding the
phenomena as a complex system (Figure 2).
Figure 2 12 different approaches to workplace
Individual
Sustainable 12 Physical
11 1
Producable 10 Symbolic
2
Technological 9 Work‐
place 3 Historical
Material 8 4 Economical
7 5
Societal 6 Servicable
Organisa onal
According to Lattuca (2001), transdisciplinary, the greatest degree of synthesis is “the

application of theories, concepts, or methods across disciplines with the intent of developing
an overarching synthesis”. However, there seem to be different interpretations of
transdisciplinarity and of the dividing lines between inter- and transdisciplinarity. According
274
to Rosenfield (1992 transdisciplinarity is a process by which researchers work jointly develop

and use “a shared conceptual framework, drawing together discipline-specific theories,
concepts, and approaches to address a common problem”. This is supported by Stokols et al.,
who highlight (2003) that Rosenfield’s requirement that participants in transdisciplinary
research develop a shared conceptual framework, which integrates and transcends their
respective disciplinary perspectives, is a stringent criterion for scientific collaboration.
In terms of transdisicplinary facilities management research the research fields and topics like
sustainability, added value and sustainability (Junghans 2011) is a representative of this
approach. These research fields have succeeded combine two or more distinct academic
fields. The research is based on new language or theory that is broader than any one
discipline. The intention to develop fully synthesized methods and shared publications,
probably using at least some new concepts developed for translation across traditional lines
can be identified within these research fields. European collaboration among diverse
researcher with different backgrounds has taken place in many years. In terms of
collaboration one can also discuss about transdisicplinary actions in FM research in
Switzerland, where the research has been driven collaboratively by the Institute of FM and
the industry. The focus is on application, e.g. management tools, benchmarking systems or
the relationship of FM services, organisational outcomes, and customer satisfaction
(Widlinger et al. 2014).
The development of facilities management research have included experience of multi-, inter-
and transdisicplinary research. The interesting question is how the researchers experience the
research work within the field of facilities management – especially in terms of
competencies.
4 RESEARCH
The qualitative approach of this paper was conducted by interviewing doctoral and post
doctoral researchers in two different two year long research projects, which combined the
fields of architecture, psychology, real estate management and physics. The interviews were
open and explorative and structured around four primary topics: the researchers background,
ambition in research context, and the step-by-step description of the phases taken in
competence development in the context of two interdisciplinary and complex projects they
were involved with.
Working with inductive and deductive qualitative content analysis the interviews were
analyzed in terms of competence mapping. The researchers identified the key terms, which
deemed to be relevant and important to the research question from the transcripts of
interviews. The key phrases connected to key terms were then identified. In the last step of
analysis the phrases were reduced and created by placing phrases with the same focus
together in a cluster.
The main competences identified were categorized to three main clusters: communication,
collaboration and continuous learning.
5 RESULTS
5.1. Communication
Communication and sharing was found extremely important both internally and externally.
The results indicate that disciplinary boundaries are most thoroughly transcended when
275
members of disparate fields develop a common language that facilitates a shared conceptual
framework. This level of collaboration has the most potential for originality, but occurs least
often because developing a common language is a long and socially embedded processes.
Second to the shared understanding and semiotic challenges an important competence is the
ability, skill and will to work with collaborative digital platforms. As a reference one
interviewee mentioned science 2.0 approach, which is developed by applying Web 2.0
approaches to scientific research (Anon. 2007). Web 2.0 is about conversations, about
participation in the flow of information. Web 2.0 uses many new approaches for dealing with
information including wikis, weblogs etc. These often require the active participation of
users. In practice this means that the shared digital platforms for the research documentation,
communication and collaboration are important tools, which need to be set up as early as
possible.
The external communication is connected with building of identities. The interest of the
interdisciplinary research is usually high, but the challenge is to find the channels and forums
to disseminate the results. This is discussed also in the following section about collaboration.
5.2. Collaboration
Interdisciplinary studies involve researchers in a process with an objective to connect and
integrate several academic schools of thought, professions, or technologies - along with their
specific perspectives - in the pursuit of a common task. The connection and integration
demands time in the early phase of research process. The focus can nor be identified or kept
if there has not been enough time to develop the common understanding in the beginning of
the research process. The former knowledge about different fields of research is essential to
share, communicate and understand.
Respect for the scientific process was identified as an important corner stone of collaboration.
Researchers made progress by using the scientific methods and comparing different
interpretations of data to the research object also in the larger context, which often lie at the
frontiers and boundaries of science. Additionally the respect for variety of research forums
and societies is important: what are the forums of disseminate the results, what are the ways
to deliver them. However it was discussed that here is a traditional rivalry between
disciplines and also that most of the universities have disciplinary-based traditions. Such
traditions have consequences and affect e.g. the possibilities to disseminate the results. The
results of an interdisciplinary project, however, should not be less published and disseminated
due to the lack of relevant forums.
5.3 Continuous learning
Learning from mistakes was described as training during the process. This competence is
easy to achieve if there is trust between the individuals.
In order to validate interpretations of results and reliable explanations researchers need to
understand different methodological research designs with respect to the research traditions
coming from different disciplines. This understanding demands internationalization of more
or less new fields and is a learning process as such.
Management of interdisciplinary research projects is also an important part of the successful
process and demands skills both in leadership and management. The time management aspect
was identified as an important task for research management. In comparison of mono
disciplinary process the weight of time use is different: the orientation and design phase takes
more time in the beginning of the process than traditionally experienced. The most important
first task for management in interdisciplinary research is to integrate the working team in the
early phase of the project. The manager need to take care of and facilitate also about the
“social clue” within the research group – the co-ordination, identification of synergies and
encouraging of different disciplines to co-creation processes are as important as looking for
the quality of the research. The challenge is that there are no specific criteria and means to
276
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evaluatee the interdisciplinary projects

p in comparisonn with tradittional discippline based projects
and outtcomes.
To sum m up the threee main cluusters of commpetencies with sub co ompetenciees can be deeveloped
during tthe process. From com mmunicationn one can sh hift to collab
boration andd based on the built
trust onne can movee forward too continuouss learning (F
Figure 3).
Figure 3 Developm
ment of com
mpetences w
within the intterdisciplinaary researchh process
C
Continuous
Communic
cation
learning
Collabortio n
The conntinuous leaarning is alsso co-learninng and can be transform

med to co-ccreation.
6 CONCLUSION NS
The com mpetencies of multi-, inter-
i and trransdisicpliinary researrch need to be respond d to four
differennt challengees. They are:
• Communication challeenge in connnection with h developinng the comm mon languag ge.
• Collaboratiion challeng ge in connecction with trrust building.
• Interpretation challeng ge in internaal learning within
w the reesearch grouup and proccess.
• Disseminattion challenge in providding possibiilities for ex xternal audiience to learrn more
too – not onnly disciplin t findings which coulld not have been
ne-based finndings but the
reached witthout collabboration bettween discip plines.
The quuestion is, if i the identtified comppetences or challengess are differrent in the field of
facilitiees managem ment researcch compareed to other fields of reesearch. Thhe response is most
likely nno - the commpetencies area most likkely similar in all areas, where ther ere is more than
t one
disciplinne relevantt and/or applicable in the processs. Howeveer the empir irical data provides
p
issues, which are important to reflect on in the transformattion of faciilities manaagement
researchh. Alexandeer (2008) e.g. states thhat the task k for facilitiies managem ment researrch is to
approacch more tow wards facilitties manageement and so ocial constrruction.
A limitaation of thiss study is inn the small data, which h naturally effects
e to thhe generalizzation of
the resuults. Additioonally the projects
p wheere the interrviewed researchers actted were deefined to
be interrdisciplinaryy. The amou unt of diverrse projects could have been addedd more perspectives
to the ddata.
The intteresting ressearch topicc, as a conttinuity of th his study could be to focus on cyclesc of
competence devellopment: th he backgroound facto ors like ed ducation annd experience are
assuminngly either hindrances
h or enablers for compettence develo opment.
The traansformation towards more multti-, inter an nd transdiscciplinary w ways of con nducting
researchh as well ass using a co oherent mixxed methodss indicate th he ways in which the research
r
277
process is a process of co-creation and co-learning. It is important to develop skills of

listening and dialogue, increase the trust and develop step by step the criteria for valid and
reliable rich research.
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extending linkages between the health and social sciences. Social Science & Medicine, Vol.
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Trochim, W. (2003), Evaluating transdisciplinary science. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 5,
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Wagenberg, A.F. (1997), Facility Management as a profession and academic field.
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Wilenius, R. (1972) Tietoisuus ja yhteiskunta. Jyväskylä:Gummerus.
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278
SECTION NINE:
HIGHER EDUCATION FACILITIES MANAGEMENT
Introduction
Higher education facilities management
Mark Mobach
Hanze UAS Groningen, The Hague UAS
Papers
Academic Identities and Spatial Narratives
Kaisa Airo
A new way of working: the case of a multipurpose office room in Laurea UAS
Pauliina Nurkka and Marjo Pääskyvuori.
Reporting Sustainability in Facility Management

Andrea Pelzeter.
279
Introduction
HIGHER EDUCATION FACILITIES MANAGEMENT
Mark P. Mobach
Hanze UAS Groningen, The Hague UAS
The facilities in higher education seem before major changes. Enabling technologies allow
students and staff to communicate differently. As in new ways of working, technology in
higher education also allows for time and place independency. There may be a risk that the
university socially disassembles and the tying together of students and staff in universities
may be a serious future challenge for facility managers. How will scholars disseminate
knowledge when there is no one to teach? In this context, it is important to understand what
the meaning of a university is. There are many related questions yet to be explored. Is the
university solely a place to disseminate knowledge? Is the university disappearing, just as the
developments at the cd-outlets have shown us and from which many public libraries are
currently suffering in several European countries? What is the role of the e-reader? What will
happen if authors of study books make links to film in their books explaining their theories
and ideas, allowing other scholars to add film footage and refine or disapprove with the
theory? What about TED talks, the Khan Academy, and the concept of the flipped class
room?
Perhaps this all stimulates profound emancipation of students. Our students will meet
digitally with the best professors in the world making us smarter by the day. But it also
illuminates questions such as with what facilities a university preserves its social glue with
mutual contact and understanding between staff and students, how teachers keep their
students motivated if they do not meet, and to what extent spatial dimensions still have any
relevance for contemporary universities?
Most of us also know that this description of enabling technologies is only a partial truth. On
one side, the university as we know it, with fixed spatial units and fixed time schedules may
be slowly disappearing. On the other however, we are not yet sure if university facilities are
indeed disappearing or if it only is a figment in the imagination of futurologists, a
technology-driven utopia with hardly any realism. Overly optimistic expectations neglect the
fact that the university is also a social system. A place were young people meet and need to
meet because they can learn from each other and from their teachers as well as it is a place to
make new friends. The university is not only a place to learn and sit in class quietly. Neither
is it only a webpage on which you can source new knowledge digitally, it is part of a complex
social network of students.
The contribution of Kaisa investigates how the professional identity of the university
employees impacts their experience of the workplace. By reflecting identities and using
narratives she will demonstrate that the physical workplace has a role in enforcing or
deconstructing the professional identity of university employees, and in addition, that the
experience of the workplace is a culturally constructed complex process. Nurkka and
Pääskyvuori focus on designing a multi-purpose office through learning by developing. In the
design process FM-students were partly involved in the design and introduction of a new
multi-purpose office for twenty staff members. The researchers reported positive results with
respect to satisfaction with the work and atmosphere, communication practices, and the
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functionality of the new office; reported problems were interruptions in concentration.

Pelzeter contends by taking the perspective of sustainability. She has argued that
sustainability reports in the FM sector are becoming more widespread and that half of the
studied reports had a systematisation of the contents. Consequently, FM-specific content can
already be found in part in the current sustainability reports of FM-companies.
281
Academic Identities and Spatial Narratives
Kaisa Airo
Phd. Student
Aalto University, Finland
kaisa.airo@aalto.fi
+358503539413
ABSTRACT
Purpose: This research investigates how the professional identity of the university
employees impacts their experience of the workplace
Theory: The research is based on theory of social constructionism and uses the concepts of
identity work and place identity, which refer to the constructed rather than static definition of
identity and place.
Methodology: The responses of the employees were examined with a narrative interviews
and analysis. The narratives were gathered with 16 open interviews conducted in a Finnish
university after moving from the old university main building to a recently built business
park
Findings: The results suggest that the experience of the workplace is drawn from the
employees’ philosophical ideal about the role of the research and the academia. Accordingly,
this ideal is constructed through the narratives that are derived from the users’ academic
identity. Thus, the physical workplace functions as a reflection of their role as an employee of
the university. This concludes that 1) physical workplace has a role in enforcing or
deconstructing the professional identity and vice versa and 2) the experience of the workplace
is culturally constructed complex process, in which the identity work is in substantial role.
Originality/value. This is important to acknowledge when designing, renovating and
relocating the workplace in a campus or in any other organization.
Keywords: Identity work, Workplace, Narrative Analysis, User Experience
1 INTRODUCTION
This research investigates how the professional identity of the university employees impacts
their experience of the physical workplace. Professional identity and workplace and -space
are not commonly connected either in the organizational research or in the research about
built environment. In fact, built environment research seems to focus on physical and
aesthetical themes and organizational studies on abstract functions of social behavior or the
business logic of the organization (Airo, 2014). However built spaces are also storytellers,
that: “communicate values, beliefs and feelings using vocabularies of construction materials”
(Yanow, 1998). Thus built spaces also function as part of users’ identity work by reflecting
professional identity (Meerwarth, 2008) using e.g. physical artifacts (Elsbach, 2004).
Furthermore experience of the workspace and -place is often derived from employees’
identity work, which is partly reflected to and from the spatial features of organizational
space (Elsbach and Pratt, 2008). As identity work is closely connected to physical form, it
should be studied in a more extensive manner (Hancock and Spicer, 2011).
In this research the concept of identity is seen from social constructionist view, in which
identity is constructed through identitywork (Sveningsson and Alvesson, 2003). From this
perspective identity is an ongoing process, in which the notion of self is constructed from
personal history, ideals and values, which are then reflected to physical artifacts, namely, in
this case, the spatial features of workplace. As organizational and cultural spaces are
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analyzed from various perspectives (e.g. Foucault, 1979; Lefebvre, 1974; Markus and
Cameron, 2002, 2006; Clegg and Kornberger, 2006; Dale and Burrell, 2003, 2008 etc.), this
research does not only examine the experience of space and identity but also how this spatial
identity is constructed through stories. This is done by taking a narrative perspective in
analyzing the relationship of identity and the workplace.
2 IDENTITY AND NARRATIVES

Identity has been defined in multiple ways from several theoretical perspectives. In social
constructionist tradition identity is seen as an ‘interactional accomplishment’ (Cerulo, 1997)
or a ‘casting and recasting of our “selves” through discursive practice’ (Musson and
Duberley, 2006). Identity is maintained and constructed with identity work process, which
Sveningsson and Alvesson (2003) locate to social and discursive context. The emphasis of
their formal conceptualization of identity work is on the self or ‘internal’ aspect of identity.
According to Sveningsson and Alvesson (2003): “people ‘strive to shape their personal
identities’“. However these ‘personal identities’ are not treated as a-social matters. For
example Watson (2008) gives more analytical power to the concept of identity work by
incorporating it to more explicit recognition, that whenever identity work is done there is an
element of working on the ‘external’ identity of the person. According to Bucholtz and Hall
(2005), any given construction of identity may be in part deliberate and intentional. Identity is
partly habitual and hence often less than fully conscious. It is in part an outcome of
interactional negotiation and contestation, in part an outcome of others’ perceptions and
representations. It is constructed through larger ideological processes and material structures
that may become relevant to interaction.
From the narrative perspective, both methodologically and theoretically identity is

constructed through the narratives people deploy about themselves. According to Bamberg’s
(1997) positioning theory, identity is constructed by combining the structural (the story) and
the performance (the telling) in three different levels. Bamberg’s positioning theory
combined structural (‘the story’) and performance (‘the telling’) approaches to examine
positioning on three different levels: First, they encourage looking at how is the characters’
relation to one another (the story). Secondly, they claim that it is important to see how the
speaker is in connection to the audience (the telling) and thirdly how narrator positions
him/herself. In other words: how does he/she elaborate the stories of “the self”. LaPoint
(2010) outlines a theoretical and methodological approach to career identity as co-
constructed, socially situated and performed in interaction. In this research, rather than
conceptualizing academic identity as something static that individuals have, identity is
perceived as La Point describes it: a process that is co-constructed in interaction between the
audience and the narrator. Additionally this research conceptualizes the material structures,
the workspace, as part of the identity work.
3 IDENTITY, SPACE, PLACE AND WORKPLACE
Identity is thus constructed in an interactive process which is formed in relation to the others,
the self, and the physical world. Devine-Wright and Clayton (2010) claim that:
“Environmentally-relevant identities vary not only in geographical but also in behavioral
specificity”. Place identity and environmental identity can be differentiated by their
geographical scope, but there are other ways of describing the difference: place identities
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should involve more specific, localized experiences, and thus more specific memories and
possibly other differences in cognitive structure.” Environment and identity are then
constructed both from the premises of personal and geographical location and history.
Identity is produced in the stories of the self but also in the stories and the history of the
environment. According to Wells and Baldwin (2012) identity and value of the environment
are not derived just from the factual, objective features of the space or an object. In fact,
identity of the environment may be established from the implicit networks of stories related
to vast body of phenomena, such as the value of organization, or notions of cultural
constructions.
Hancock and Spicer (2011) introduce the concept of identityscape – a spatially bounded site
oriented towards the production of economically viable modes of identity. This
transformation process goes in both ways. Identity, organizational structure and architectural
features are bound together in numerous ways. Space is thus fundamental in shaping a sense
of workplace identity (Elsbach, 2004). Elsbach and Pratt (2008), for example, see that
“physical environments play a major role in facilitating and constraining organizational
action” and in building a certain work identity. They state that “choosing objects and their
arrangements in professional organizational work settings is one of the most difficult tasks a
manager faces” as these decisions reflect much about the organizational culture.
The research on organizational spaces is fragmented partly because the definition of “the
space” is ambiguous (Taylor and Spicer, 2007). This problem is partly due to the lack of
philosophical definition of space and its’ combination to the academic field of management
theories (Cairns, 2003). This applies also to the concept of “workplace” as it can be seen as a
physical place but also a social and abstract function of the place in which working takes
place. Workplaces are both social constructions and physical entities which are connected to
social behavior. Beard and Price (2010) have made a distinction between the physical
workspace and social workplace by emphasizing the fact that workspace is the physical space
and: “Workplace in short is workspace plus culture”.
According to Rapoport (2005) work environments should be designed to respond to and

support the work culture. Vischer claims that the work culture should be and is made visible
in the physical constructs of the office (Vischer, 2008). Cultural and personal issues are then
interconnected with the user experience and behavior in and about built environment (e.g.
Erickson 2004; Yakhlef, 2004).
In this research the concept of workplace is used, when referring to both physical and
organizational place. The concept of workspace is used when referring to physical settings of
workplace. However, when reporting the results the concepts are used based on informants’
answers. Thus when he/she is talking about workspace, the concept is used regardless of the
academic definition.
4 METHODOLOGY
The “identity work” and the narratives of the place are in a substantial role in preserving the
“old” and making of the “new” (Markus and Cameron, 2002). Thus this research discusses
how the employees of the university who have worked in old university main building
experience the new workplace which is situated in the newly built business park. The aim of
the research is to describe the relationship between identity work and academic workplace.
Research questions are: 1. How are the spatial issues of a workplace present in the narratives
employees deploy about their work? 2. What kind of professional identities arise from the
narratives of space? 3. How does this affect the experience of the workplace?
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This is studied by adopting a narrative perspective by looking at the stories the employees of
the university department deploy about the workplace, -space and its’ history. The results are
categorized to explicit and implicit narratives which are then discussed.
4.1 Narrative analysis
Narrative analysis was developed by Labov (1965), who claimed that the mental processes
and verbal output are always constructed in a form of a narrative, a story. Thus, analyzing the
structure of the narratives people present may reveal something possibly hidden about their
experience of the subject.
Rymes et al. (2010) explain that in the narrative analysis, it is important to recognize that the
narratives in themselves are not a portal to experience. At least, narrative is not a direct
portal. Rather, narrative, in any form and by necessity, always involves narrating to someone
and in some context. This means that the narrative analysis is depended on speech acts which
are inevitably relative to the event of speaking, the context, the meaning, and the subjective
descriptions (Rymes, 2010). In other words, the narrative analysis is concerned about the
positioning of events, things and subjects, rather than the stories themselves.
4.2 Narrative data collection
The academic identities and spatial narratives were explored by interviewing 16 employees (
3 professors and 13 employees) of the Department of Real Estate, Planning and
Geoinformatics. Due to the renovation, they had relocated from the old traditional university
main building to the newly built business park. The participants were reached via email lists
of the department. In addition, the researcher approached the interviewees face to face in the
department, while visiting the office. Out of approximately 80 employees, 7 replied via email
and the rest of the participants volunteered while asked face to face at the office.
Narrative interviews are flexible and semi-structured. They allow the informants to chat
informally in hope of getting as rich data as possible. In addition, the questions are mostly
kept open ended and flexible. Questions such as “tell me a story about x or describe your
feeling towards y?” are emphasized. Questions about details are asked only when necessary,
as the idea of the interviews is to let the informants describe their way of positioning
themselves as freely as possible (Smiths and Sparks, 2008).
4.3 The process of Narrative Analysis

The research design in this study is adopted from the definition of identity work of Watson
(2003), Sveningsson and Alvesson (2008). That is as the identity work has seen as an internal
and external process, the narratives are also analyzed from explicit and implicit point of view.
Explicit structures refer to content specific factors (e.g. “functional issues” or “aesthetic
issues”) and implicit structures (e.g. as “background ideals” or “identity construction”) to
contextual factors of the stories.
Narrative analysis concentrated on both common and different meanings around the office,
place, space, heritage, beauty etc. Explicit narratives referred to the straight reply such as:
“What was your first memory of the place?” or “It was when I came here for the entrance
exams and the place was huge”Explicit narrative of this sentence is that the subject first saw
the place when he started his studies and the place was huge.
Implicit narratives are about the contextual positioning, such as how the subject describes
him/herself in relation to the question asked. How does he/she justify and explain the events
and actions taking place in his/her story. For example in the example above, he/she refers
coming to the campus first as a student, and referring to the idea that he/she was small as the
place was big.
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4.4 Thee buildings: past and present

p
The maain buildingg of the Helssinki Univeersity of Tecchnology (F Figure 1 left
ft.) was desiigned by
Alvar A Aalto. The building was w construccted in 196 65, and it represents
r a typical fu
unctional
style. Itt is situatedd approximaately 10 killometers fro
om Helsink ki city centeer and 2 killometers
from thhe technology cluster of companiies such ass Nokia Heeadquarters. In the six xties, the
buildingg and the whole
w campu us area weree constructeed due to th
he need of thhe growing number
of technnical studeents, who had h earlier been locateed in the center
c of H
Helsinki in multiple
m
locationns. At the time,
t the caampus areaa was uniqu ue in the Fiinnish landsscape, since it was
entirelyy designed forf the univ versity and student purrposes and barely cateered other forms
f of
usage, such as prrivate (otheer than studdent) housiing or busiiness. The office settiings are
concenttrating on private
p and shared room ms. The othher areas comprise leccture halls, lobbies,
adminisstrative spacces etc.
The new w location of

o the Depaartment of R Real Estate, Planning an nd Geoinforrmatics in Business
B
Park (Figure 1 righht) is situatted approximmately one and a half kilometers from the old o main
buildingg in Otaniemmi, Espoo. It is locatedd near the teechnology cluster,
c whiich is built about
a 10
kilometters from Helsinki city c center . It consissts of fou ur buildinggs and housees 1200
workplaaces. The offices
o are either openn-plan soluttions or a combination
c n of open plan
p and
encloseed space. Thhe departmeent was thee first user of o the office spaces inn the fourth and the
fifth flooor. They were
w not alloowed to maake changess to the layo out of interiior design. Most of
the inteerviewed emmployees were sitting iin the open plan locatiion apart froom secretarries who
shared a room. Tw wo professorrs and two r esearchers were
w workin ng in privatte rooms.
Figure 1 The mainn building of nology and The Busineess Park

o the Helsinnki University of Techn
5 RESULTS S
5.1 Exp plicit Narraatives of Fu
unctionalityy, Aestheticcs and Sym
mbolism
Explicitt narrativess of functio
onality, aestthetics and symbolismm could be recognized d. These
themes were preseent in each interview, but their content
c diffeered and thheir meanin ng partly
overlappped. For exxample, “th he order of things” is both
b a funcctional and a symbolicc theme.
Symbollic issues can
c be conssidered impplicit, since they are su ubjective annd open to various
interpreetations. Hoowever, in this study, th
they are categorized as explicit naarratives, sin
nce they
were exxplicitly toldd.
Almost all of the interviewee
i es agreed thhat the new business park is a “beetter” workspace in
terms oof functionnality and usability than the old o universsity main building. The air
conditiooning, ergonnomics, cleanliness andd even the open
o plan office
o solutioon was mosstly seen
as betteer for workking than thet shared and privatte rooms th he employeees had in the old
buildingg. On the other
o hand, the businesss park wass seen as a mass produuct article, soulless,
s
neutral and clinicaal. Accordinngly, the loccation and the
t traffic arrangement
a nts were seeen worse
286
than in the campus district. These functional themes were normally continued with symbolic
explanations of what kind “messages” does the functional form give to the guests, students or
employees. For example, the functional theme of location was often explained with a
symbolic explanation.
”Well, for me it was somehow easy to identify with the old campus. Like the
first time I heard about BES I was kind of surprised to hear that it’s in the third
floor of the Sähkötalo building seeing that the Department of Construction is
right here and it’s supposed to be a research unit at that Department. And the
same thing in Helsinki, a university unit can be somewhere in the middle of
nowhere and not near [the corresponding Department] in any way”
Researcher, male, Real Estate Business.
This is basically a new house so that, no offense, the main building is, like, if
you are in there an outside visitor might get a feeling that you are somehow a
part of the core operations but if you were in the middle of nowhere from the
main building in a house that is also a bit worse for wear, I’d probably feel like
that it’d be rather degrading. Researcher, female, Real Estate Business
These are examples of how location becomes a symbolic message related to categorization:
what exists where and how organizational structure and the brand are connected to physical
appearance. It was commonly thought that the all the sub-departments of a certain department
should be located in the same building or at least close to one another. In other words,
location is both a functional and a symbolic issue.
Secondly, the question of aesthetics is often connected to question of symbolics:
it smelled bad you know and it was shabby and impractical, there was basically
nothing positive apart from its location, as the location was excellent: a short
trip to the bus stop, to the cafeteria, it was easy to tell people to come to the
main building but its usability was a catastrophe, like, for actual work, as it
smelled bad in there. Researcher, female, Real estate business
for me what matters is functionality, whether it’s more or less ugly is not so
important; of course if the premises are embarrassing, for example at the HUT,
the paint was peeling on the walls, now that’s embarrassing, if you have
visitors, it sends a message that we’re not doing any actual work in here.
Researcher, female, Real Estate Business
It was commonly stated that the functionality is the only important aspect in workspace, but
as it was almost always complemented with issues such as “It was embarrassing”, one can
conclude that functionality and/or aesthetics are always connected to symbolic issues.
Additionally, it is interesting to ask, why something is considered “embarrassing”.
Saying that the old main building was embarrassing for visitors can be perceived from three
perspectives: It is a) embarrassing since it is not taken care of, b) embarrassing because it is
old, or c) embarrassing because it does not embrace the “value” university should embrace.
As the employee went on:
You have to believe that this corresponds to the standards of the modern society
but I don’t really have that [feeling].” Researcher, female, Real Estate
Business
It has to be asked though, what kinds of spaces are seen as valuable and what are no, and
whyt? As the participant claimed, that she was “embarrassed” to meet clients in the old
facilities, it needs to be questioned; why she, among others, felt that the spatial arrangements
were not presentable to guests? Is it purely a question of aesthetics or is it a question of not
agreeing with old narratives of the university? In fact, when looking at the purely
architectural features of each building, it is quite impossible to say what they symbolize,
287
unless one is not aware of their historical background. Soon, this became evident also in the
comments of the same participant:
I’m not thinking of the historical value, like post-graduate students that have
been sweating in this room for a hundred years now, I don’t… ” Researcher,
female, Real Estate Business.
Although she denied the value of history, in her own case, she did underline the fact that the
main building had historical value.
The old building was not that practical, but it was cozy and beautiful. There is
this image of the desks of the old professors, the workspace and to imagine
working there, in these historical premises, that is the psychological history
Researcher, female Geomatics
For working this is fine. I don’t care, this is good. For image…. I am not sure…
academic way, it is unique, it should be unique and this is not the way I think it
should be. Professor, male Real Estate Business
Based on the interviews the business park was a symbol of modern times, adulthood,
business, efficiency and capitalism as the old main building was seen as a symbol of
tradition, good taste, warmth, beauty and knowledge. On the other hand, it was also seen
outmoded, dysfunctional, dirty and even unhealthy.
These explicit narratives however did not seem to fully explain the subjects’ experience of
both places. Actually, it almost seemed that explicit narratives are constructed in order to give
rational explanations to something that is implicit to begin with. For example, when
employees described the current working conditions they often began with disclaimers, such
as “Well to speak strictly from the functional point of view” or “well I do not have anything
interesting to say, everything works just fine” as if they were trying to say that the functional
issues are not very interesting. This of course did not mean that they would have said that
functional issues were not important, it was more about saying that there is nothing more to
them that meets the eye. Accordingly, why analyze something one can simply observe.
5.2 Implicit Narratives of Identity and Ideals
Identity and ideals are categorized as implicit narratives, since 1) they were not asked or
answered straightforwardly and 2) they seemed to restrict and govern the explicit stories told
by the interviewee. In other words, the implicit narratives were taken for granted, as they
were not explicitly told, but on the other hand, they acted as the status quo for individuals to
argue about their perception of space.
Identity claims were quite typical in the beginning of almost every interview. People tend to
position themselves in a certain context every time they start to speak. Looking into these
positioning frames often reveals their ideal of the circumstances or their idea of themselves as
employees of university. For example, most of the subjects expressed that they are not
qualified to answer questions related to their workspace. The interesting aspect was the
explanations that differed drastically, for example the following ones:
I am not a part of the relocation process, so I might not be the perfect subject for your study.
The professor of Real Estate Business
I have not worked in this department long enough, so I do not know whether I am a good
subject for your study Researcher, female, Geomatics
I am a secretary, so I don’t actually work in an academic context Secretary, female
My answers will be the same as the other secretaries, so I suppose you do not need my
participations to your research Secretary (who eventually declined to take part)
I am not an architect so I am not qualified to answer questions related to the aesthetics
Researcher, male, Real Estate Business
288
This might imply that either they felt that they did not know or understand, what the research
was about, or had different expectations, did not feel to be a part of the spatial processes or
simply were reluctant to take part in the research. Either way, the similarities of identity
narratives “not qualified for saying anything” and differences in justification “because I am
not part of the process, I am a secretary, I have not worked here long enough” were apparent.
It gave presumptions to the conclusion that the employees needed to perform identity
positioning before saying anything about the space. The question is what kind of identity
positioning was performed and what kind of ideals they reflected.
5.3 The Ideal role of academia and the reflection of identity to the academic space
The research on real estate and especially real estate business is connected to business
discourse and culture by definition. At the same time, the academic ideal endorses the idea of
independency and tradition. That is, scientific knowledge should be derived from
independent sources, which do not have subjective motives, such as economic or personal
benefit. On the other hand, the social motive of research and especially applied research in
general is to produce applicable results for the given actors of the context. These two factors
behind scientific research may contradict from time to time. This underlying debate could be
seen in the way the employees constructed their identity, ideals, and spatial experience. For
instance the relationship between the subject of academic work and the spatial arrangements
of the workplace were seen connected in most of the interviewees:
It was a rather horrible working space when for example I was writing my
dissertation about corporate real estate management, about how the work
space should support your work. And you feel like the shoemaker's children go
barefoot as the premises really did not support your work. Researcher, female,
Real Estate Business
In addition to the motive of academic work, there were differences between how to conduct
academic work. These ontological and epistemological ideals could also be seen in the way
researchers described their identity in relation to space. The pragmatic, positivistic and
phenomenological paradigms could be recognized. For instance from a pragmatic view, the
subject said something like:
I didn’t really think about anything, for me this is a business park, so it’s a
modern office space, but there’s nothing architecturally exceptional that would
make you think ‘wow, this is a spectacular hall or an amazing solution’, there’s
nothing like that, this building is a mass product but there’s nothing wrong with
that. Researcher, female, Real Estate Business
Sure the main building was a nice place in my opinion but it’s for practical
reasons; the connections are better there and, ok, maybe, this is an okay
location for me but I think that ending up in the Sähkötalo building or
somewhere that would be the worst. Researcher, male, Real Estate Business
These excerpts were linked to pragmatic category, since they did not elaborate any deeper
meaning to space as functional issues overrule other aspects of spatial thinking. Very similar,
but slightly different were the positivistic views:
I’m mainly interested in that it’s working, for me it’s more important that it’s
warm enough for me and that the air conditioning is just right and it’s nothing
to be ashamed of, like, there is nothing negative about this, I feel that this is
quite neutral. Researcher, female, Real Estate Business
This view emphasized the idea of symbolics, that is, there are views that idolize symbolics,
but in the end it is the most obvious things that matter. In addition, she defined the academic
ideal from a pragmatic point of view, saying that all that can be measured and objectively
observed is all that really matters.
289
The interesting point was that in fact many “real estate-researchers” wanted to emphasize the
so called positivistic discourse in the academic identity, as a counterforce to the more
phenomenological perspective to spaces which for example would object to the idea of “mass
product architecture”, architecture that does not encompass a meaning.
It was a bit of a researcher’s sanctum and what I really liked was that there
were lab specimen on display that made it a bit of a --------researcher’s space, I
really had this romantic notion of the academic life, and, really, although I
myself would perhaps want to work as an academic in the main building of the
University of Helsinki or somewhere like that where everything is made of
bronze and there are these torso statues everywhere, I must say that the main
building represented it to me more than this soulless business park” Research
Assistant, male, Real Estate Business
There is always this certain feel of history in there; I don’t know how to
describe it: when you go someplace, you get this feeling that it’s pretty exquisite
in there; whether it’s the colors or the architecture or something old hanging
on the walls. Researcher, Female, Geomatics
The excerpts above portray the classical and the most commonly used positioning of
academic identity. They illustrate the traditional material symbols of academia, such as “the
old statues”, “the researcher’s sanctum” and “lab specimen” etc. Accordingly, the old age
was considered to be a part of academic tradition:
Then, often people hype about a certain thing that ten years from now is not so
important and if you make some really trendy choices, they get old really fast,
so that it doesn’t make sense to destroy the history, but of course if they come
up with something really sensible, then they may want to choose something like
that. Researcher, male, Real Estate Business.
I think the old space needs to be respected for the sake of heritage. It holds
these stories and values, which cannot be reinvented in a new space.
Researcher, male, real estate business
Although the old main building of the HUT does not portray the classical architecture of
universities, as it is modern compared to buildings such as the University of Helsinki built in
the 19th century over 130 years before the HUT main building, it still is older and it was often
seen to be “closer” to the academic identity than the new business park. This provokes
question of relativity. Is being “older” only value for a (academic) building? That is, if
something is new, it does not yet hold any stories or value.
I want to go back to the old building. It could be more practical, but you cannot
change anything, which I think is good… history must be preserved. I think this
building (business park) incorporates everything that has changed in the world
and in the university. And not in a good way. This building symbolizes how,
how should I put it, the discursive change in thinking, to the direction in which
university fits to the business park. You surely understand. Professor, female,
Geomatics
In addition to the ideas and ideals of the space, the notion, that the space actually changes the
behavioral and ideological structures of organization was presented.
no, I find it good that this department had to [move], as it had been somewhat
conservative,, I think it’s good to make a change like that, to shake things up,
put people in a different environment, sit in a different location and maybe with
different people; new things may be created and people start noticing, the
premises may be different and function differently. Researcher, female,
Geomatics,
290
Saying that “the department was conservative” and “the new space will shake things up”,
implies to two confronting narratives. First of all, the juxtaposition of the old-and the new
and also the idea that being old and coming to something new would in fact change the social
structure and the behavior of people. The interview did not reveal what would exactly
change. In any case, this is an example on how the subjects experience the analogy between
the identity, action and space.
The phenomenological and traditional views and the pragmatic and business-centered views
seemed to overrule the conversations. They could be identified even within the same
conversation. However, the identity work could be seen mostly emerge, when talking about
the meaning of space. One of the subjects brought up her experience of the old Helsinki
University, when she entered the lobby for the first time:
It was grand to enter, it made me feel that I was entering an honorable
environment, as I respected education and it reflected to that, I felt that it would
be really great to get in, to study there. Researcher, female, Geomatics
She underlines the fact that the environment was respectful in the same way the education is
respectful. Although she made the assumption, that the “old” university building is
honorable, she did not provide any concrete examples on how and why is the “old”
environment somehow more respectful than some other. Accordingly, she made an analogical
reference to the space, its symbolic value and her own feelings toward the space as “it would
be great to get in” in other words, it would be great to be part of this environment, to
represent similar issues, as the space represents, such as “honor” and “dignity”. Of course, the
reason for starting to study is the actual content of the subject, but that was something she did
not mention. She talked more about the representations of given organizations and their
spaces, rather than the subject (mathematics) she was actually starting to study at that time.
…but it’s not that I personally would feel like this but I would not like others to
think… I don’t care, but what matters is that what others think. Researcher,
female, Real Estate Business
This assumption was supported by the small differences between the staff of Geomatics and
the staff of Real Estate Business. Geomatics as an academic subject is closer to the basic
sciences, as it is more concerned about modeling spatial issues than Real Estate Business
which is more concerned in applying these models to the business. The informants from the
department of Geomatics more often used metaphors of the tradition of university, such as:
I want to keep my books close, I am very fond of my literature, thus I do not see
myself in this ‘paperless’ business park in an open plan office, it would be a
disaster for me. The Professor, male, Geomatics
They were also a bit more skeptical about the new premises, although the arguments to this
direction differed between subjects.
6 DISCUSSION
Functional issues such as air conditioning or equipment of the new workplace were seen as
self-evident, important, but not very interesting issues in the workplace. The perception of the
new workplace was more interconnected with the ways the subjects described their role in the
academia and the role of academia in the whole society. The narratives could be divided into
explicit narratives which described the straight-forward observations about the environment
and into implicit narratives which explained the explicit narratives with descriptions of
identity.
Subjects’ personal history in relation to the building did not matter as much as their personal
perspective to the academia and to the architecture. That is, people who had similar
backgrounds in the university did not necessarily agree with the value of the history and the
spatial arrangements. It was more about their personal view, their own values and ideals
about university, than the time and events they had experienced within the university.
291
The professional identities arose from the quotes as implicit narratives the employees
deployed in order to explain the explicit narratives about the functionality and symbolics of
the space. These implicit narratives could be categorized into two groups, in which the first
represented those who saw their place in the university to endorse the tradition of the
research, independently from the business, and those who saw the economical and practical
issues as the reason for the university to exist in the first place. For the first group, the
business park was not an adequate place for academic work and for the second group it was
perfect. The fact that everyone was satisfied with the functional issues implies, that it is
actually their identity and ideal that governs their experience of the space, not the space itself.
Additionally, the academic identities were connected to ontological and epistemological
ideals of functional, positivistic and phenomenological views that could be seen in the way
researchers described their identity in relation to space.
Since everyone was more or less satisfied with the functional and aesthetic issues of the
workplace, the implicit issues derived from their professional identity played a significant
role in their experience about the space: the pragmatic, positivistic, phenomenological and
traditional paradigms, in which the pragmatic and positivistic groups emphasized the
functionality, but also wanted to underline the fact that symbolism of spaces is an irrelevant
factor in their workplace experience. Phenomenological and traditional groups often drew
analogies between the ideal of academia and were concerned of the representations of space.
As a matter of fact, many of them were even ready to spent time in non-functional and “ugly”
space, if it represented the idea of “academic way of being”, whatever that might be.
Additionally, it was not all that clear what is the difference between functionality, aesthetics,
heritage and symbolism, since they are all interconnected. For instance, many thought, that
the new business park is “beautiful” since it is clean and light, but their perceptions of beauty
were connected to the appearance that represents a different history or a certain style.
Accordingly, the new business park cannot have a history and it is not seen as representative
of a certain style or era. Therefore, it cannot be “beautiful”. This concludes that for instance
“beauty” is not just a question of a concrete architectural feature such as building material or
layout. It is connected with various other factors, and thus aesthetics, or functional issues for
that matter, cannot exist individually without other cultural references. Subsequently, the
experience of the space, affected by the abovementioned, cannot be measured without the
complex contextual issues. As identity is partly constructed in relation to materialistic issues
such as space, consequently the experience of the space is constructed in relation to abstract
factors such as the identity.
7 CONCLUSION
Professional identity and ideals are connected to the experience of space and vice versa.
Thus, workplace identities should not be underestimated in study of space which cannot be
seen as a neutral physical setting, since it always represents some cultural values. On the
other hand, the relationship between identity and space is an ongoing process which is
iterative by nature. Spaces also guide the construction of identity and vice versa. For instance,
at the time the old main building was built, it must have been seen as “too modern” for
university. In other words, history, identity and the stories of the places are been constructed
all the time.
To conclude: It is important to understand that spaces are used and experienced in a complex
way, including not just the functional features, but also the history and personal perception of
the history and the self. In addition, it is important to acknowledge the multidisciplinary
theory of built environment which emphasizes the physical, social, and mental aspects of
places and spaces. After all, they form a fundamental part of constructing and deconstructing
identities which are present in any perception and reflection we experience both in the
abstract world of organizations and in the physical world of the environment in which we act.
292
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Designing a multi-purpose office through Learning by Developing
Pauliina Nurkka
Laurea University of Applied Sciences
pauliina.nurkka@laurea.fi
+358 468 567 885
Marjo Pääskyvuori
Laurea University of Applied Sciences
marjo.paaskyvuori@laurea.fi
ABSTRACT
The ways of learning and teaching have changed from traditional teacher-led teaching
towards student-centred learning during the last decades. In Finland, Laurea University of
Applied Sciences has created a pedagogical model called Learning by Developing (LbD) to
support an integrated learning, research and regional development process. The new ways of
working and studying have set new needs for working environments as well. The purpose of
this project was to design a multi-purpose office for personnel to support working according
to the pedagogic model.
The paper presents a design process. Several data collection, analysis and development
methods were utilized in designing a new office. A research strategy was a case study. The
process was integrated into the education of facility management students through the
pedagogical model. The process proceeded in the following steps: defining an objective, a
preliminary study by students, interior design, implementation and analysing user feedback.
A theoretical background consists of the concepts of the new ways of working at university
facilities.
From an educational perspective, LbD model produced authentic research and learning
experiences for students. As a result, a new multi-purpose office was designed and introduced
as a working space for twenty staff members. The office was evaluated by the users. The
quantity and the quality of positive experiences provided a solid foundation for further design
processes. More students are expected to study at the campus in a few years, which most
certainly leads to new facility-related projects. Keywords
Learning by Developing, Multi-purpose office, New ways of working, Design process
1 INTRODUCTION
A background to the project lies in the changing environment of higher education. The ways
of learning and teaching have changed from traditional teacher-led teaching to student-
centred learning. Teachers are more coaches than traditional information suppliers while
students are active actors and learners. The new ways of learning, teaching and working have
set new needs for studying and working environments as well.
According to the Finnish legislation the universities of applied sciences “shall provide higher
education for professional expert jobs based on the requirements of working life and its
development; support the professional growth of individuals; and carry out applied research
and development that serves polytechnic education, supports the world of work and regional
development, and takes the industrial structure of the region into account (Polytechnics Act
351/2003, Amendment 564/200912). Due to requirements for pedagogical training, applied
research, and regional development, Laurea University of Applied Sciences (later Laurea
12
http://www.finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/2003/en20030351.pdf
295
UAS) created a pedagogical model called Learning by Developing (later LbD, LbD model).
The model aims to produce new practices, competence and collaboration between lecturers,
students and experts from industry. It is essential that the creation of new knowledge
becomes explicit as skills. Graduates have competence in professional doing and scientific
knowing. As an action model, LbD outlines the nature of research at the University of
Applied Sciences. (Raij 2007.) According to Vyakarnam et al (2008, 19), LbD melds together
the main functions of universities of applied sciences: professional education (learning) and
teaching based on research (developing).
In the pedagogical strategy of Laurea13, the LbD process is defined as the core process, which
provides the core of Laurea’s pedagogical philosophy. The model has been in development
for over a decade, from the project-related learning towards student-oriented research,
development and innovation (RDI) activities, which are increasingly integrated with learning.
In the LbD process (eg. Raij 2007; Vyakarnan et al. 2008), there is always an authentic need
for an LbD project. In addition to authenticity, other essential elements in the model are
partnership, creativity, experiential learning and research.
This paper describes the design process of a new multi-purpose office for working at Laurea
UAS Leppävaara campus in Espoo, Finland. The project was integrated in an educational
process through LbD principles. Facility management students were playing an important
role as researchers and developers. The methodology, results, and conclusions are discussed
in the paper.
2 NEW WAYS OF WORKING AT UNIVERSITY FACILITIES

Information and communication technology (later ICT) has developed wildly during the last
two decades. Technology enables multi-purpose work. Work can be done where ever and
whenever, alone or together. Multi-purpose work increases the meaning of a physical
working environment and sets new demands to it. Digital premises, social media tools,
communication tools or video negotiation premises are significant to the success of working.
(Hietanen at al, 2011, 7-8.) The general trends and trends in pedagogics particularly, as well
as the Finnish education legislation, create the above-mentioned circumstances also at
university facilities.
Although the work has developed, physical premises have necessarily not. The growth of an
environmental consciousness also sets need for the versatility of premises. A facility is
always an investment and it is expected that the utilization rate of premises is high. The
offices designed for individual work are giving way for multiform solutions. In the future,
the crucial question is: are the offices designed for the needs of yesterday´s or tomorrow´s.
(Hietanen et al, 2011, 10-11.)
A possibility to choose a working space facilitates work satisfaction. Facilities also direct
operations and create experiences. The culture of the organisation has to support the flexible
use of the premises. (Haapamäki, Nenonen, Vartiainen, 2011, 13.) Of course, this principle
concerns university facilities, where modern working methods are used.
2.1 Multi-purpose office

The working day of experts consists of different tasks. Peaceful and quiet space is needed for
the tasks, which require concentrating. Group work space is needed for the tasks, which
require cooperation. Open spaces are needed for discussions and breaks. (Haapamäki et
13
http://www.laurea.fi/en/information_on_Laurea/Strategy/Documents/Pedagogical_strategy_l
ow_res_01092011.pdf
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al.,2011, 3.) A multi-purpose office is a new, flexible space concept to fulfill the different
needs. (Hongisto et al, 2012, 46.)
Ergonomics is an important design criterion for a multi-purpose office space, stemming for
maximizing human resource efficiency through a high-quality environment. The ergonomics
describes a design that is created specifically to fit human dimensions and respond to
functional requirements. Crucial to the success of any ergonomics plan is the adjustability of
furniture and equipment in the workspace. (Rondeau, Brown, Lapides, 2006, 375.)
According to the occupation rate measurement by Opetushallitus, a Finnish organization for
Education Administration, workers spend about 40 per cent of their working hours at their
working stations. Teamwork, interaction and mobility have increased. Due to this, offices are
empty for the most of the days. Space utilization can be intensified by designing offices
according to different employee profiles. The integrated use of premises requires a change in
attitudes and the ways of actions of the workers. (Hietanen, 2011, 37.)
According to Nenonen (2012), A multi-purpose office is composed of different types of
zones. The zones affect cooperation and concentration in different ways. A multi-purpose
office gives the opportunity to choose the working station according to the different
situations.
Figure 1 Multi-purpose office zones (Nenonen 2012, adopted from Ehrlich and
Bitter).
COOPERATION
Better
A zone for
A zone for concentrati
an open on and CONCENTRATION
interaction cooperatio
Weaker n Better
A zone for
an
A zone for
intensive
short visits
individual
Weaker work
 In an open interaction area, there can be sofa groups, armchairs and tables, which
make unplanned meetings possible. People can meet each other’s and communicate
informally. People can take a break, sit down and relax. The zone for open interaction
can be for example a hall, an exhibition space, a box or a café.
 In a zone for concentration and cooperation, the conditions for brainstorming and
innovating are ideal. There can be small or big meeting rooms or project rooms, as
well as video conferencing areas.
 A zone for intensive and individual work can be an open work station in a quiet
work area, a closed office room for quiet working or a closed but shared office room.
Also a library or a social area can belong to this zone.
 A zone for short visits may include touch down desks, vendor machines, coat racks,
walking routes, copying areas, archives, warehouses and post boxes. Communication
is easy but concentration may be more difficult.
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2.2 The New ways of working in LbD model

As a result of the LbD model, lecturers´ roles have been strategically redeveloped. The
abilities, roles and activities of the staff are developed in the context of the LbD model in a
way that best facilitates students’ learning. The staff’s attitude to students is equality and
collegiality. Laurea’s lecturers act as educators, professional growth coaches, researchers and
developers, network experts, regional developers and experts in their fields. The activities are
characterised by stronger links to the professional world and a network-based way of working
within Laurea and with stakeholders. (Learning by Developing (LbD) Strategy.)
To work properly from the personnel´s point of view, LbD model requires flexible, multi-
purpose workspace. During the LbD process there is a need for interaction between students
and teachers, as well as industry representatives. There is a need for open interaction with
colleagues and management, for cooperation with colleagues, students and other partners, the
short visits of students, and for individual intensive work. The facilities have to support all
the forms of interaction. From the management point of view, open communication channels
are essential. The students need to reach the personnel easily and informally.
3 DESIGN PROCESS AND METHODOLOGY
The purpose of the process was to design a new multi-purpose office for teachers, managers
and other staff members to support working according to the LbD model. The design process
and methods used in each of the process phases are described in this chapter. The phases,
methods and roles of the actors are illustrated in a figure 2. The research strategy is a
qualitative case study (Robson 1995, 40).
The authors are working in the organization and, later during the project, also in the new
office. Another author is in a management position; another one is working as a senior
lecturer. The authors documented the process in order to evaluate it and get data for future
processes. Pedagogical model involved students in the design process as researchers. Both
authors moved to the new office room during the process, which made them genuine users
with their own opinions as well.
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Figure 2 The desiggn process of

o a new muulti-purpose office.
•D
Defining an objective bbased on needs
Needd and •M
Managemen nt, senior leecturer of faacility mana
agement
objective
• LLitterature rreview, occuupation rate
e survey, ob
bservation, hhalf
sstructured qquestionnai re, blueprinnts
Prelim
minary • SStudents, seenior lectureer
reseearch
•G
Group intervview, quest ionnaire, bllueprints, acction plan
•M
Managemen nt, senior leecturer, inte
erior designe
ers
Interiorr design
•A Alteration w
work (surfacce material, furniture, lighting), feeedback and
aadjustmentss
• FFacility management peersonnel, innterior desiggners, supppliers and
Implemeentation d decorators
• EEmail surveyy
Usser •M Managemen nt
experiences
3.1 Defining an objectivee

A projeect was oriiginated fro om a needd to get mo ore space for
f studentss at the un niversity
premisees. The num mber of the students at the campuss had increaased duringg the past feew years
and thee way of sttudying thrrough autheentic workiing life pro ojects had sset need fo
or group
workingg classes annd meeting rooms for sstudents. Att the same timet the new
w ways of working
w
had beeen adopted among thee personnel of Laurea UAS. The work of un university peersonnel
consisteed of differrent tasks. There
T was uusually no need
n for an individual office tablee during
the most of a woorking day. Furthermorre, a need for a new type of ann office space was
recogniized.
The maanagement estimated
e th
hat four oldd offices neeeded to be refurbishedd to the woorkspace
for studdents. Staff members fromf these wwere to be placed in one
o old offi fice room orriginally
plannedd for twelvee occupantss. These tw welve ones were
w to stay
y in the rooom. The nuumber of
personnnel needing a place in a new roo m was abo out twenty. The existinng office ro
oom was
furnisheed with bigg, individuaal tables andd numerous cabinets. There was no space to t guide
fice. The areea was 185 m2. A mullti-purpose office withh various zo
studentss in the offi ones was
299
seen as an obvious possibility to develop. The management decided it to be done as an LbD

project, which meant that students took an active role in a preliminary research.
When students are involved in a design process, the objective has to be clear and justified.
Students tend to question the objectives set by teachers. With a clear one, it is easier to
motivate the students to work hard for the result. Furthermore, management has to be
committed and available for the questions of students or teachers.
3.2 Preliminary study by facility management students

A group of 2nd year facility management students started the project with literature review in
the themes new ways of working, effective work environment, workplace design and
ergonomics. Based on the findings, the students redefined the objective: what was the current
space nееd of the staff of the higher education institution? The goal was also to оffеr nеw
sоlutiоns for dеsigning a wоrkplаcе. (Bui et al, 2012.) Defining the goal by the student
researchers themselves was essential for motivation.
Next, the students surveyed the occupation rates of the offices by systematic observations at
certain times of the days to collect data on a staff presence in the offices. Through this
method, the students also got an insight of the conditions and the challenges of the current
work spaces.
Further on, the students continued the research with a questionnaire about the usage of the
work stations and attitudes towards the new ways of working. 34 of 75 lecturers at the
campus filled in the questionnaire form. Based on the answers, an average staff member spent
4.8 hours of their daily work time (eight hours) in the office rooms. Around 58 % of the
respondents used their working stations every day and 41 % three to four days per week.
Generally the staff’s opinion of their current work environment was satisfactory. 79% replied
positively on a question “Do you feel comfortable in your office?” The major reasons for
dissatisfaction were related to the old-fashioned design of the current workplaces, which did
not stimulate or anyhow inspire for efficient, productive work. Other concerns were related to
the issues with HVAC (heating, ventilation and air conditioning). (Bui et al, 2012.)
The lecturers were also asked of the extra need for meeting rooms to guide the students. Most
of the lecturers were in need of this type of a space. To find out an interest in the new trends
of working, the lecturers were asked opinions about a hot-desk as a workstation. Apparently,
a big percentage had a negative feeling about implementing this trend into their working life
and only 20 % of the respondents considered this as a positive idea and a good change in a
routine work. The students also found out that there was no need to the private offices.
Lecturers felt comfortable to work together in the same room with their colleagues. The last
survey question covered the issue of an own workstation need. According to the result, the
lecturers did not seem enthusiastic about implementing rational changes in the work
environment and 76% of the respondents emphasised the importance of having a private
workstation. (Bui et al, 2012.)
The method was found to be effective for collecting information on the different
characteristics, attitudes, opinions and motives of the people. Based on the research, the
students concluded that the staff should be working in a comfortable and productive
environment with ergonomic and adjustable furniture. The students draw various blueprints
to illustrate the possible layouts of a new multi-purpose office. They also suggested furniture
acquisitions and calculated a cost for the suggested furniture.
The senior lecturer was guiding the students during the whole process. She communicated the
phases of the process with the management. The management followed the presentations of
the students and received the final reports in order to decide the continuum of the project.
Though the personnel was quite satisfied with the current working conditions and the attitude
towards a new multi-purpose office with hot-desks was expected to be a challenge, the need
300
to use the office space more efficiently was still existing. Furthermore, the decision was made
to continue the process towards implementation.
The design process could have stopped at an early stage without the research help of the
students. There was one part-time facility manager at the campus, whose limited time
resources could have been an obstacle to the realisation of the preliminary study. However,
the study was relevant to get the personnel involved in the process from the beginning. Even
though there were several methods used, they were quite traditional ones. Interviews and
questionnaires could have been replaced with more user-oriented methods like personas,
customer journeys or other design methods. Nevertheless, the students achieved results,
which could be utilized in further steps.
3.3 Interior design
An outsourced interior design was a natural continuum to finalize the project, since neither
the staff nor students had the competence to finalize the design. Two interior designers
conducted a group interview with the staff to be fitted in a new multi-purpose office. People
could tell their wishes and fears towards new working conditions. After the discussion, the
personnel could also fill in the questionnaire anonymously about their expectations, needs
and facts concerning the way of working. Based on the analysis of the results, there were
enough people willing to settle down in a new type of an office. Four teachers did not want to
move to this multi-purpose office, because of which they were offered a desk in a more
traditional office. On the other hand, some teachers wanted to move in a new room even
though they had a desk in remaining offices.
The designers suggested a room layout with an action plan of furniture acquisitions, surface
materials and alterations. Essential elements were: adjustable and various furniture to allow
working in various positions (several different hot desks, chairs and sofas), a room for silent
working, small meeting rooms, kitchen facilities and a big dining table, a new floor material
to prevent noise, a joint library area and personal cabinets. Four zones could be demonstrated.
The incredulous attitudes seemed to develop towards positive expectations when the opinions
were genuinely asked and respected. One could see enthusiasm among the personnel towards
the change. The process was decided to be finalized with furniture acquisitions and alteration
work during the summer break of the university.
The outsourced design service was worth the cost. The process was fast and the designers
were professionals in aesthetics, ergonomics and the functional aspects of space design. The
most valuable insight to be considered also in later processes is to let the staff express their
hopes and fears and thus get more involved in designing their working surroundings.
3.4 Implementation
The alterations were carried as planned. The facility manager of the campus supervised the
work. The project was supposed to be ready when the staff came back from the summer
break in the middle of August, but several furniture acquisitions were late. It took an extra
month more until the room was ready, which set challenges to organise the work at the
beginning of the academic year.
Finally, twenty teachers and other staff members could settle down in the new office, where
nobody had their own tables or chairs but the atmosphere and functionality had risen even to
a higher level than expected. The delays in the delivery of the furniture were the biggest
failures of the entire process. Delivery schedules have to be estimated carefully in future
projects.
3.5 Analysing user experiences
The user experiences were gathered four months after the move through an email survey. The
management sent an email to all the inhabitants of the new space. The personnel were asked
to give open feedback (1-3 sentences each) about the experiences, success factors and
challenges. Some example themes were presented.
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The evvaluation reesulted in terms of atmospherre and welll-being, coommunicatiion and

functionnality. The authentic user survey rreplies (orig nglish) outlline the experiences
ginally in En
in a Figgure 3.
Figure 3 The user experiences

e s of a multi--purpose off
ffice.
•“Rel axed atmosph here where I ffeel like at ho me.
Howwever it might be a problem m as I sometim mes feel
that I spend too lo
ong time at work due to thee cosy and
hommely office rooom”
Atm
mospheere and •“Brigght, open space, gathers pe
otheer rooms”
eople togetheer also from
well‐beeing •“Thee design of thee room is esth
hetic and its innspires me
in m
my work”
•“Harrmony in colors and light crreates a peaceeful
workking atmosphere and acousstically the rooom is very
plea sant.”
•“It’s great to finally have a working communnity. Not
just sit alone in a small room.”
•“I lovve the fact that there is alw
ways someonee with
whoom I can talk iff I need help oor opinion”
•“I geet new ideas h how to do effeective way myy work”
•“I feeel like I am aw
ware what is hhappening as
com munication iss very open in our office rooom”
•“I beelong to a team which was formed aboutt at the
Co
ommuniication samee time when w
togeether in one sp
we moved to this space, beeing
pace has enha anced the inteeraction
withhin the team vvery much, it is crucially impportant”
•”enaables easy app proach to a booss”
•”as aa new staff member I hear more and lea rn faster”
•”hel p is close”
•”redduces email m management”
•“bei ng in the sam me space with staff memberrs who do
not bbelong to ourr team is positive”
•”erggonomics is taken care of, iff only I remem mbered to
takee care of it”
•“Goood to have a lot of different furniture to
accoommodate diffferent needs and situationss”
•“Verry different appproaches by people to how w they
use tthe room (som me people havve all meetinggs and
convversations the ere, others tak ke even phonee calls into
a meeeting room), I am not sure e what would work
bestt, I think we arre still getting used to this aand
lookking for good wways to use th he room.”
FFunction
nality •“Diffferent types oof working stations”
•”no extra papers when there are not own taables
whe re to collect tthem”
•”thee office room ssuits also for ssmall meetinggs and the
sma ll meeting roo oms are ok”
•”beccause of interruptions several times duriing a day,
conccentrating is sometimes difficult”
•”sepparate phone box could be needed”
•“I thhink there has been some confusion, at leeast in the
begi nning, about the purpose o of these
arranngements.“
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Based oon the repllies, the reaality seemss to be simmilar to the theories off the new ways
w of
workingg and a muulti-purpose office. In tthe new offfice people choose theeir working stations
accordinng to their current neeeds and theey seem to o be more satisfied
s wiith their wo
ork. The
perceived problem ms concerneed mainly th the interrup
ptions in concentrationn. Neverthelless, the
quantityy and the quality
q of th
he positive experiencees provide a solid fouundation forr further
facility developmeent projectss. In these projects, special atteention has to be paid d to the
behaviooural aspectts, like find
ding ways tto prevent problems
p in
n concentraation or prep
pare the
code off conduct.
4 RESULTS S
Initiallyy, the new ways of working werre to be pro omoted at the
t campus within thiss design
processs. As a resullt, a new mu
ulti-purposee office wass designed and
a introduuced as a wo orkspace
for twennty staff meembers. Part of the proccess was caarried out by
y facility maanagement students
as an LLbD project. Four zonees (Figure 44) could be recognised d in the neww office: a zone
z for
open innteraction (sofas, arm mchairs, annd a dining g table), a zone for concentration and
cooperaation (meeting rooms, a sofa grooup), a zone for short visits (prinnters, coat racks, a
kitchen) and a zonee for intensiive individuual work (a silent room
m).
Figure 4 Different zones in a multi-purpo
m ose office.
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The peersonnel aree satisfied with the aatmospheree, the comm munication practices and the
functionnality of thhe new officce. The offfice is usedd for what it
i was plannned: multi--purpose
functionns. Studentss and workiing life parrtners visit the
t room fo or guidance and meetin ngs. The
new offfice contribuutes to the new
n ways oof working and, a thereby
y, also the oorganisation
n culture
of Laurrea UAS.
5 CONCLUS SIONS
Designiing a multi--purpose offfice throughh Learning by b Develop ping was a ccomprehenssive case
to impplement thee LbD mo odel. The process offfered auth hentic reseaarch and learning
experiennces to faciility manag gement studdents in theiir own field
d of study. A All the elem
ments of
the moodel, authennticity, creaativity, expperiential leearning, paartnership aand researcch, were
present to some exxtent. Origin nally, there was a custoomer, Laureea UAS, whho was interrested in
the resuult of the prroject. The framework enabled freeedom and creativity. The studen nts learnt
from eeach other´s and personnel´s exxperiences throughou ut the proccess. The students
cooperaated with seeveral stakeeholders butt instead off designing for the perrsonnel, co--creation
approacch could be adopted in n the future projects. Users should be even m more in the centre
c of
the proccess. A reseearch reportt was drawnn up accordiing to the prrinciples off scientific research.
r
In addittion, severaal research tasks
t were conducted during the process butt the metho ods were
quite trraditional. Some
S of theese could bee replaced with
w versatile service design methods. In
the futuure, the proccess could be nger for a sttudent – onne or a few students
b designedd to last lon
could coontinue in the
t later phaases of the pprocess as facility
f manaagement intternees.
As a reesult for thee whole organization, a new cultu ure was creaated at the ccampus in terms
t of
ways of working. The person nnel from oold offices seem to bee interestedd in the new w office
model. Quite manny of them visit the offfice regulaarly; after all, it is eassy to pop up u in the
office aand have a chat
c or a cu
up of coffeee with a colleague. How wever, som me seem to be b afraid
of the ppossibility that
t all the offices
o wouuld be desig
gned the samme way. Thhe value of the user
experiennces collectted may be essential inn motivating g the suspiccious ones. Yet, more students
are expected to stuudy at the caampus in a few years, which most certainly lleads to new w space-
related developmennt projects: both officees and classrrooms.
The dessign processs can be reepeated throough Learn ning by Devveloping. A research approach
a
should bbe planned more careffully to helpp to identify y and demon nstrate the eeffectivenesss of the
project..
304
REFERENCES
Bui, D, Guscina, O, Molnar, E, Wangmo, N (2012), “Efficient and organized future

workplace design”. Student report for the course A0134 Workplace management, Laurea
University of Applied Sciences, 6.12.2012.
Haapamäki, J., Nenonen, S., Vartiainen, M. (2011), ”Uudet työnteon tavat
haastavat kehittämään työympäristöjä”, Käyttäjälähtöiset tilat: Uutta ajattelua tilojen
suunnitteluun, Tekes, Helsinki, 12-18.
Hietanen, P., Mikkonen, V., Nenonen, S., Nissinen, S. (2011), ”Tilojen käyttö muuttuu
– uudistuvatko suunnittelu ja toteutus”, Käyttäjälähtöiset tilat: Uutta ajattelua tilojen
suunnitteluun, Tekes, Helsinki, 7-11.
Hongisto,V., Haapakangas, A., Koskela, H. Keränen, J., Maula, H., Helenius, R., Nenonen,
S., Hyrkkänen, U., Rasila, H., Sandberg, E, and Hyönä, J (2012), Käyttäjälähtöiset
toimistotilat, tilaratkaisut, sisäympäristö ja tuottavuus, Toti-hankkeen loppuraportti,
Työterveyslaitos, Helsinki.
Nenonen, S. (2012), ”Näkökulmia monitilatoimistoon”,
Available at: http://www.slideshare.net/Tekesslide/nkkulmia-monitilatoimistoon-nenonen-
aalto-2442012 (accessed 15 of January 2014).
Raij, K. (2007), Learning by Developing, Laurea Publications A58, Helsinki.
Robson, C. (1995), Real world research, A resource for social scientists and practioner-
researchers, Blackwell, Oxford.
Rondeau, E.P., Brown, R.K., Lapides, P. D. (2006), Facility Management. Wiley & Sons,
New Jersey.
Työterveyslaitos (2012), ”Monitilatoimisto suunnitellaan työn, tekijän ja organisaation
mukaan, Tiedote 50/2012”, Available at:
http://www.ttl.fi/fi/tiedotteet/Sivut/tiedote50_2012.aspx (accessed 15.1.2014).
Vyakarnam, S, Illes, K, Kolmos, A and Madritsch, T (2008), Making a difference. A report
on Learning by Developing – Innovation in Higher Education at Laurea University of
Applied Sciences, Laurea publications B26, Helsinki.
305
Reporting Sustainability in Facility Management

Dr. Andrea Pelzeter
Berlin School of Economics and Law
Andrea.pelzeter@hwr-berlin.de
+4930 30877-2230
ABSTRACT
Purpose
This report investigated the status quo of sustainability reporting in Facility Management
(FM) service providers operating in Germany. The aim is to determine in which form,
according to which taxonomy and which content sustainability has thus far been reported on
in FM.
Theory
Regarding taxonomy, sustainability reporting in accordance with Global Reporting Initiative
Construction and Real Estate Sector Supplement (GRI CRESS) was taken as a basis. The
investigation of the contents focussed upon the reflection of the sustainability criteria
established by GEFMA German Facility Management Association e.V, which will be
available from 2014 onwards in the form of guidelines and certification.
Methodology
The objects of the examination were those sustainability reports available on the Internet in
the 2012 “Lünendonk List” of those FM services providers listed as being the top 25 in
Germany.
Findings
10 out of 25 companies publish their own independent sustainability report; a further 4
integrate their sustainability reporting in their annual reports. The taxonomy of GRI was used
in 7 of the reports. Of the 24 GEFMA criteria, 21 were addressed in terms of content, of those
13 only seldom. 3 of the criteria have so far not been a subject of the sustainability reporting
of FM service providers.
Value
The status quo of the sustainability reporting of FM service companies in Germany can serve
as a starting point for international comparisons. Companies which are preparing a
sustainability report can gain from this report an overview of the activities of the Top 25 FM
service providers in Germany. Synergies between the sustainability reporting according to
GRI and sustainability certification according to GEFMA are given, but only in partial areas.
Keywords
Facility Management, sustainability report, Global Reporting Initiative, GEFMA
sustainability certificate
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1 INTRODUCTION
Sustainable economic activity has developed into a challenge that covers all sectors of the
economy. In the field of Facility Management (FM) there is also a growing expectation that it
is not merely expertise regarding the costs and quality-optimised performance of Facility
Services that is purchased by way of a corresponding contract, but that a contribution towards
the sustainability balance of the FM customer is being made at the same time (Nousiainen,
Junnila, 2008, p. 266f.; Kummert, May, Pelzeter 2013a, p. 1; BIFM 2013). The reaction to
this has been an increasing desire on the part of the FM service providers to systematically
communicate the sustainability of their facility services.
So far, two approaches had been available to them for such systematisation: the assessment
system for sustainable buildings or reporting on the sustainability of the company itself, e.g.
in accordance with the certifiable taxonomies of the Global Reporting Initiative GRI. In view
of the fact, however, that neither a building nor the totality of a company’s activities allow
one to draw conclusions pursuant the quality of the Facility Services performed for a specific
customer, the GEFMA (German Facility Management Association e.V.) has developed a
taxonomy of its own in its working group “Sustainability.” The 24 criteria listed therein for
sustainable Facility Services form interfaces to both the buildings being managed and to
company policy (Pelzeter 2013b, p. 33). The certification of the sustainability of the Facility
Services performed – on the basis of the respective contract with reference to a specific
building – is also planned. There will therefore be from 2014 onwards an additional
possibility for those active in the FM sector to communicate the sustainability of their Facility
Services. This paper, however, exclusively investigates the present communication in the
context of sustainability reports.
Accordingly, the sustainability reporting forms the theoretical background to the
investigation. Sustainable development was defined by the Brundtland Report of the World
Commission on Environment and Development (WECD) in the year 1987 as follows:
“Sustainable development meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs.” (Rottke, Landgraf, 2012, p. 29). In this work
sustainability– as the result of sustainable development - is to be understood in terms of the
three-dimensional model, consisting of the economic, the ecological and the social
dimensions (Kopfmüller, 2007, p. 16). Sustainability reports are normally prepared for a great
variety of stakeholders. They are intended to make the current state of sustainability
development visible in terms of company activities, both within the company and outside it.
Lauesen distinguishes between primary and secondary stakeholders (Lauesen 2013a,
p. 1892ff; Lauesen 2013b, p. 2114ff). Primary stakeholders are shareholders and investors, as
well as employees, customers and suppliers, as well as government bodies and local
authorities. Secondary stakeholders are citizens of the community, real-estate owners, media
representatives, interest groups and non-government organizations (NGOs).
According to Coenen and others, FM customers can be further differentiated in terms of
client (contract), customer (specifies delivery) and end-users (Coenen and others 2012,
p. 79f). Each stakeholder has specific expectations of FM, respectively on the reporting
(Clarkson, 1995, p. 101ff). As a help towards appropriately satisfying these multiple
expectations in sustainability reports, recommendations are made in the international
standards, or in international initiatives, on the contents of the reports.
 AA 1000 (Account Ability). This standard is intended to help improve the credibility and
quality of sustainability reports.
 ISO 26000 (Guidance on Social Responsibility). A guideline adopted in September 2010,
that is intended to promote a uniform understanding of social responsibility and is to be
applicable for all sorts of organisations regardless of size and location.
307
 GRI (Global Reporting Initiative). A guideline on the preparation of sustainability reports

that is especially suitable for large international concerns. It contains concrete proposals on
the use of (core) indicators in the dimensions ecology, economy, social life / society (for
details see Ch. 4).
Further variance in sustainability reporting can also be found in terms of the types of reports.
They can be published as reports on corporate social responsibility (CSR), as part of the
general business report or as a concrete sustainability report. Even separate reports on
environmental management, e.g. in keeping with ISO 14001, cover a part of the dimensions
of sustainability. The latter type, however, has not been integrated in the present
investigation.
The aim of sustainability reports can also vary. By their publication they can exert a feedback
effect on the management in the sense of a control system (Henry and Journeault 2010). At
the same time companies can pursue their marketing objectives with the publication in that
they can thereby present themselves as sustainable and trustworthy (Belz and Peattie, 2009).
2 RESEARCH QUESTION
From a scientific standpoint the status quo of sustainability reporting in the German FM
branch is not documented. For this reason a quantitative and qualitative report is required
particularly regarding the specific depiction of sustainability in Facility Services. From a
practical standpoint, companies which have not yet prepared a sustainability report will find it
interesting to learn what is currently customary in the FM branch.
 Question 1:
How widespread is the compilation of sustainability reports currently in the FM sector?
 Question 2:
What is the contents structure of these reports?
 Question 3:
Which FM-specific contents are already present in the reports today?
The 25 largest FM-services providers according to the Lünendonk List 2012 (collected data
from the year 2011, see Table 1, Lünendonk 2012) have been taken as a basis upon which to
reflect the status quo in the FM sector. Lünendonk is the leading company in Germany that
prepares rankings for the FM branch. This ranking list is published each year in August. It
sorts the FM-companies according to the turnover they generate in Germany.
The object of this investigation is the sustainability reports of those "Top 25" that had been
published by July 2013. The group of FM companies has a joint turnover of about 11 billion
euros, which accounts for approx. 19% of the turnover of 57.5 billion euros attributable to the
FM market in Germany (Lünendonk 2012, p. 2). The remaining 81% of turnover is generated
by many smaller companies. To this extent the Top 25 businesses on the Lünendonk List
cannot be taken, in terms of their size, as being representative of the branch as a whole.
Nevertheless, since sustainability reporting is typical for large companies (over 70% of the
100 largest companies per nation report on sustainability in the Americas, Europe and Asia
Pacific, KPMG 2013) but untypical for the small and medium-sized businesses (Sweeney,
2007), the FM companies shown in Table 1 can be regarded as representative for the
development of sustainability reports in the FM branch.
Table 1: Leading Facility Management Businesses in Germany in the Year 2011
According to the Lünendonk List 2012
1 Bilfinger 14 ISS
2 Strabag 15 Götz
3 Dussmann 16 Lattemann
308
4 Compass 17 RGM

5 Wisag 18 Johnson controls
6 Hochtief 19 Dorfner
7 Sodexo 20 Clemens Kleine
8 Cofely 21 Sauter
9 Vinci 22 Schubert
10 Gegenbauer 23 Dr. Sasse
11 Klüh 24 WIS
12 Piepenbrock 25 Bockholdt
13 Kötter
The reports discovered by internet research were classified according to their structural
incorporation (separate sustainability report or a part of the annual report) and orientation
towards the existing reporting taxonomy of the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) and were
also reviewed for containing FM-specific topics. Such topics were defined as FM-specific
that are defined more closely in the sustainability assessment of the GEFMA (further details
in chapter 4).
3 RESEARCH TEAM
The investigation was carried out by the author at the Berlin School of Economics and Law at
the Department of Cooperative Studies. The fact that the author is also the leader of the
GEFMA working group “Sustainability” enabled access to the criteria drawn up in the course
of the years 2012 and 2013 for the assessment of sustainability in the FM sector even before
the publication thereof in 2014.
4 EXISTING STANDARDS
So far there is no obligation in Germany to publish sustainability reports, but this question
has been repeatedly discussed (UN Global Compact 2013, p. 33). On a worldwide level a
growing number of legal requirements in this area can nevertheless be observed (UNEP et al.
2013, p. 9). Overall, sustainability reporting in the real estate sector is on the increase (Stibbe,
Voigtländer 2013, p. 8). In addition, a trend towards the integration of commercial and
sustainability reports may be observed (James 2013, p. 15). The Global Reporting Initiative
GRI has created, by way of an international, consensus-oriented dialogue with a wide variety
of stakeholders, a recognised framework for sustainability reporting (O´Dwyer and Owen,
2008, p. 384ff.; Castelo 2013): which is referred to by various non-profit making, public and
also political institutions such as UN Global Compact, the Federal Ministry of the
Environment (BMU 2009), the German Council for Sustainable Development in the context
of the German Sustainability Codex (Rat für Nachhaltige Entwicklung - Council for
Sustainable Development 2012) or by ZIA (Zentraler Immobilien Ausschuss e.V. - German
Real Estate Foundation, Mösle 2013, p.12).
GRI requires a balanced, comparable and exact system of reporting (Hoffmann 2011, p. 76f.)
on the following topics:
 Company profile
 Economic performance indicators
 Environmental performance indicators
 Social performance indicators
 Labor practices and decent work performance indicators
 Human rights
309
 Society
 Product responsibility
The complementary criteria of the Real Estate Sector Supplement (CRESS), especially
developed for the real estate sector, are assigned to the above-mentioned topics. One of the
CRESS-criteria enquires about the nature and number of sustainability certifications for
buildings managed by the company.
In Germany the following systems for the certification of the sustainability of buildings are
common: DGNB German Sustainable Building Council Seal of Approval, LEED Leadership
in Energy and Environmental Design (developed in the USA) and BREEAM BRE
Environmental Assessment Method (developed in the UK). It is in particular the respective
system variants for existing buildings that allow one to draw conclusions pursuant to the
sustainability-oriented actions of the FM. The key figures collected there regarding e.g. the
consumption of resources by the facility during its useful life do not, however, reveal
anything about the activities of the FM employees concerning the continuous improvement of
the environmental and social impacts of a building in the context of the respective contractual
conditions.
In order to fill this void in the systematic measurement of sustainability in the FM sector
(Pelzeter, May 2012, p. 38), 24 criteria have been developed by members of GEFMA. These
have been sub-divided into the categories Environment, Economy, Society, FM Organisation
and Facility Services, cf. Table 2.
Table 2: GEFMA Sustainability criteria

Category Criterion
Ecological Quality 1 Energy Management
2 Water Management
3 Waste Disposal Management
4 Disaster Management
Economic Quality 5 Utility Costs Management
Socio-Cultural 6 User Contentment Management
Quality 7 Complaints Management
Quality of the FM 8 Legal Conformity
Organisation 9 Indoor Air and Drinking Water Quality
10 Building Security Management
11 Work Safety Management (FM
employees)
12 Real Estate Management Strategy
13 Human Resources Concept, Deployment,
Organisation
14 Workflow Organisation / Processes
15 Documentation and Reporting
16 Procurement
Services, 17 Space Allocation
depending on the 18 Operation
commission 19 Maintenance
(optional) 20 Projects in Technical Facility
Management
(Modernisation / Restoration /
Refurbishment
310
21 Cleaning
22 External Areas incl. Winter Services
23 Catering
24 Security
In most of the criteria the question of the sustainability-oriented quality of conception,

realisation, control and renewed optimisation of the respective processes (Plan-Do-Check-
Act-Cycle) is addressed. Also the utilisation of specific sustainability measures with regard to
the individual services is monitored. Behind the keyword legal conformity lays the
identification of all relevant legal regulations as well as the documented and systematic
realisation thereof verified by audits. It is the legal regulations pursuant to safety that are at
the centre of attention hereby, but not the prevention of criminal acts – as is striven for in e.g.
internal regulations under the motto “Corporate Governance”.
Regarding the question defined in the above, these GEFMA-criteria have been taken as the
basis for the analysis of the contents of the sustainability reports from FM service providers.
5 RESEARCH METHODS
For the period from May to July 2013 the homepages of all top 25 companies from the
Lünendonk List were searched using the keywords “Nachhaltigkeit” (German),
Sustainability, Corporate Social Responsibility and CSR. If this search did not lead to an
independent sustainability report, then the annual company report was analysed. Statements
pursuant to sustainability activities on the homepage were not taken into account. In the case
of FM service providers that are part of a larger group of companies, the sustainability report
usually covered the business activities of the entire group. This was the case with 5 of the
reports examined: these reports have been integrated into the analysis.
The use of GRI as a taxonomy for reporting is usually elucidated by the companies at the
beginning or the end of the report by way of assigning individual statements or chapters to
the GRI-criteria.
The content analysis was carried out with the aid of a keywords matrix based on the
GEFMA-criteria catalogue. The respective statements pursuant to the keyword in question
and where they were found in the report of the individual company were noted herein. A
statement in the sustainability or annual company report was registered as being thematically
in accordance with the GEFMA criteria in the case that factual information had been
available that contained a reference to sustainability (specific measures, processes, targets,
success). The mere naming of a concept without any link to activities of the company was not
deemed sufficient for this. A review extending beyond the thematic allocation, e.g. pursuant
to a complete agreement between the statements and the GEFMA criteria profiles did not
follow.
6 FINDINGS
Of the 25 FM service providers on the Lünendonk List 14 companies had, by mid-July 2013,
published a report that exclusively (10 reports) or in the context of the company’s annual
reporting (4 reports) dealt with the question of sustainability in the company. Question 1 may
thus be answered as follows:
 Answer 1:
The compilation of sustainability reports in the FM sector is becoming more widespread:
significantly more than half (56%) of the companies investigated can point to a
corresponding report.
311
Pursuant to the question as to the structure of the reports it was reviewed whether reference to
the taxonomy according to GRI had been made. This was the case in 7 out of 14 reports,
exactly half of them. By way of comparison: world-wide the Initiative Global Real Estate
Sustainability Benchmark established a percentage of 34% for the reports according to GRI
(GRESB 2013, p. 20).
 Answer 2:
The systematisation of the contents of the reports according to GRI had been undertaken in
half of the reports found (7 out of 14 reports).
The analyses of matches between current report contents and those criteria recently defined
by GEFMA for sustainable FM resulted, depending upon the criterion, in a widely varying
picture, cf. Figure 1. “Energy Management” was reported on most frequently. This accords
with the results of other investigations (Business and the Environment 2010, p.8; GRESB
2013, p. 20). The topic of “Work Safety Management” – with reference to the FM-employees
- and the sustainability of the “Human Resources Concept” is also touched upon in the
majority of cases (in 9 out of 14 reports). These are followed by two further criteria from the
environmental sector in the shape of “Water” and “Waste Disposal Management”.
Other criteria frequently integrated (8 matches) as “Real Estate Management Strategy”,
“Workflow Organisation/Processes” and “Procurement” belong to the topics covered by the
FM Organisation. Not mentioned at all from a sustainability point of view were the criteria
“Disaster Management”, “Indoor Air and Drinking Water Quality” as well as “Technical
Facility Management Projects” (e.g. regarding modernisation). A report on sustainability
activities in specific services is implemented in part (between one and five matches): this
rather seldom referencing is to be attributed in part to the fact that individual Facility Services
are not reported on in detail in group annual reports.
 Answer 3:
FM-specific content – according to GEFMA criteria for sustainability in FM – is already to
be found in part in the current sustainability reports of FM-companies. Matches are to be
found particularly in the fields of “Environmental Quality” and “Quality of the FM-
Organisation”. “Work Safety Management” is a further topic frequently to be found in the
current reports (in 9 out of 14 reports).
312
osium EFM
MC 2014
Figuree 1: Integratioon of GEFM

MA-Sustainabbility Criteriaa in Sustainab
bility Reportts (As of 7/2013) of
th
he Top 25 FM
M-companiees in German ny
7 CONCLUS SION
One m may deduce from thesse results tthat sustain nability repports are aattaining increasing
importaance in the FM sector: if more thhan half of the 25 FM M companiees that geneerate the
most tuurnover in Germany
G puublish such a report, oth hers will fo
ollow their eexample. Reporting
accordinng to GRI would seem m to suggeest itself, bu ut is not without
w alterrnative: hallf of the
reports demonstraated sustain nability by way of in ndividually determinedd criteria or o report
content.
The facct that the GEFMA
G critteria orienteed towards the sustainability of FFacility Serv vices are
already being addrressed in cu urrent sustaiinability repporting allo
ows one to conclude th hat there
may bee possible synergies between thhe assessm ment of Faccility Serviices for in ndividual
propertiies or custoomers and company-sspecific susstainability reporting. T There is, however,
h
clearly no absolutee congruencce between the reportin ng topics in keeping wiith the GRII and the
GEFMA T means that the twoo systems can be used as mutuallyy supplemen
A criteria. This ntary for
commuunication onn sustainabillity in FM.
With thhe present description
d of
o the statuss quo in susstainability reporting oof FM busin nesses in
Germanny researchers can now w draw botth a quantittative and a formal andd contents-oriented
comparrison to other branchess, especiallyy in the serrvice sector. Further reesearch should take
accountt of future developmen nts. The quuestion as tot why so little
l attentiion has so farf been
paid, inn the reportting, to indiividual topiics such as cost-benefit managem ment would also be
worth taaking a closser look at.
The geeneralisationn of the results of thee investigation is limited by thee restriction n of the
numberr of reports analysed to t the top 225 of the FM companiies. Here, aan extension of the
would be revealinng. It woulld also be desirable, beyond thee boundariees of the thematic t
integrattion of criteria, to analy
yse a possibble conform mity in the deetails pursuaant to the GEFMA-
G
313
criteria. This would be realisable after the conclusion of the pilot phase of the GEFMA
certification.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Tips from the anonymous experts provided valuable advice for the clear structuring and an
internationally understandable presentation of this paper.
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315
SECTION TEN:
FACILITIES MANAGEMENT RESEARCH WORLD
Introduction
Facilities Management Research World
Per Anker Jensen

Centre for Facilities Management – Realdania Research
Papers
Strategic FM Procurement: an issue of aligning services to business needs
Akarapong Katchamart and Danny Shiem-Shen Then.
Post Occupancy Evaluation for Improving of Main Dormitories (Choeng Doi)

Tanut Waroonkun and Supuck Prugsiganont
Facility Management in West- and Eastern Europe

Alex Redlein and Michael Zobl.
316
Introduction
FM Research World
Per Anker Jensen

BACKGROUND
FM is an international profession and discipline, but it develops differently in different
countries around the world. The start of FM took place in the USA, but was quickly followed
by countries in Europe. FM has spread fast around the globe particularly in the English
speaking countries, but increasingly also in several Asian countries. In Europe the strongest
development has been in Western and Northern countries, but FM is becoming increasingly
important in Southern and Eastern European countries as well. This development first of all
concerns FM as a professional discipline and industry, but it can also be seen in the
development of academic FM research and education with a certain delay.
This international development is reflected by the papers in this session. The first paper is
based on case studies from two European and two Asian countries. The second paper
concerns a study from one Asian country and the third paper is a study based on data from
several Western and Eastern European countries.
THE THREE PAPERS

In the first paper: “Strategic FM Procurement: an issue of aligning services to business
needs”, Katchamart and Then focus on the interdependence between business need and
strategic decision on FM procurement model. This interdependence underpins the reason
behind strategic decision on FM procurement. The study is theoretically based on asset
specificity and empirically on 7 case studies from Denmark, Hong Kong, Thailand and The
Netherlands. The result is an identification of four types of core business characteristics that
impacts on FM services and provision based on the degree of criticality to business
continuity.
In the second paper: “Post Occupancy Evaluation for Improving of Main Dormitories
(Choeng Doi) Chiang Mai University”, Waroonkun and Prugsiganont focus on on evaluating
how well dormitories at a university in Thailand meet student housing satisfaction at present
and how to improve its environment with optimal building solutions. Student satisfaction was
assessed through a Post Occupancy Evaluation questionnaire with eight main criteria of
evaluating building aspects. The statistical analysis of the sample group revealed that
building efficiency is the most significant factor influencing resident satisfaction.
In the third paper: “Facility Management in West- and Eastern Europe”, Redlein and Zobl
focus on areas of cost savings and increase of productivity for departments on the demand
side of FM. The paper is based on mixed methodology using both qualitative and quantitative
data from different European countries such as Austria, Germany, Bulgaria and Romania.
The study shows that companies in Austria and Romania with an own FM department tend to
achieve savings within more facility services in contrast to companies without an own FM
department. An own FM department also leads to higher annual savings.
317
Strategic FM Procurement: an issue of aligning services

to business needs
Akarapong Katchamart
Centre for Facilities Management, DTU Management Engineering
akatchamat@gmail.com
+669 4810 6767
Danny Then Shiem-shin

The Hong Kong Polytechnic Univeridity
danny.ss.then@polyu.edu.hk
+852 2766 4558
ABSTRACT
Purpose – To illustrate the interdependence between business need and strategic decision on
facilities management (FM) procurement model. This interdependence underpins the reason
behind strategic decision on FM procurement. It would assist decision makers on FM services
procurement that fulfills business needs and enriches business outcomes.
Design/methodology/approach – By a systematic review of FM-related literature, this
research structures and investigates on three aspects of this interdependence between business
delivery and FM services: 1. What characteristics of core business impact on FM service and
provision? 2. What are the interconnections between business support and FM procurement
decisions? and 3. What are the available FM services procurement options?
Findings – There are four types of core business characteristics that impacts on FM services
and provision based on the degree of criticality to business continuity. Each type of core
business needs determines decisions on FM procurement which vary with the degree of
collaborative relationship between decision makers and FM service providers. The degree of
collaborative relationship encapsulates the number of communication channels, stakeholders’
involved, direction of data transfer and nature of data exchange. Consequently, the
collaboration among parties involved determines the form and format of FM procurement
model.
Research limitations/implications – This approach can be used as a decision-making
framework for management to assess its FM services procurement decision, and to justify the
needs of FM provision and services. On the other hand, an FM organization can use it as a
self-evaluation tool to evaluate its FM procurement and degree of alignment of its current
offering with core business needs. As the approach is based on a limited number of detailed
case studies, further empirical verification of various types of organizations and contexts will
be needed.
Originality/value Although this proposed approach is formulated within the context of FM
procurement, its applications can be applied to other organizational support functions, for
instance human resource (HR), information technology (IT) and finance services.
Keywords: Business need, Business support, Alignment, Strategic FM procurement, FM
procurement strategy.
318
1. INTRODUCTION
Michael Porter´s organizational value chain (Porter, 1980) divides business units into two
building blocks: (1) Primary activities are organizational core competencies that possess the
competitive advantage to surpass their business competitors. They create the monetary value
to the organization. (2) Support activities are an organizational non-core competency that
supports the operation and production of the primary activities. They create the non–
monetary value. The only monetary value contribution is cost reduction.
FM is the integration of processes within an organization to maintain and develop the agreed
services which support and improve the effectiveness of its primary activities, (CEN, 2010).
Regarded as a non-organizational core competence and a non-critical function, FM activities
are likely to be performed and contracted out to third parties who hold specialized knowledge
and expertise. This managerial perspective confines the boundary of FM´s scope, role and
function as their added value creation is only limited to achieving prescribed service levels at
the lowest cost. As a result, other potential added value aspects from FM are being neglected.
This research intends to unfold the unarticulated notions of added value of FM. A better
understanding of added value opportunities from FM services provision will broaden existing
corporate management´s perceptions of its abilities and utilities. The research deployed the
asset specificity theory as an overarching framework by comparative analysis of FM
literature with empirical findings from FM practices in selected case studies. The practical
implication of this research is to illustrate the interdependence between business need and
strategic decision on FM procurement. This interdependence underpins the reason behind
strategic decision on FM procurement. It helps corporate management to make the decision
on which FM functions should be outsourced and/or kept in-house, and under what
circumstances the most effective and efficient collaborative relationship between FM
organizations and their clients can be achieved.
2. OVERVIEW OF ASSET SPECIFICITY

Coase (1937) raised the question of what drives organizational form, and largely developed
the theoretical framework referred to as transaction cost economy (TCE). The essence is that
“economizing on transaction costs would determine the organization of economic activity,
and the division of activity between firms and markets” (Milgrom and Roberts, 1992, p. 51).
He proposed that a firm will replace the market provision when the costs of transacting
within the firm are less than the costs of transacting through the market. The manner in which
a transaction is organized depends on particular attributes of the transaction. Most TCE
researchers (Williamson, 1979, 1981, 1985, 1996) discuss three critical transaction attributes:
(1) Asset specificity; (2) Uncertainty; and (3) Frequency. Asset specificity is argued to be the
most important factor in determining the choice of governance, namely hierarchy or market.
Asset specificity was described as the ‘specialized ability’ by Marshall (1949, p. 172) in the
transaction relationship that is required for particular functions and requirements. Williamson
(1985, p. 95) defines asset specificity as ‘the degree to which an asset can be redeployed to
alternative uses by alternative users without sacrifice of productive value’. TCE suggests that
asset-specific investments should only be deployed on the expectation of substantial cost
savings and/or value-adding advantages, but it also posits that asset specificity increases the
hazards of opportunism and the transaction costs necessary to safeguard against the risk of
opportunistic expropriation (Heide and Stump 1995; Parkhe 1993).
Based on the level of asset specificity, firms will formulate an appropriate governance
structure, with inter-firm relationship performance expected to be maximsed when
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opportunistic behavior incentivized by asset specificity is reduced (David and Han 2004; Lui
et al. 2009; Rindfleisch and Heide 1997). De Vita et al. (2011) explain the usage of asset
specificity as a core concept of TCE (also commonly referred to as transaction cost theory,
TCT), which is still seen as the dominant theoretical framework for studying organizational
boundary choices (Geyskens et al. 2006). In particular, asset specificity has become a key
construct in research into make-or-buy decisions (Espino-Rodríguez et al. 2008) and the
performance of buyer–supplier relationships (Artz 1999; Haugland 1999; Heide and Miner
1992; Heide and Stump 1995; Lui et al. 2006, 2009).
2.1 Seven Dimensions of Asset Specificity

Asset specificity consists of seven dimensions: Their characteristics are described below.
Human asset specificity refers to the degree to which skills, knowledge and experience of a
firm’s personnel are specific to the requirements of dealing with other firms (Zaheer and
Venkatraman, 1995). It encompasses any unique knowledge or skills that suppliers develop
through training, and represents specialized know-how or experience specific to a particular
employer/employee relationship (Lamminmaki, 2005).
Site asset specificity refers to the transaction relationship when the buyer and the supplier are
in close proximity to a buyer or seller in terms of site, location and facility production. This
aims to reduce inventory and other related processing costs. (Joskow, 1988; Lamminmaki,
2005; Morill and Morill 2003; Williamson, 1983).
Physical asset specificity refers to investments in physical assets that are tailored to a
specific transaction and have few alternative uses, owing to their specific characteristics
(Joskow 1988; Morill and Morill 2003). Comparing with human asset specificity it is more
tangible to measure and assess the uniqueness of equipment and tools required by the supplier
for the purpose of the transactional relationship (Klein and Roth 1990; Heide and Stump
1995; Walker and Poppo 1991).
Dedicated asset specificity refers to assets that are of general purpose as opposed to
specialized uses (physical asset specificity), but which have been made for a particular
transactional agreement that is likely to entail a long-term relationship (De Vita et al. 2011).
Lamminmaki (2005) provides an example from the hotel industry as a hotel might expand its
facilities on the assumption that delegates from a neighboring conference venue will use its
facilities.
Brand asset specificity refers to organizational reputation. For instance, a supplier could
find himself in a position enabling him to directly or indirectly cause damage to the client’s
reputation (Gatignon and Anderson 1988; Lamminmaki 2005; Lohtia et al. 1994). A buyer-
supplier relationship involving activities which have a direct and great impact on the overall
business performance and brand reputation could be considered as high brand asset
specificity.
Temporal asset specificity refers to the matching of timing and co-ordination required by a
transactional relationship between a buyer and a supplier. This concerns investment where
timing and coordination of activities is critical, i.e. timing and coordination represent the high
temporal asset (Lamminmaki 2005). An unsuccessful coordinating will lead to the failure of
business outcome.
Procedural asset specificity refers to organizational business processes, routines and
workflows (De Vita et al. 2011). This type of asset specificity is common in service industry.
The transactional relationship will be high when buyers heavily rely on suppliers who
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customize their work process to a particular buyer´s business process. It is difficult to replace
once created or to redeploy without value reduction.
These seven dimensions of asset specificity form distinct and interrelated, rather than
substituted and isolated, dimensions of the construct. The interconnection of the asset
specificity dimensions indicates that simply investigating one dimension of the construct may
be inadequate. For example, physical, procedural and site specificity involve the allocation of
staff with specialist knowledge and skills or specially trained personnel to perform the
activity i.e. human asset specificity (Lamminmaki 2005). Site specificity may be highly
correlated to temporal asset specificity to ensure smooth and zero downtime delivery of
services, which enables the brand asset specificity in service industries where just-in-time
delivery is a core activity of business operations. Similarly, temporal specificity may require
the supplier and/or the buyer to assign specialized staff (human asset specificity) and
customize existing operating process (procedural asset specificity) to meet the needs and
requirements of the transactional relationship.
3. VALUE ADDED BY FM IN RELATION TO ASSET SPECIFICITY

The key supportive role of FM to the core business involves managing facilities resources,
support services and the working environment for both the short and long term (Then and
Tan 2013, Chotipanich 2004; Tay and Oui 2001). In order to deliver facilities services or
facilities products and/or add value to the client organization, FM needs to align the
organization´s primary processes with facilities processes (CEN 2010, Then, 2003; Then and
Tan, 2006). In order to align FM processes closely with its core business processes, FM
organizations have to be involved in the strategic decision making process. However, FM is
generally perceived among clients, customers and end-users as a back office function. This
paper discusses asset specificity from FM activities and their performance that add value to
the core business and surroundings, based on FM-related specialized abilities. The nature of
the transactions between an FM organization (supply side) with its client (demand side) can
be explained by asset specificity which describes the extent to which a given FM product or
service is tailored to a client’s specific needs and requirements based on their “specialized
abilities” in terms of the nature of the core business, customer type, primary activities,
business needs and requirements.
This paper proposes that the degree of asset specificity of FM services can also be implied as
the degree of value added undertaken by an FM service provider to its host organization. The
added value perceived by its host organization will be reflected in the adopted structure of
FM´s scope, role and function within the organization. The appropriate FM provision is
characterized by varying degrees of asset specificity depending on the complexity and
customization of the FM products offering in terms of workplace solutions, service
delivering, managerial skill sets, labor and workforce.
The following presents seven types of asset specificity from FM-related specialized abilities
that add value to the core business and surroundings:
 Human asset specificity represents specialized know-how or experience specific to
particular FM organizations and their clients. It is acquired from both the prior work
experience and emerging knowhow from performing a current job. It has limited
relevance to other task situations and organizations.
 Site asset specificity refers to reducing the commuting distance between the demand
side and supply side. The supply side encompasses FM organizations from both in-
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house and service providers and sources of facilities and facility services. The
proximity between both sides creates the cost advantage through the reduction of
redundant information processes, transaction cost and real estate cost.
 Physical asset specificity can be seen as customized infrastructure, workspaces and
FM services. FM organizations play a critical role to its client´s core business because
their bespoke facility services and infrastructure are critical to the organization’s
performance and business outcomes in terms of increasing customer satisfaction,
employee productivity and organization´s revenue.
 Dedicated asset specificity is contrary to physical asset specificity in that FM
organizations offer a range of standardized FM services and provision. Organizations
can benefit from dedicated asset specificity by optimizing economies of scope and
scale. Economies of scale are offered by large investments in capacity which,
although they are not bespoke, present problems in finding another buyer who wants
to use the spare capacity (Finch, 1996). Economies of scope are offered by FM
operations and management systems that encompass an entire FM supply chain, for
instance the concept of TFM.
 Brand asset specificity refers to FM practices that support the corporate culture,
enhance the corporate reputation and help organizations to attract and retain potential
talented employees. This brand asset specificity is aligned with the current
organizational cultural strategy aimed at increasing the organizational capacity and
capability..
 Temporal asset specificity refers to added values created from time-sensitive FM
applicability. It can be practiced in FM services and provision by just-in-time
inventory practice that helps corporation to avoid and minimize the cost of inventory
holding.
 Procedural asset specificity includes systems and practice of the client’s
organization for which the FM organization’s processes and practices must integrate
with their client´s work processes.
4. EXEMPLARY CASE STUDIES

The case studies selection criterion is to maximize variations that aim to highlight the
potential applications and capability of the asset specificity for the various contexts and
circumstances in organizations from public, private and state-owned sectors. The data
collection was carried out by semi-structured interviews with stakeholders from both the
demand side and supply side spanning strategic, tactical and operational levels. The main
interview theme focuses on an aligning of perception from the demand side (client, business
units and end users) and implementation from the supply side (external service providers) on
added value from FM services and provision to core business and surroundings, through their
FM procurement strategy.
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4.1 LEGO
LEGO is a Danish toys manufacturing company. LEGO wants its FM operation and practices
to align with its corporate culture (i.e. human asset specificity). Most of the FM products are
performed by in-house staff. FM department wants to deliver its FM products in a timely
manner according to its client’s, customers’ and end users’ needs with the least costs of
inventory holding (i.e. temporal asset specificity). LEGO’s ownership strategy is to lease real
estate for not more than 10 years because of flexibility and uncertainties of market price. The
flexibility of FM product can be also classified as temporal asset specificity from the FM
organization to LEGO.
4.2 Mærsk
Mærsk´s core business is oil and gas exploration, retail store, container tower, container
shipping and related businesses. Mærsk aims to focus only on its core business and assigns
the support service tasks to professional service providers. Mærsk’s real estate and FM
strategy is to rent all buildings and outsourcing to capable FM providers to perform Mærsk´s
facility support services. Mærsk requires the stripped down and standardized FM services
that support the operation of primary activities with a low rate of operational downtime.
Mærsk has adopted a Total FM (TFM) sourcing arrangement by contracting out FM support
services to a single FM provider (Johnson Controls Inc. (JCI)) at a global level. JCI´s
specialized ability is dedicated asset specificity because Mærsk´s core business benefits from
economies of scope and scale of a service provider who possesses the managerial capacity
and operational capability.
4.3 PTT Public Company Limited (PTT)
PTT is a Thai state-owned energy company. Previously, subsidiary companies of PTT rented
office spaces separately around Bangkok and contracted out FM services individually. To
consolidate the amount of workplace and standardized FM practices among its subsidiary
companies and to reduce the FM operating and administrative costs, ENCO was established
as a semi-autonomous company responsible for managing FM services and provision for the
new office campus. One single centralized location is considered as site asset specificity to
PTT´s subsidiary companies. At the initial phase of organizational re-structuring, there was a
shortage of FM knowledge, expertise and workforces, so ENCO heavily relies on external
FM professional skills, both managerial expertise and technical skills from its main service
provider; CBRE. ENCO currently needs to employ human asset specificity from CBRE. This
office campus is intended to be a multi-tenants office for subsidiaries companies by sharing
the common area and FM services. PTT can benefit from economies of scope and scale of
shared service which can be classified as dedicated asset specificity.
4.4 PTTEP (PTT Exploration and Production)
PTT Exploration and Production (PTTEP) is a subsidiary of PTT. PTTEP had experienced
leaks of confidential information from temporary FM workers causing security problems and
loss of business opportunities. PTTEP thus relies on trusted employees– especially blue collar
workers at the operational level who are have access to all areas. The challenge in managing
the FM workforce is a high rate of FM staff turnover because the operational FM job
comprises only routine tasks, with low pay, fringe benefits and job security. In order to
decrease the churn rate of FM employees, attracting and retaining trusted and skilled workers
and increasing employee loyalty are critical. The FM department initiated collaboration
between PTT´s HR and service providers. PTTEP offers above average fringe benefits to FM
blue collar workers and treats them as internal PTTEP ´s employees. In this respect, the
requirements of a given type of FM workforce are considered as a human asset specificity. In
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cases of contractor termination and vendor switching, PTTEP will continue to hire the
incumbent FM staffs but selects the new service providers to supervise them. This
collaborative initiative can also be seen as brand asset specificity. It increases PTT’s
reputation as PTTEP´s host organization remains one of the most attractive workplaces in
Thailand.
4.5 Hong Kong Science and Technology Parks (HKSTP)
HKSTPC (Hong Kong Science and Technology Parks Corporation) manages and provides
purpose-built R&D office spaces, advanced laboratories and technical support services for
technology-oriented start-up companies and multinational corporations. This brand asset
specificity enables and brands Hong Kong’s position as a regional technology hub. The single
office campus is dedicated as site asset specificity to tenants. FM processes are embedded
with tenant´s activities because technology-savvy tenants demand the most reliable FM
services and provisions to ensure reliably delivery of their operations and activities. This
arrangement can be considered as procedural asset specificity. In order to manage and
organize the world class facility hub, the FM organization in collaboration with a service
provider (ISS) initiated a facilities manager trainee program that aims to develop and
cultivate FM practitioners who have the appropriate FM knowledge ranging from technical to
managerial skills. The exchange of knowledge between internal FM knowledge and external
FM provider operational expertise can be perceived as human asset specificity.
4.6 Dutch central government
The Dutch central government had to reduce operating costs and staffing levels in thirteen
government departments. Each of them had its own FM organization, provision arrangement
and practices. It caused redundancy and non-standardized FM products and practices within
the Dutch state agency. The Dutch central government commenced an organizational merger
which led to the consolidation from thirteen business units into one centralized unit. FM as a
support function from each public department was amalgamated into one single department
and reports directly to the central department. This can be a source of added value by service
standardization, consolidation of common functions across the multiple organizations,
economies of scale and scope, reduction of the redundant information processes and
transaction cost reduction. This demonstrates a case based on dedicated asset specificity.
4.7 Thai central government
Previously 35 state agencies rented and leased their own workplaces spreading across
Bangkok greater area. The Thai central government then initiated an office campus project as
a state property management project by offering office space to government agencies at the
right budget. The Thai central government established Dhanarak Asset Development (DAD)
as the independent subsidiary company of the central government for managing FM provision
and services for the government office complex. This centralized location can be considered
as site asset specificity. DAD can increase its negotiation power for procurement of FM
services. The Thai government can benefit from economies of scale and scope which is
based on dedicated asset specificity.
5 DISCUSSION
Chotipanich (2004) pinpoints two main basic factors that impact the choices of facilities and
services needs in organizational decision making process: first, internal factors, such as
organizational characteristics, facilities features and business sector and second, external
factors, such as economic, social, environment, legislation and regulation, FM market context
324
and local culture and context. These factors define the characteristics of decision making
behavior and the primary stakeholders who are involved in the decision making process.
Asset specificity theory adds another external determinant factor that justifies FM´s scope,
role and function in the given organization: FM-related specialized abilities. It is considered
as the above the line contribution or offering from FM organizations. It can be connoted as
the value added from FM provisions and services to the organization´s core business.
This paper formulates four value adding positions and their associated characteristics of FM-
related specialized abilities that add value to the core business and surroundings. Each of
them has a particular characteristic of collaborative relationships between the FM
organizations and their stakeholders. This also explains the rationales and actions behind the
strategic decision making on the what, and why of outsourced FM support functions. In order
to deliver the right specialized abilities to the demand side this paper argues that each type of
collaborative relationship requires different groups of primary stakeholders as follows:
 FM-related specialized abilities that support the operation of the organizational
primary activities running more effectively and efficiently with a cost advantage. This
type of FM-related specialized ability is relevant to dedicated asset specificity that
corporations could benefit from achieving economies of scope and/or scale. FM
organizations need to collaborate with senior management of the given organization. It is
the conventional spot-market relationship with a cost–sensitive contractual agreement.
However, the involvement of the FM organization is only at the operational level. FM
services and provisions are required as a commodity, which has no significant difference
among different FM providers.
 FM-related specialized abilities that enable the organizational capacity and
capability with the specific organization´s demands. In this category, the FM
organizations and their demand side establish one-off decisions and implementations
responding to current organizational demands. The FM organizations offer cutting-edge
practices, performance framework, processes and managerial expertise that enable
organizational productivity, business profitability, operational efficiency and
effectiveness and also end user satisfaction. This includes three asset specificities: brand,
site and temporal asset specificity. FM organizations need to collaborate with one or
more of the business unit directors and senior management of the client’s organization
at the operational and tactical levels. The FM providers and their host organizations
mutually share economic risks and benefits. Cost reduction still plays a key role in the
decision making process.
 FM-related specialized abilities that ensure the operation and performance
continuity of primary activities continuing to operate normally and without interruption.
FM organizations offer FM services and provisions focusing on operational reliability and
minimizing the operation downtime. Corporations rely on FM knowledge, workforce,
skills and expertise that are aligned with the host organization’s business processes. This
covers two asset specificities: procedural and human asset specific. The FM
organizations need to be highly collaborative and engage with a board of business units’
directors, particularly production. Under this arrangement, the FM organizations and their
host organizations share mutual risks, benefits, trust and a committed relationship. The
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FM organizations and their clients’ relationships move from a spot market-driven

relationship towards becoming the preferred partners. The FM working processes are
embedded into the organizations´ primary activities. Facilities managers play a key role
from tactical to strategic levels.
 FM-related specialized abilities that enhance operational performance and business
outcomes of the core business. In this category, the FM performances immediately and
directly impact the end users’ perceptions and satisfactions. Their service specifications
are highly customized by end users’ requirements in order to enhance the end users´
satisfaction and productivity. Any downtimes will immediately impact on the
organizational operations and outcomes. The FM organization co-creates and customizes
the FM services and provision specification with all relevant stakeholders with
involvement from client, business units and end users. This type of FM-related
specialized ability is relevant to physical asset specificity that highly customizes
infrastructure, workspace and FM services to FM´s stakeholders. The FM organization
needs to collaborate with the end users of the client’s organization. The roles and
responsibilities of FM shift away from supportive roles to becoming part of an
organizational core functions. The facilities manager can engage in the client’s
organization´s decision making process.
From the above discussions, FM-related specialized abilities involved with procedural,
human and physical asset specificities should be kept in-house unless corporations need to
find the most optimal way to fulfill their needs from the demand side with FM-related
specialized abilities from external suppliers. Such corporations tend to outsource or out-task
FM provision and services to external service providers who hold particular skills and
expertise. Each of them requires a specific managerial approach. For example, FM activities
that provide dedicated asset specificity with cost advantage may not need to engage in
strategic decision as much as physical asset specificity that enhances organizational
performance and outcomes. In cases when a corporate decision on FM procurement provision
is made by senior management to take advantage of purely cost advantage (i.e. dedicated
asset specificity), other stakeholder groups including FM organizations may be excluded
from the decision making process.
6 CONCLUSION
The above value adding poistions can also be applied to create a constructive dialogue
between both demand and supply sides to converge and align FM´s offerings with core
business´s expectations. From the supply side, FM organizations can use the proposed FM
specialized abilities to develop their capacity, capability, competency and resource to supply
core business´s needs and requirements. From the demand side, clients can use the proposed
value adding positions to define and manipulate the role of service providers in relation to
FM potential contributions. For further development a larger sample size of empirical data is
need to be investigated in order to validate this exploratory paper.
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328
Post Occupancy Evaluation for Improving of Main Dormitories

(Choeng Doi)
Assistant Professor Dr. Tanut Waroonkun

Faculty of Architecture Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
tanut.w@cmu.ac.th
66 84 378 0429
Supuck Prugsiganont
Faculty of Architecture Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
supuck.p@cmu.ac.th
Abstract
Objective: In 2007 Chiangmai University Administration decided to refurbish Choeng Doi
dormitories and provide the conditions that met with student satisfaction levels and
conformed to the Living and Learning Concept (LLC). This paper focuses on an evaluation
of the success of this undertaking and the viability of the POE theory in producing building
guidelines that would result in a living and learning environment.
Methodology: Van der Voordt’s eight criteria of building evaluation were adopted as the key
tools for the research methodology. Randomly selected students who resided in Choeng Doi
dormitory during 2009 (Choeng Doi women’s dormitory 1-9 and men’s dormitory 2-7) were
chosen for a questionnaire survey. The data collection process involved 152 students and was
repeated, as a basis of comparison, by interviewing an additional 30 students.
The research output was statistically analyzed and used to explore the level of student
satisfaction and the relevance of the POE theory in creating improvement guidelines that
result in a Living and Learning environment.
Results: On assessment of the results using the POE theory it is clear that the overall levels
of building efficiency and student satisfaction are below the standards acceptable to CMU for
student accommodation and considerable improvement is required.
Conclusion: The POE theory is appropriate as a building assessment gauge for student
dormitories in Chiang Mai University. However, POE alone is inadequate for the production
of a Living and Learning environment. To produce more comprehensive restoration
guidelines that would create such an environment, a behavioral study and additional research
is required.
Keywords: Choeng Doi Dormitories, Post Occupancy Evaluation, Living and Learning
1 Introduction
Chiang Mai University founded on January 24th 1965 was the first university built in the
Northern region of Thailand. Initially there were only three faculties but now there are
twenty faculties and one college, totaling 29,048 students at both undergraduate and post-
graduate levels (Office of the Higher Education Commission, 2008). For the majority of
students attending the university, Chiang Mai is not their hometown (Student Development
Division, 2009). Consequently, the university decided to construct halls of residence.
Choeng Doi, the first campus dormitories to be constructed, are 3 to 4 storey buildings,
comprising 6 males dormitories and 9 female dormitories (Chiang Mai University Student
Welfare Division, 2003) as shown in figure 1-3. The Choeng Doi dormitories have similar
floor plans and can be arranged into 4 groups (shown in table 1)
329
Table 1: shows the Choeng Doi dormitories by grouping and gender
Group Dormitory number - male Dormitory number - female

A 3 4,9
B 4 5,6
C 5,6 1,7,8
D 7 2,3
E 2 -
1.1 Problems and solutions affecting Choeng Doi dormitories

After 45 years the dormitories are becoming dilapidated and require renovation and
modernization, adapting to the current behavior patterns of students (as shown in figure 4).
The University wanted the dormitories to be not only regular accommodation but also an
environment for education and the development of social skills. Therefore Chiang Mai
University administration decided to upgrade the existing buildings by integrating the social
welfare and student halls to create a complex called the Living and Learning Center.
Through the course of their life, the dormitories have not been assessed. Therefore, the
researchers decided on the Post Occupancy Evaluation (POE) method of Van der Voordt
(2004) as the main approach to surveying the satisfaction of students who reside in the
dormitories. Statistical analysis of the data collected from the POE would then be used for
suggesting improvements to the dormitories’ facilities.
2 Proposal of the study

The proposal of the study is listed as followed:
1. To assess the building’s function using the Post Occupancy Evaluation theory.
2. To introduce the Living and Learning approach into the existing building of Choeng
Doi dormitories.
3. To suggest improvement-guidelines for the Choeng Doi Dormitory that conforms to

the LLC approach and student’s behavior.
3 Research Question
Is the POE theory sufficient to assess the existing buildings and to create an improvement
guideline that can promote a Living and Learning environment for Cheong Doi dormitory?
4 Student Dormitory as a Living and Learning Center

The Office of the Higher Education Commission supports the Living and Learning concept as
the main approach to the adaptation of the design of the students’ dormitories because the
concept encourages student development. Chaowanapreecha (1984), Grimm (1993) and
Kelly (2006) discovered a significant decrease in the number of first year students vacating
dormitories that had adopted the Living and Learning concept.
Grimm (1993) and Inthya (2003) have categorized the Living and Learning concept into five
major elements listed as follows:
1. The need for creative activities in various fields, such as academic group discussion.
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2. The requireement of sttaff or studdents to be active in the

t center iin order to provide
consultationn and guidaance for studdents.
3. An arrangeement of thee physical eenvironmentt which enccourages stuudent collab

boration;
such as liviing room an
nd recreationn room.
4. An inclusioon of intereesting activiities and co

ourses that are
a not a paart of the academic
curriculum; such as coooking and ddancing.
5. The creatioon of a feedb

back mechaanism.
Figuree1: dorm 3 men andd dorm 4&9 women

n Figure2: ddorm 4 men and dorrm 5&6 women Figure3: dorm
m 5&6 men and dorm
m 1,7,8 women
number 1 – bathroom
number 2 – living
g area
number 3 – hallwaay and staircase
6: residential hall downstaiirs facilities an

Figure 4-6 nd student’s rooom
5 Post Occuppancy Evalluation

Post Occcupancy Evaluation (P g buildings iin a system
POE) is thee process off evaluating matic and
rigorouus manner affter they haave been buiilt and occuupied for some time (Prrieser, 19888). POE
mainly focuses on the functio on and physsical setting
g of the building. The pattern of POE
P has
been deeveloped in the United States of AAmerica sincce the 1960ss.
The PO OE method isi usually conducted
c bby collecting
g data fromm the buildinng’s occupaants, via
questionnnaires, to determine levels of saatisfaction and opinions toward tthe function n of the
built ennvironment (Turid Horg gen and Sheeila Sheridaan, 1996).
331
Vischer (2001), Watson&Thomson (2004) agreed that POE method is the universal
standard. Preiser (1989) also stated that POE is an important tool in renovation and
refurbishment of existing buildings. Wener (1994) also stated that the POE method is
appropriate for academic research due to its procedure and clarity of data collection and is
accepted by the British Council for Offices (BCO).
This method not only allows students who stay at Choeng Doi dormitories as participants to
evaluate the building’s functions via the questionnaire but also helps identify which function
of the building needs design improvement.
In order to assess the Choeng Doi dormitory eight POE criteria from Van der Voordt (2004)
were adopted because these criteria evaluate and cover every section of the building as shown
in table 2.
Table 2: Show the eight Criteria of Evaluation and the Building Aspects are as follows:
number Criteria Explanation Example

1 Accessibility Dormitory can be accessed easily There are clear entrances and exits
The room arrangement on each floor

Building Percentage or proportion of building’s
2 is not too crowded and the number of
Efficiency rentable area
rooms is not excessive.
The area is sufficient to the needs of the

3 Area sufficient Sufficient parking area
students
The area is flexible to the needs of the Each usable section can support
4 Area flexibility
students students’ recreation activities
Each service section is allocated to

The facilities in the dormitories is
5 Area allocation the function and to support students’
allocated
activities
Fire safety management, security

6 Security Dormitory provides strict security
guard, and surveillance cameras
Students can perform activities

7 Privacy Privacy in the living area of the dormitory without being annoyed from outside
environment
Physical Appropriate cleanliness, sufficient No noise disturbance in the student’s

8
appropriateness lighting and no sound disturbance sleeping quarters
6 Post Occupancy Evaluation for assessing accommodation

POE theory is the first systematic procedure to assess building performance from the user’s
point of view (Preiser & Nasar, 2008). Preiser (1969) assessed Virginia tech dormitory and
the results showed an error rate 3-5%, he concluded that the rating scale (the method to
collect data) creates quality profiles. Subsequently this theory was adopted to assess many
types of buildings such as hospitals, shopping malls and office buildings. The theory became
popular worldwide after Preiser, Rabinowitz & White (1988) published the first POE
textbook. POE theory became popular in Asia during the year 2000. Several research studies
were conducted using POE to evaluate housing accommodation and public buildings.
332
Kaya & Erkip (2001) examined and evaluated the effects of floor height and perception of
room size. However, the conclusion did not include improvement guidelines. The research
results showed only students’ satisfaction toward dormitory room. Huy (2008) assessed the
subsidized Dong Da apartment in Vietnam. The research results included a review of user
satisfaction and recommendation guidelines. From the many studies conducted, some results
showed only the overall satisfaction levels whereas others displayed satisfaction levels and
provided suggestions for improvement.
7 Research Methods
The research was performed according to the following procedures:
1. Review of literature and research concerning the Living and Learning concept and
Post Occupancy Evaluation theories.
2. First stage collection of data, conducted by questionnaire, from 152 randomly selected
residents of Cheong Doi dormitory. Selection utilized purposive sampling at
reliability 0.8(Yamane, 1973; Huy, 2008 and Paphakorn, 1995).
3. Statistical analysis of data from the questionnaire.
4. Second stage collection of data from 30 more students as a basis of corroboration of

first stage analysis.
5. Evaluation of the two stages of collected data, to produce improvement guidelines.
6. Analysis of the improvement guidelines in the context of producing a Living and

Learning environment.
First stage, Second stage,

collect data interview 30
Review LL from 152
concept students, this Guidelines for Analyze
students stage corroborates the improvement
and POE who reside Statisti- Data
theory and to confirm improvement guideline if it
in Choeng cal the relevant of the analy- of could create
and Doi analysis sis
develop first stage Choeng Doi the LL
dormitory Dormitory environment
questionnai
Diagram1: research methodology diagram
8 Data Analysis Results

The student’s satisfaction towards each facility was moderate to low. The level of students’
satisfaction towards the dormitories on the ground floor and upper floor level is shown in
table3.
Table 3: Satisfaction levels of ground floor level and upper floor level according to POE criteria.
level of rating scale: 5 – very satisfied, 4-satisfied, 3-average, 2-poor, 1- unacceptable
POE criteria Student’s Satisfaction Level ( x ) S.D.

lower floor
Security 2.50 0.50
Building efficiency 2.90 0.32
Overall satisfaction 2.90 0.47
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Area allocation 2.96 0.58

Physical 3.00 0.41
appropriateness
Area sufficient 3.05 0.60
Privacy 3.07 0.60
Accessibility 3.12 0.44
Area flexibility 2.99 0.66
Table 3 (continue): Satisfaction levels of ground floor level and upper floor level according to POE
POE criteria Student’s Satisfaction Level ( x ) S.D.
Upper floor
Security 2.32 0.57
Overall satisfaction 2.68 0.52
Accessibility 2.78 0.58
Building efficiency 2.85 0.39
Physical 2.91 0.50
appropriateness
Area sufficient 2.95 0.61
Privacy 3.00 0.45
Area flexibility 3.10 0.48
Area allocation 3.12 0.33
Prugsiganont, S. and Waroonkul, T. (2011) analysed satisfaction levels towards the whole
building and found that the POE criteria with the lowest levels of satisfaction were the
security system, area allocation and overall satisfaction.
Correlation analysis (calculated from the statistical analysis of the mean ( x ) of students’
satisfaction level) was used to discover the most influential POE criteria toward student’s
satisfaction. The results showed that Building Efficiency with a statistically significant
correlation value closer to one (one being the highest) is the most influential criteria toward
student’s satisfaction. The correlation analysis values of ground floor and upper floor level of
Choeng Doi dormitories are shown in table 4.
Table 4: Correlation value of building efficiency on ground floor and upper floor level
Highest value is 1.00 with statistical significance
Facilities Correlation value
lower floor
TV room 0.72
Reading room 0.72
Living room 0.70
Restroom 0.70
Dining room 0.63
Parking area 0.48
Garbage disposal area 0.37
Upper floor
Bedroom 0.83
Restroom 0.81
Computer room 0.73
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Conseqquently, anyy improvem ment to thee dormitory y and its facilities

f m
must start from
fr the
standpooint of Building Efficiency and c orrespond to t Post Occcupancy Evaaluation theeory and
the Liviing and Leaarning conceept. Other bbuilding asp
pects can bee improved later.
Regresssion analyssis determiined whichh facility of the dormitory shhould be first f for
improveement. The r-square vaalues defineed which faacilities - on
n the groundd and upperr floors -
needed the utmost improvemeent, as show wn in tables 5.
Taable 5: Regression analysis value of each faciility on grou

und floor annd upper flo
oor
Facilitiees R--square (%))
Lower floor
f
TV room m 68
Living room
r 65
Dining room
r 65
Upper floor
f
Bedroom m 81
Restroom m 78
Computter room 65
8 A
Analysis of Choeng
C Dooi Dormitorry Improveement Meth hods
Wener (1994) stateed that dataa confirmatiion is needeed to finalizze the data aanalysis in the
t POE
processs. Thereforee, a second stage of daata collectioon involving g the intervview of a fu
urther 30
studentss was condducted to coorroborate tthe first staage of data analysis. The interviiew was
designeed upon thee analysis reesults not aan open inteerview. AnA improvem ment guidelline was
then creeated upon confirmatioon of the ressults. Table 6 shows the percentagge of studen nts in the
sample group who were in an undergraduuate program m.
Table 6: thee percentage of students in

i undergradu
uate program
m
Undergraduate proogram Percentag
ge
Freshmen 80
juniors 10
seniors 6.7
sophomores 3.3
The firsst and secoond stage of data colleecting weree analyzed. The resultts from thee second
stage off data collecction were similar
s to thhe first stagee analysis reesults. Only
ly POE criteeria with
a Standdard Deviatiion (S.D.) value
v equivvalent 3.0 oro lower (the highest iss 5.0 lowesst is 1.0)
were seelected for satisfaction
s level analyssis (Prugsigganont, 2011 1).
The ressults from statistical analysis annd interview w indicate that Buildiing Efficien ncy and
Physicaal appropriaateness are the
t most inffluential criiteria effecting studentt satisfactionn levels.
The im mprovementt guideliness were prooduced usin ng the resu ults from the analysiis (both
statisticcal and interrview). Taable 7 showws the impro ovement guidelines of each facilitty of the
buildingg.
Tablee 7: Show thee improvemeent guideline of each facility of the buuilding
numberr Facilitty Sugggestions Plan
Lower ffloor level
1. Dining room - Alloccate more areaa for dining ro
oom
- Replaace and add mmore furniture
- Increease the cleanlliness standard
d
- Preveent stray dogss.
- Improve the internnet signal
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2 Living rooom - impro ove for open-aair and light for

f all times
- replaaced the damagged and worn n-out
furnituure
- installl book shelvees
- impro ove internet siign
3 TV room - openn plan and largger television

- replaace and repair the damaged furniture
- allocate more areaa for versatile activities
a
- impro ove the light iin the room deecorating
with bright color succh cream and white
4 Reading - adjust the furnituree matching with various
room types ofo utilization aand reading boooks such as
installiing lamps andd every table should
s
providde equipment ffor laptop utilization
- set ru
ules to preventt disturbance in the
reading g room
5 Parking area
a - This area should bbe under or beh hind the
buildinng
- sufficcient parking area
- securrity should be provide
8 m
Restroom - increase size and nnumber of resstroom to 4
rooms
- installl additional s anitary wares
- repaiir worn out utiility
7 Garbage - proviide separate tyype of rubbishh bin on each
floor
- garbaage disposal aarea should be completely
closed and locate neear the main sttreet
8 Security - Security guards
9 Safety - Proviide fire prevenntion system and
a
surveilllance cameraa
Upper ffloor
1 Bedroom - installl more corriddor lights
- replaace worn out ffurniture
- proviide bookshelvves over the reeading table
- adjusst reading areaa for more privvacy
- impro ove internet siignal
- installl air-conditiooning system such
s as fan
and veentilation ductt fan
2 Restroom
m - increase the restrooom size
- replaace and repair damage sanitary wares
- proviide the waitingg area or lock
ker room area
- impro ove ventilatioon system
- installl more lights and provide cleaning
c
schedu ule
3 Computerr - comb bine computerr room and reaading room
room - installl more compuuters
- replaace part of thee computer roo om with
glass wall
w
- replaace damaged aand worn out furniture
f
- proviide photocopyy machine , prrinter and
scanneer
- impro ove internet siignal
- installl air-conditioon system
- installl ventilation ffan
- proviide the accuraate cleaning scchedule
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9 Conclusion
The eight criteria from Van der Voordt‘s POE theory are relevant for an assessment of
Choeng Doi dormitories. The theory displayed accurate results with little error and allowed
assessment of every aspect of the buildings. The results showed low levels of student
satisfaction towards every facility in the building due to the age of the buildings. Guidelines
for improvement were produced using results from the analysis. However, refurbishment of
the building could not be accomplished purely as a logical outcome of Van der Voordt’s
framework. POE alone is inadequate for the production of a Living and Learning
environment. To produce more comprehensive restoration guidelines that would create such
an environment, behavioral studies and additional research are required. Several procedures
were neglected such as staff interview, one-on-one interview and behavioral research. To
create a Living and Learning environment further research is required.
10 Further studies
This paper focuses on an evaluation of the viability of the POE theory in production building
guidelines that would produce a Living and Learning environment. The results displayed the
level of students’ satisfaction toward every facility of the buildings. The POE approach made
the study more standardized with less error. Thus, in order to make the study more novelty,
further research especially a behavioral research is required. The results from this study
should be compared with similar studies.
11 References
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Residential Halls, Chiang Mai University Student Welfare Division the Office of Vice
Chancellor, Chiang Mai University.
Chowanapreecha, H (1984), A survey of student role orientation as perceived by students in
teachers college, A master thesis Chulalongkorn University.
Kaya, N. and Erkip, F (2001), Satisfaction in a dormitory building: The effects of floor
height on the perception of room size and crowding, Environ. Behav., 33, 33-53, DOI:
10.1177/00139160121972855.
Grimm, James C (1993), Residential Alternatives in Student Hosing and Residential Life: A
Handbook for Professionals Committed to student Development Goals, San Francisco :
Jossey – Bass Publishers.
Horgen, T and Sheridan, S (1996), Post-occupancy evaluation of facilities: a participatory
approach to programming and design, Facilities Volume 14 Number 7/8 July/August, 1996
pp 16-25, MCB University Press, ISBN 0263-2772.
Huy, Nguyen Q (2008), Post-Occupancy Evaluation of Subsidized Apartments in Vietnam:
A Case of Dong Da Apartment Complex in Hue, A master thesis The Graduated School
Chiang Mai University 2008.
Inthya, I (2003), Comparative of Khon Kean University Student’s Living Between University
Dormitory and Private Dormitory, A Master Thesis Chulalongkorn University.
Jarudull, D (2002), An Improvement of Design of Multi Unit Chenag Wattana Residence
for Judge, A master thesis Chulalongkorn University.
Kelley, S.B., Rishi, R.S. & Leigh, A.M (2006), Criteria for Promoting Living – Learning
Center Student Success, 2006 American Society for Engineering Education.
Office of the Higher Education Comission (2008), Annual Report of Students Wellfare
(2008), The Office of Vice Chancellor, Chiang Mai University.
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Preiser, W.F.E and Nasar, J.L (2008), Assessing Building Performance: It Evolution from
Post-occupancy Evaluation, Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research-
Volume 2.
Preiser, W.F.E (1994), Building evaluation: conceptual basic, benefits and user, Journal of
Architectural and Planning Research 11 (2).
Preiser, W.F.E (1989), Advances in Post-occupancy Evaluation: Knowledge, methods and
applications, in: Van Hoodgaleem, H., Prak, N.L. & Van der Voordt, D.J.M, H.B.R.
Preiser, W.F.E (1969), Behavioral Design Criteria in Student Housing, In H. Sanoff and
S.Cohn (eds.), Proceedings of the First Environmental Design Research Association
Conference, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Calorina, USA.
Preiser, W. F. E., Rabinowitz, H. Z. & White, E. T (1988), Post Occupancy Evaluation, New
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Prugsiganont, S. and Waroonkul, T (2011), Post Occupancy-Evaluation for Improvement of
Cheang Doi Residential Halls to Living and Learing Center, Art and Architecture Journal
Naresuan University, 1(2), 42-53.
Student Development Division (2009), Student Development Division, The Office of Vice
Chancellor, Chiang Mai University.
Suwantada, P (1995), A Study of Housing Demand for Khonkaen University Students
Residence. A master thesis, Chulalongkorn University.
Van der Voordt, T. J. M (2004), An Integral tool for Diagnostic Evaluation of Non-territorial
offices. In: B, Martens and A.G. Keul (eds), Designing Social Innovation. Planning, Buliding,
Evaluating. Bottingen: Hogrefe &Huber Publishers, 241-250.
Visher, J (2001), Post-occupancy Evaluation: A Multifaceted Tools for Building
Improvement, learning from our buildings: a state-of-the-practice summary of post-
occupancy evaluation, Washington DC, National Academy Press.
Wener , E.R (1994), Post Occupancy Evaluation Procedure: Instruments and Instructions
for Use. Developed with assistance , The National Institute of Corrections under Grant
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10: 0060473134.
338
Facility Management in West- and Eastern Europe

Alexander Redlein
Vienna University of Technology, IFM
alexander.redlein@tuwien.ac.at
Michael Zobl
Vienna University of Technology, IFM
michael.zobl@ifm.tuwien.ac.at
ABSTRACT
Facility Management (FM) coordinates a wide range of facility services and the management
of which can contribute to the success or partial failure of an organizations business in
different countries. Since 2005 the Vienna University of Technology analyze the demand side
of FM on a yearly basis in different European countries such as Austria, Germany, Bulgaria
and Romania. The goal is to determine the value added of the use of FM respectively FM
departments and the parameters influencing the magnitude with the help of scientific models
and methods. Areas of savings and increase of productivity, and reasons for these effects are
derivate directly from a statistical sounded sample. The populations for the surveys were the
Top 500 companies in the different countries (ranking is sales driven). The research is based
on the Mixed Method Approach and the Mixed Model Research.
Keywords
Facility Management, value added, mixed method approach, statistical analysis
1 INTRODUCTION
Facility Management (FM) is a key function in managing facility services and working
environment to support the core business of the organization. A lot of companies have
recognized FM as an important management strategy capable to reduce costs of facilities
(Chotipanich, 2004). A discussion is taking place about the added value of FM as a function
within organizations and the services they provide. A clear expression of this is the large
number of FM-related studies that have been conducted focusing on different aspects of FM
and their added value for primary processes, quality, time, risk and relationship quality (Kok
et al., 2011). An article by Pathirage et al. focused on knowledge management in FM. Two
articles (Chau et al., 2003, Hui et al., 2008) are focused on value enhancements of
refurbishment and therefore on economical value. Other studies focused on the importance of
organizational issues in the value adding process. Improving productivity and decreasing
costs turned out to be the most discussed areas of adding value by corporate real estate
management. Some authors raised the issue of flexibility as a significant aspect that can add
value to corporate business (Jensen et al., 2012a). Wauters (2005) is focusing more on
benchmarking than on added value and provides examples of combining cost benchmarking
with indicators for user satisfaction, performance and service quality (Jensen et al., 2012b).
Jensen et al. developed the FM Value Map which was presented at the research symposium
during EFMC 2009. The FM Value Map is a conceptual framework to understand and
explain the different ways that FM can create value for a core business as well as the
surroundings for the benefits of multiple stakeholders: owners, staff, costumer and society.
The aim of this research was to select exemplary cases of FM adding value in the companies
and to find convincing ways to present them to make FM interesting for managers (Jensen,
2010). An article by Appel-Meulenbroek (2010) is about added value of facilities by
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knowledge sharing through co-presence in open plan office areas (Jensen et al., 2012a).
According to different publications it is possible to save between 10 and 30% of the costs of
buildings through the (efficient) use of FM. In most cases, figures about the economic
effects/benefits of FM are based on the study of a single company or the data presented is not
specified in detail. In both cases, data cannot be used for a general proof of the economic
efficiency/value added of FM (Zechel et al., 2005, Scharer, 2002). The figures are also
subject to large variations. Therefore there is a need to determine the value added of the use
of FM respectively FM departments and the parameters influencing the magnitude with the
help of scientific models and methods.
Since 2005 the Vienna University of Technology (TU Vienna) analyze the demand side of
FM on a yearly basis in different European countries such as Austria, Germany, Bulgaria,
Romania Turkey and the Netherlands (companies were selected randomly). The researches
have been based on a (standardized) questionnaire survey. One of the attempts to prove the
profitability and efficiency of FM was performed by Susanne Hauk in “Wirtschaftlichkeit
von Facility Management” (Hauk, 2007). Another research project at the TU Vienna
analyzed if there is a difference whether a separate FM department has been established or
not. The author’s also defined additional parameters that have influence on the efficiency of
FM. Examples for these parameters are: areas of cost saving and availability of cost and
building data and usage of CAFM (Computer Aided Facility Management). The study proved
that companies with an own FM department tend to achieve savings within more Facility
Services (Redlein and Sustr, 2008). This research paper shows further results of the actual
surveys. The authors used statistical models to prove if there is an (significant) correlation
between different variables/parameters.
2 METHODOLOGY AND STATISTICS

In literature, three major research paradigms to collect the required data can be found:
Quantitative Research Method, Qualitative Research Method and Mixed Research. Both,
quantitative and qualitative methods have particular lacks of strength. So the authors used the
research method “Mixed Research”. The Mixed Research is a general type of research in
which quantitative and qualitative methods, techniques, or other paradigm characteristics are
mixed in an overall study. The two major types are the Mixed Method Research/Approach
and the Mixed Model Research (Johnson and Christensen, 2007). The Mixed Method
Approach combines quantitative surveys with qualitative data collection methods e.g.
personal interviews, expert groups, focus groups with professionals and content analysis
(Jensen et al., 2012a). The researcher uses the qualitative research paradigm for one phase of
the study and the quantitative research paradigm for another phase of the study (Johnson and
Christensen, 2007). Its logic of inquiry includes the use of induction (discovery of patterns),
deduction (testing of theories and hypotheses) and abduction (uncovering and relying on the
best of a set of explanations for understanding one’s results). Taking a mixed position allows
researchers to mix and match design components that offer the best chance of answering their
specific questions (Johnson and Onwuegbuzie, 2004). Based on the Mixed Method Research,
the studies include quantitative and qualitative research phases. The qualitative studies
(literature review, brainstorming, expert interviews and group discussions) were used
primarily for the collection of the potential benefits and efficiency/value added of FM and the
parameters influencing the magnitude of the effects. Based on the quantitative studies
(facility management surveys since 2005) the results of the qualitative studies were analyzed
and validated. Each year the results of the previous studies and expert’s interviews
(qualitative step) are used to optimize the new questionnaire. Then the survey is carried out
(quantitative step). Questions are rephrased if necessary, added or deleted (Hizgilov and
340
Redlein, 2011). Also the Mixed Model Research was used. The qualitative and quantitative
approaches are mixed within a research phase. The questionnaire included summated rating
scales (quantitative data collection) and open-ended questions for qualitative data collection
(Johnson and Onwuegbuzie, 2004).
The standardized questionnaire for the survey with closed and opened questions was
subdivided into the main areas:
 the general part (which includes for example questions about the industry of the company,
number of employees, turnover, number of sites)
 the part about FM organization (questions about the availability of a FM department,
number of employees and the position in the hierarchy of the company etc.)
 value added (e.g. cost drivers and savings through the introduction of FM, increase of
productivity through the use of FM)
 the way of service provision (number of external service providers etc.)
 IT support (e.g. used IT systems for example ERP and CAFM systems, areas of IT support)
 Sustainability (e.g. what contribution can FM deliver to sustainability, CSR)
In the questionnaire/survey productivity was defined as: Increase in productivity = More

output with the same input e.g. staff; respectively increase of output per unit of input.
Depending on the answers there are up to about forty questions. The populations for the
surveys were the Top 500 companies (ranking is sales driven) in the different countries.
These companies were selected randomly in each country. Interviewees were the internal
Facility Managers or the persons responsible for all FM tasks according to the European
Norm EN 15221-1. Tools for the surveys were phone and/or E-Mail and personal face-to-face
interviews. The phone interviews with the Facility Managers respectively the persons
responsible for all FM tasks of the different companies were carried out by one researcher,
thus the manner of questioning was always the same. This was done to secure the data
quality. To ensure the plausibility and validity of the data the results of the different research
steps were compared with each other and with other studies in this research field. The data
(answers) were entered in a MS Access database and afterwards exported into statistical
programs and analyzed and evaluated. As mentioned before the questionnaire included also
questions with open answering possibilities. That means that answers need to be reviewed, if
necessary renamed and afterwards clustered to make findings comparable. The renaming and
clustering was double checked to ensure correctness. In addition, the results are validated by
questioning the outliers, retracements and changes in trends. Additional points were validated
through internet research.
SPSS is used to evaluate the data and to set up statistical models. An equivalent test was used
for comparing the average performance of two groups to verify if there is a difference
between two populations on the basis of the random sample from these populations (Dodge,
2008). The basis of statistics is parameter estimation, i.e., when an attempt is made to
estimate the parameters (mean and standard deviation) of a population from a random
sample. Most statistical techniques rely on the underlying distribution being of a particular
type, such as the normal distribution, for inferences made from the relevant statistical tests to
be valid. Where the underlying data is non-normal a different set of statistical techniques, the
nonparametric statistics, can be fruitfully applied to understand data. These techniques are
distribution-free since they make no assumptions about the underlying distribution of the data
(Boslaugh and Watters, 2008).
341
Most commonly used nonparametric procedures are the median test, the Mann-Whitney U
test, the Wilcoxon Test, the Kruskal-Wallis test and the Friedman test. Because of the non-
normal distribution of the data the authors used the Wilcoxon Test to verify if there is a
difference between two populations on the basis of the random samples from these
populations (Dodge, 2008). The Wilcoxon Test can be used as a nonparametric replacement
or substitute for the t-Test. Most nonparametric methods use statistics, such as the median,
that are resistant to outliers and skewness. If the data are measurements at the ordinal level in
the first place, as with sets of rank, or nominal data, a nonparametric test is obligatory
(Kinnear and Gray, 2008).
3 RESULTS
3.1 General Facts (Organization of FM)

Figure 1 shows the portion of companies with an own FM department in Austria, Germany,
Bulgaria and Romania. In the last years the portion of companies with an own FM
department is growing. The slight decrease of companies with an own FM department in
Austria from 2011 to 2012 can be explained by the random sample. In 2012 more small
companies participated in the Austrian survey. Statistical models support the hypothesis that
this decrease of the percentage of FM departments is due to the change of the random sample.
For example the statistical test shows that with an increasing number of office employees
there’s an increasing tendency towards an own FM department within the company.
However, the share of companies with an own FM department is on a high level. Especially
in Bulgaria there was a huge increase in the portion of companies with an own FM
department from 2007 to 2008. This trend can also be found in Romania. The importance of
FM departments is underlined by its organizational integration within the company’s
hierarchy. The bandwidth of FM departments organizational integrated as staff unit ranges
from 19% in Germany to 35% in Austria. The share of FM departments integrated as line
function ranges from 33% in Bulgaria to 67% in Romania. The increased awareness for FM
is also evident in the rise of companies having a description of tasks for the FM area. Most of
the surveyed companies (75% or more) in the different countries had a task description.
Companies having a description of tasks for the FM department frequently have assigned the
tasks to specific persons. Even FM does not equal outsourcing, outsourcing is an important
method within FM. The most outsourced facility services are cleaning, winter service, waste
management, technical maintenance and heating/ventilation/air conditioning.
Figure 1 Portion of companies with an own FM department (Austria, Germany, Bulgaria, Romania)
342
Portion of companies with an own FM department
100%
87% 90%
90% 85% 87%
79% 80%
80% 73% 75%
68% 70%
70%
60% 55%
50%
40% 35%
30%
20%
10%
0%
3.2 Value Drivers

Value as a concept has different meanings and usages (Jensen et al., 2012b). In the past added
value was seen as a combination of price and quality. Nowadays added value is considered as
a complex concept that can be studied from different perspectives (Kok et al., 2011). The
concept of value has become popular in some of the literature on management. An example is
Porter’s theory on value chains, which relates to exchange value. Another example is the
strategic thinking by Teece about non-tradable assets like knowledge, brands and service
concepts, which relate to use value (Jensen et al., 2012b). There appears to be broad
consensus about added value being the ratio between benefits and sacrifices for the costumer.
Risk is also mentioned as a separate aspect. The assessment of and decision about added
value involves a trade-off and a choice between different criteria – benefits, costs and risks –
which in themselves are difficult to compare (Kok et al., 2011). Whereas some years ago the
main purpose of FM was cost savings, nowadays purposes and demands of FM have
changed. Aspects like the improvement of the market position became more and more
important. Moreover, qualitative aspects like higher satisfaction of the employees which
result in higher motivation and productivity are also consequences of the introduction of FM.
It is still not possible to quantify all benefit effects. While the cost savings and the
productivity improvement can be calculated, the strategic competitive advantage is only
decidable (Hauk, 2007). In our studies value added of FM includes cost savings and increase
in productivity on the one side and on the other side cost drivers (Mierl, 2012). Cost drivers
require differentiated cost planning and cost control. They are measures of cost causation and
resource use and output (Leidig, 2004).
The biggest cost drivers of the surveyed countries (number of mentions) include areas such as
energy, maintenance/repair, safety, cleaning and launching new software. The most relevant
areas of cost savings (number of mentions) were areas such as energy, cleaning,
maintenance/repair and personnel. Savings were mainly possibly through new type of
contract, rates, technical upgrade, reorganization and utilization of synergies. The most
named areas in which an increase in productivity could be observed (number of answers) are:
administration, personnel, safety, maintenance/repair and data. Reasons for an increase in
343
productivity are: process optimization, work utilization, utilization of synergies and

personnel/employee workload optimization.
Based on the data several hypotheses concerning savings through the use of FM could be
validated. One hypothesis is that companies with an own FM department tend to have a
higher number of facility services with savings (areas of cost savings) than companies
without an own FM department. An own FM department allows better management of
facility services (e.g. cleaning, maintenance/repair) and guarantees the best realization of an
optimal real estate management. As a result, economic optimizations in different facility
services can be performed (Hauk, 2007).
The number of facility services with savings (areas of cost savings) was analyzed in detail.
As a hypothesis it was stated that the existence of a FM department (yes/no) has an influence
on the number of facility services with savings. In detail, the Wilcoxon Test was used for
comparing the average performance of two groups to verify if there is a difference between
two populations on the basis of the random samples from these populations (Dodge, 2008).
The data for Romania 2013 and Austria 2012 will be considered. The null hypothesis (H0)
states that, in the population, the two medians are equal, which means that there is “no
effect”. The alternative hypothesis (H1) states that there is a difference between the two
medians, which means that there is an “effect”. The Wilcoxon Test is said to show
significance if the p-value is less than the significance level (p < 0.05). Then the null
hypothesis (H0) is rejected and the alternative hypothesis (H1) is supported (Kinnear and
Gray, 2008).
The null hypothesis is:

H0 = Companies with an own FM department tend to the same number of facility services
with savings than those without an own FM department.
The alternative hypothesis is:
H1 = Companies with an own FM department tend to have a higher number of facility
services with savings than those without an own FM department.
Tested Variable(s):
Number of facility services with savings (number of nominations, e.g. energy, cleaning,
maintenance/repair) for Austria 2012 and Romania 2013
Variable of Grouping:
FM department (yes/no) for Austria 2012 and Romania 2013
Table 1 Number of Facility Services with Savings – FM department
Number of facility services with savings ‐ FM
department
Austria 2012 Romania 2013
FM Without FM FM Without FM
department department department department
N 63 8 10 1
Mean* 1.86 .88 1.70 1.00
Median* 2.00 1.00 2.00 1.00
Std.
Deviation* .998 .641 .674 ‐
→ validated with 0.000000025466 →
p ‐ value H1 → validated with 0.011412 → H1
* FM services with savings (number of mentions)
344
The significant results (p < 0.05) of the test show that there is a difference between the two
medians, which means that there is an effect (H1). Companies with an own FM department
tend to have more areas of cost saving than companies without an own FM department. An
own FM department manages the different facility services better. In addition, through the
central management of facility services synergies between the different services can be used.
This model proves that an own FM department allows better management of facility services
and therefore economic optimization and cost savings in different facility services such as
cleaning or maintenance/repair can be performed.
Another hypothesis is that companies with an own FM department tend to have higher annual
savings than companies without an own FM department.
The null hypothesis is:

H0 = Companies with an own FM department tend to have the same annual savings than
those without an own FM department.
The alternative hypothesis is:
H1 = Companies with an own FM department tend to have higher annual savings than
companies without an own FM department.
Tested Variable(s):
Annual Savings (%) for Austria 2012 and Romania 2013
Variable of Grouping:
FM department (yes/no) for Austria 2012 and Romania 2013
Table 2 Annual Savings – FM department

Annual Savings (%) ‐ FM department
Austria 2012 Romania 2013
FM Without FM FM Without FM
department department department department
N 43 3 7 1
Mean* 12.26 .67 16.00 15.00
Median* 10.00 .00 15.00 15.00
Minimum* .00 .00 5.00 15.00
Maximum* 30.00 2.00 30.00 15.00
Std.
Deviation* 8.098 1.155 8.485 ‐
→ validated with 0.000000028316 →
p ‐ value H1 → validated with 0.011513 → H1
* Annual Savings through FM (%)
The significant results show that there is an effect (H1). Companies with an own FM
department tend to have higher annual savings than companies without an own FM
department. An own FM department guarantees the best realization of an optimal real estate
management. The expert knowledge of an optimal management makes it possible to achieve
savings through the use of FM. For example, clearly arranged real estate documents,
contracts and floor plans at one central place help to identify cost saving potentials (Redlein
et al., 2007).
345
4 CONCLUSION AND NEXT STEPS

The share of companies with an own FM department is on a high level all over Europe. FM is
a very important tool to achieve an increase in (annual) savings and productivity. According
to the statistical analysis based on the data of the studies an own FM department had positive
effects on annual savings, such as energy and cleaning. FM also leads to an increase in
productivity. Most named areas were administration, personnel and maintenance/repair. The
study proved that companies in Austria and Romania with an own FM department tend to
achieve savings within more facility services in contrast to companies without an own FM
department. An own FM department also leads to higher annual savings. In both cases the
Wilcoxon Test shows a significant result. That means that there is a (statistical) significant
difference between the two groups (FM department yes/no) and the tested variables (annual
savings, facility services with savings). Further studies can include an investigation of “soft
factors” and more detailed analyses of different industries and/or countries are possible to
gather more information and an expansion of the data. In addition, a comparison of this study
with similar ones from other countries would help to gather more information about this
research field.
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Chau, K. W., Wong, S. K., Leung, A. Y., Yiu, C. Y. (2003): Estimating the value
enhancement effects of refurbishment. In: Facilities, Vol. 21, No. 1/2, pp. 13-19.
Chotipanich, S. (2004): Positioning facility management. In: Facilities, Vol. 22, No. 13/14,
pp. 364-372.
Dodge, Y. (2008): The Concise Encyclopedia of Statistics. Springer Verlag: Berlin,
Heidelberg.
Hauk, S. (2007): Wirtschaftlichkeit von Facility Management. Dissertation, TU Wien.
Hizgilov, T., Redlein, A. (2011): Einsparungspotenziale, Produktivitätssteigerungen und
Kostentreiber im Facility Management. In: Journal für Facility Management, Vol. 3, pp. 18-
25.
Hui, E. C. M., Wong, J. T. Y., Wan, J. K. M. (2008): The evidence of value enhancement
resulting from rehabilitation. In: Facilities, Vol. 26, No. 1/2, pp. 16-32.
Jensen, P. A. (2010): The Facilities Management Value Map: a conceptual framework. In:
Facilities, Vol. 28, No. 3/4, pp. 175-188.
Jensen, P. A., van der Voordt, T., Coenen, C., von Felten, D., Lindholm, A.-L., Nielsen, S.
B., Riratanaphong, C., Pfenninger, M. (2012a): In search for the added value of FM: What we
know and what we need to learn. In: Facilities, Vol. 30, No. 5, pp. 199-217.
Jensen, P. A., van der Voordt, T., Coenen, C. (2012b): The added value of Facilities
Management: Concepts, Findings and Perspectives. Polyteknisk Forlag, Lyngby.
Johnson, B., Christensen, L. (2007): Educational Research: Quantitative, Qualitative and
Mixed Approaches. SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, 3th edition.
Johnson, R. B., Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004): Mixed Method Research: A research paradigm
whose time has come: In: Educational Researcher, Vol. 33, No. 7, pp. 14-26.
Kinnear, P., Gray C. (2008): SPSS 15 made simple. Psychology Press, New York.
Kok, H. B., Mobach, M. P., Omta, O. S. W. F. (2011): The added value of facility
management in the educational environment. In: Journal of Facilities Management, Vol. 9,
Issue 4, pp. 249-265.
Leidig, G. (2004): Prozesskosten-Management. Arbeitskreis Klein- und Mittelbetriebe
(AKM) Eschborn. http://www.rkw-
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kompetenzzentrum.de/fileadmin/media/Dokumente/Publikationen/2004_FB_Prozesskosten-
Management.pdf (accessed on 07.01.2014)
Mierl, M. (2012): Trends und Status Quo 2011 im Facility Management im Vergleich mit
2010. Master Thesis, TU Wien.
Redlein, A., Schauerhuber, M., Hauk, S. (2007): Parameters for an economic efficient
implementation of FM. In: 6th EuroFM Research Symposium, Zurich, Switzerland, 26 and
27 June 2007, Conference Papers, pp. 109-116.
Redlein, A., Sustr, F. (2008): Economic Effective Implementation of FM. Research Paper,
TU Wien.
Scharer, M. (2002): Wirtschaftlichkeitsanalyse von CAFM Systemen. Diplomarbeit, WU
Wien.
Zechel, P., Bächle, A., Balck, H., Felix, P., Flecker, G., Friedrichs, K., Geertsma, C.,
Henzelmann, T., Hovestadt, L., Hovestadt, V., Janecek, M., Mende, W. and Neumann, G.
(2000): Facility Management in der Praxis: Herausforderung in Gegenwart und Zukunft.
Expert Verlag: Renningen.
347
SECTION ELEVEN:
RESEARCH IN PROGRESS
Introduction
Research in Progress
Keith Alexander
Papers
Safety and Security matters in FM
Daniel Haas and Stefan Jäschke.
Facilities Management Approach For Achieving Sustainability in Commercial

Buildings in Nigeria.
Olayinka Olaniyi, Andrew Smith, Champika Liyanage and Akintola Akintoye.
Facilities Planning Promoting Efficient Space Use at Hospital Buildings

Emma Zijlstra, Mark P. Mobach, Cees P. van der Schans and Mariët Hagedoorn.
348
Introduction
Research in Progress
Keith Alexander
This section includes papers that describe research in progress and provides the opportunity
to discuss research at an exploratory stage. The authors are researchers at an early stage of
their career and inclusion of these papers provides the opportunity for discussion of their
ideas and interests. We hope that they will benefit from the advice and support offered.
EuroFM wishes to encourage their future involvement in the research network, which offers
the promise of their commitment to continue to contribute as the next generation of FM
researchers.
Research by Haas explores ways in which FM can contribute to an organization’s

effectiveness in dealing with safety and security issues. The paper proposes the use of risk
management techniques to manage these issues in the context of organisations. Early
conclusions suggest that FMers should act as moderators to encourage better understanding
amongst different stakeholders.
Oliniyi sets out to determine the extent of sustainable facilities management practice in the
management of commercial buildings in Nigeria. He seeks to identify barriers to it, in order
to develop a solution model that will identify ways of overcoming these barriers. Ultimately
this will suggest sustainable methods by which facility managers in Nigeria can effectively
manage commercial properties. Early findings have identified the commitment of senior
managers as a major driver in achieving of sustainable FM.
Zijlstra explores if facilities planning can improve the level of space utilization and the speed
of care delivery at a diagnostic outpatient clinic. By comparing planned and actual space use.
End user characteristics.
349
Safety and Security in FM: achieving effectiveness
Daniel Haas
haaa@zhaw.ch
+41 58 934 54 97
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Stefan Jäschke

jaes@zhaw.ch
ABSTRACT
Safety & Security (S&S) issues are increasingly part of the Facilities Management (FM)
business. Rightfully as they are part of the scope of FM according to EN 15221-1:2006.
However, there seems to be lack of scientific research addressing S&S in the FM community.
Today, the S&S field has no clear agreement on their strategy and structure, whereby the
conventional collaboration with the different stakeholders appears to be uncoordinated and
complicated. Besides FM these stakeholders are: clients, different service providers, public
authorities and insurance companies with their own perspectives and understanding of S&S
requirements. This leads to the research question: “How could FM contribute to an
organization’s effectiveness dealing with Safety & Security matters?”
To identify and explore the tapped potential of involving FM regarding a company’s demand
for S&S a total of 4 expert interviews, 9 problem centred interviews, as well as 3 group
discussions with different stakeholders in German speaking countries were conducted.
Interpretation and thematic coding have been used to analyse the interviews afterwards. The
main finding is that FM should, especially when dealing with S&S matters, retain a generalist
role and function and act as a moderator to compensate the identified principal lack of
understanding between the different stakeholders. Thereby an integration of the topic to
holistic Risk Management is important. Though FM’s position in companies is favourably to
create and maintain awareness for S&S matters which are essential for the effectiveness of all
measures.
Keywords
Facilities Management, Safety, Security, Risk Management, Awareness
350
1 INTRODUCTION
The day to day business of Facility Management (FM) is made up of a wide range of services
and responsibilities. A definition of the scope of services which could belong to the FM
service portfolio is made by the CEN European Committee for Standardization (2006) in the
standard EN 15221-1. Safety and security (S&S) services, as typical support services are
thereby allocated to the scope of FM, as it has become a more and more important issue for
organisations (Erben & Romeike, 2006). The scope in terms of “health, safety and security”
thereby comprises, that the “client demand for a safe environment (health, safety and
security) is satisfied by services that protect from external dangers or internal risks as well as
the health and well-being of the people” (CEN European Committee for Standardization,
2006, p. 14).
The business serves different understandings of the terms safety and security, depending on
business field and country. However, in regard to the German speaking countries, safety
comprises all hazards and threats to personnel and assets, which occur undeliberate. Security
addresses all hazards and threats to personnel and assets, which are occurring deliberately.
The field of S&S therefore covers lots of hazards, e.g. intrusion and burglary, fire safety,
fraud, and many more.
Nevertheless, the role and responsibility of FM, dealing with these matters is not yet defined.
As S&S itself is a wide field, it requires specialized subject matter expertise knowledge. But
S&S matters influence and affect all services and processes in an organisation and therefore
needs to be effectively integrated in to the whole environment. This leads to an enterprise risk
management (ERM) system. Implementing an ERM to a company’s organization is a
complex task in which FM plays a major role.
So far FM departments and FM service provider are covering S&S tasks. Unfortunately the
necessary skills and expertise to perform these tasks are depending on the company’s core
business. Types of services and their extent can differ. Standardisation for S&S tasks
regarding FM cannot be made unlike in other subjects of FM. However, a general
understanding of S&S is necessary for FM to effectively manage services. An adequate
common understanding would also help educational institutions to offer a suitable
educational program which covers the issue of S&S.
The awareness of individuals in a company is a crucial part of creating and ensuring a safe
and secure environment (Loos, 2010). Technical and constructional measures are well
developed and are designed to be flexible. Organisational measures, especially the awareness
in contrast are hard to plan and assess. “Awareness requires effort, whereby the return on
security invest regarding Awareness hardly provable, because of undetermined
measurability” (Helisch & Pokoyski, 2009, p. 12, translated by the author).
However, if S&S measures are not accepted and their significance is not understood, the
measures will not have the required effectiveness (Sack, 2010). Generating and maintaining
awareness for S&S can capture a wide scope of tasks as shown by Talaei-Khoei, Ray,
Parameshwara, & Lewis, (2012). How FM can cover these tasks is not clear and need to be
investigated. This paper therefore analyses the current situation and presents a broad insight
to the current state of the art. By outlining the value FM can contribute, the future role of FM
in the field of S&S can be defined.
351
2 MANAGING RISK, SAFETY AND SECURITY IN THEORY

To put the right S&S measures in place, companies more and more have to assess the
complex environment they are acting in. Combined with limited resources and saving targets
this is becoming an increasingly complex task, especially for the Security Manager. Global
factors, economic and strategic targets combined with local laws and regulations need to be
considered when assessing the different hazards of terrorism, war, political riots, as well as
natural catastrophes, robberies, property damage, work safety, fire and so forth. (Ohder, et al.,
1999).
Terminology and understanding differs in every field of business. As there can be many
varied and different hazards a company has to deal with and it is often not possible to
measure how secure or safe a situation is, it is recommended to consolidate all the topics
within a risk management system. There are several frameworks showing how to create and
implement a risk management system. The Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the
Treadway Commission (2012) called COSO describes the model of an Enterprise Risk
Management (ERM). Nevertheless, implementation of risks arising from S&S matters are
frequently not treated as often than other risks – in theory and business. To establish a basis
for a better integration of these matters the terminology will be summarised in the following
section, as there are often many different terminologies used in business.
Risk management and its understanding
Bernstein (1996) describes risk management as a matter of every individual and the whole
society. Wealth and well-being are important factors as well as public safety and any kind of
decision making. Risk management thereby is about defining “…what may happen in the
future and to choose among alternatives…” (1996, p. 2). Assessing risk has a long tradition
but has been transformed over hundreds of years. Bernstein (1996) describes the beginnings
of assessing risk in gambling. It thereby always was primarily about fates and odds. “The
most addictive forms of gambling seem to be the pure games of chance played at the
casinos…” where the focus is always on winning and the opportunities the risk provides.
(1996, p. 13).
But “risk and time are opposite sides of the same coin” whilst “…time transforms risk, and
the nature of risk is shaped by the time horizon…” (1996, p. 15). That counts for the assessed
risk itself and for the way of assessing risks. The risk may change over a period of time
caused by a changing environment and incidents and over the time the way of understanding
risks may also change.
Depending on the field of business the understanding of risk and the way of assessing the risk
differs in many ways. However, “risk management has become a main part of the
organization’s activities and its main aim is to help all other management activities to reach
the organization’s aims directly and efficiently.” (Tchankova, 2002, S. 290). Dictionaries and
Guidelines often define risk as an effect of uncertainty14, which might be positive or negative.
Risk assessment in today’s perception is therefore rather focussing on the negative effect than
on the opportunity and chance of risk taking.15
Anyways, “managing risk is at the core of managing any financial organization; it is too
important a responsibility for a firm’s managers to delegate” (Coleman, 2011, p. 1). To assess
risks, different tools and methods are available. Depending on the company and their risks,
appropriate tools can be chosen. To assess risks of financial activities statistic assessment
tools and calculations are used, as also shown by the Basel II standard16. Value of confidence
levels, based on a broad and extensive data base are helping to assess the risk.
14
Compare: ISO copyright office (2009), Borghesi & Gaudenzi (2013), Bibliographisches Institut GmbH (2013)
and others
15
Compare: Bibliographisches Institut GmbH (2013)
16
Source: (Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, 2013)
352
osium EFM
MC 2014
Risks reegarding S& &S cannot be assessedd based on a broad annd extensivee data base. Causal
g too many scenarios. Therefore, to assess rissks regardin
chains oof incidentss are serving ng S&S,
177
the riskk impact/proobability chaart is used :
Figure 1: The risk impact/probab

bility chart, acccording to Mind Tools Ltd ((2013)
Howeveer, the risk impact/pro obability chhart is just one tool foor assessingg risk. As Coleman
C
(2011) describes, “managing g risk is abbout making g the tacticcal and straategic decisions to
control those riskss that shoulld be controolled and to o exploit th
hose opporttunities thatt can be
exploiteed” (2001, p.p 1), which h is also acccording to Bernstein
B (1996), whoo connected the risk
to fatess and oddss. To justiffy decisionns on S&S matters, this t tool iss not sufficcient. A
compreehensive inteegration to a company’’s organisattion is required.
Integraated safety and security
Caused by a ratherr subjective risk assessm ment, using mpact/probabbility chart creating
g the risk im
acceptaance for deccisions and d S&S meaasures is a further cru ucial issue. Sack (2010) Loos
(2010), Ohder, et al.
a (1999), Cisco
C System
ms Inc., (20007) and othhers describbe the imporrtance of
understanding for the whole environmennt. Dependiing on the company, ttheir core business, b
businesss locations,, and so fortth, every coompany is acting in a different envvironment and faces
differennt threats. The
T individ dual assessm ment of alll hazards can thereforre turn out to be a
complexx and time consuming process.
Colemaan (2011) comprises
c the
t contentss of risk management
m t in “Manaage People““(p. 57),
“Managge Process” and “M Manage Tecchnology, Infrastructu
I ure, and D Data” (p. 61)6 and
“Understand the Business”
B (p
p. 62). Sennnwald (2011 1) mentions similar skiills and con ntents on
being a Security Director. Furthermor
F re, it is noot only abo out the rissk managerr or the
departmment where comprehen nsive knowleedge and un nderstandinng is requireed. Cisco sttates “…
it’s eveery employeee’s responssibility, from m the executive suite to the manu nufacturing floor, to
a keep it top of minnd.” (Cisco Systems In
put secuurity first and nc., 2007, SS. 1). Everry single
person needs to understand
u and
a accept the necessiity and the properties of the meaasures –
technicaally, construuctional andd organizatiional. If peoople do not understandd the necesssity for a
measuree they will not accept it. (Sack, 22010). To make m peoplle understannd seems to o be the
most chhallenging taask of today y’s risk mannagement when
w dealingg with S&SS matters.
Undersstanding, aw wareness and
a acceptaance
Chen & Medlin (20008) are describing thee human facctor as the weakest
w linkk when dealing with
informaation securrity matterss, which iss causing many secu urity threatts (2008, p. p 362).
Motivatting the difffferent stakeeholders inteernally andd externally of an organnization is the
t most
17
Similarr to threat asseessment of Cotts, Roper, & Payant (2010, p. 260)
353
unexplored area in the field of S&S and risk management. However, in the field of safety lots
of rules and regulations are used to control a certain work safety for any kind of activities.
Still work safety accidents in Switzerland are costing insurance companies and organisations
over four billion CHF each year18. Awareness programs and tools are therefore getting more
and more important as the lack of understanding and acceptance seems to provide great
potential for improvement.
Awareness research reveals plenty of standardized tools. Talaei-Khoei, Ray, Parameshwara,
& Lewis (2012) provide a deeper insight about a framework for awareness maintenance and
presenting the categories “... awareness obtainment, context representation, context analysis,
and awareness utilization.” (Talaei-Khoei, Ray, Parameshwara, & Lewis, 2012, S. 202).
However this framework cannot be understood as standardization, it is a guideline what can
be used for all sorts of awareness programs. Thereby especially to obtain or teach awareness
is a challenging issue. For that purpose Chen & Medlin (2008) describe “... the differing
effects of cultural dimensions into the learning process.” (2008, p. 360). Cultural dimensions
can be another important matter for awareness programs.
However, to create a successful and appropriate awareness program, first the decisions need
to be reasonable. Courtney, Lovallo, & Clarke (2013) are therefore presenting a chart to
diagnose a decision. According to this diagnosis the Delphi Method, as well as the similarity-
based forecasting are appropriate to decide on S&S matters (2013, p. 67). Similarity-based
forecasting is based in an extensive dataset, which cannot be expected to be available for
every scenario. The Delphi Method in contrast is appropriate to also include the risk
impact/probability chart. However, the method goes far beyond the chart and involves lots of
stakeholders and expertise.
Looking at all the different stakeholders involved in a company’s activities, Cisco’s (2007)
statement needs to be extended to a broader sense of a relationship network. In the sense of
FM, S&S matters do not only comprise employees as internal stakeholders, but also about
externals. FM is dealing with different service providers, contractors and within several
hierarchical levels in an organization. Johnston, Clark, & Shulver (2012) are describing “a
customer, whether a business, a consumer or a user of public services, will not simply be
involved in a single supply network but several; ...” (2012, S. 134). Therefore it is not
sufficient for the use in FM to implement awareness in every employees mind; it must be
implemented in every involved stakeholder’s mind. However, standardization is thereby not a
promising approach as Helisch & Pokoyski (2009) are describing. Generating and
maintaining awareness for safety and security is defined by its individuality which is needed
for an effective development. Appropriate tools and methods for the field of S&S are not yet
known.
3 METHODOLOGY
The qualitative study follows a comparative research design with a flexible strategy. To
achieve the objectives and answer the research question, as described below, it was necessary
to compare perspectives, opinions, mind-sets but also experiences of different involved
stakeholders. In order to meet these requirements it was necessary to collect the data on a
qualitative basis and use a comparative analysis afterwards. To gather all the data the design
includes multiple qualitative data collection techniques. The chosen methods and tools were
enabling the researcher to adapt appropriately to participants’ mind-sets and understandings
and to grasp the field of risk management and S&S out of different perspectives.
Research questions
To enter the business of S&S from a FM perspective, different questions could be raised.
However, for a first step it was seen as important to investigate what untapped potential the
18
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354
FM serves. As mentioned above, FM is already covering different S&S tasks and services.
However, it is not known, how the FM should be involved to a company’s organisation, when
dealing with S&S matters. This leads to the research question:
“How could FM contribute to an organization’s effectiveness dealing with Safety & Security
matters?”
Sampling
As Wilson (2010) states, “One of the potential problems with a comparative design is
ensuring that the variable in your study is interpreted the same way by your chosen groups.
This can be particularly problematic when comparing groups across distinctly different
cultures.” (2010, p. 113). This problem was seen serious for this study, especially as it was
intended to involve as much perspectives and business backgrounds as possible. To
counteract this uncertainty, it was essential that all participants have a certain level of
expertise and experiences to be able to be part of the interviews and discussions.
Expert interviews
The expert interviews were conducted to get a better understanding of the field of business,
the different perspectives and the needs of the different stakeholders. To be selected as an
expert in the field a practical experience over several years in the particular field of business
was required. Relevant business fields were defined as:
• FM in an organisation with a great demand for S&S,
• S&S consultant with a strong connection to the field of FM based in experiences,
• S&S consultant in the private business with a holistic overview
• S&S consultant in the role of a public authority with a holistic overview
By involving private business and public authorities, as well as exploring the perspectives of
service providers and consultants, the whole field of S&S could be comprised.
In-depth interviews
For the main interviews the participants were selected purposively as well. The sample
population had to comprise the broad field of the determined groups of actors of service
providers, consultants and users. For the sample the groups where defined as follows:
Service providers are the group offering concrete S&S services scoping a certain period of
time. The services can comprise personnel services but also technical, constructional and
conceptual design.
Consultants offer their services in a broader context and are needed to a certain point in time.
The consultative service comprises as well conceptual advice, but also auditing, QM, and so
forth. Thereby also fraud, spying and investigative topics are covered.
Users are company internal personnel dealing with S&S matters and their effectives in the
company’s organization and environment. Users in that context are not part of the company’s
core business.
In each group three participants with a consolidated knowledge in their particular field of
business and relating the group specific S&S matters were interviewed. To ensure
applicability to FM in generally the participants were chosen from a wide range of businesses
based in Switzerland and Germany. Thereby organizations in a national and global context
were considered.
Group discussions
As the last part of data collection three group discussions with operational personnel of
companies’ core business (end-users) were conducted. Therefore three groups of interest
were defined:
 Companies which are highly S&S oriented and now public accessibility
 Companies with a high S&S orientation and public accessibility
 Companies with an average need for S&S measures
355
To ensure applicability the group discussions were conducted in Switzerland and Germany
with three to five employees, acting in the company’s core business with a consolidated
knowledge about the company’s activities and their field of business. Participants in a group
were thereby out of the same or a similar business area, with comparable practical
experiences and responsibilities.
Data collection
All interviews were semi-structured according to Robson (2011). To further adapt to the
interviewee’s field of business, open-ended but straight forward questions were used. All
interviews were seen as “extensions of ordinary conversations” (Rubin & Rubin, 2012, p. 12)
and the capability to adapt to changing realities was a major requirement for the interviewer
and all participants.
Questions contained in the interview guide were validated by experts of the authors’
organization. For all interviews the same interview guideline was used. The questions for the
group discussion were as well the same for all of the three.
All interviews and group discussions were conducted face-to-face. Therefore also not-spoken
answers and the atmosphere were included to the whole study. For interviewing and
discussions participants were met at different places, their offices, and the author’s office or
at a neutral place.
Data analysis
The data analysis is following an inductive approach. Concrete decision on how to analyse
the data was made during data collection and follows the guidance of Saunders, Lewis, &
Thornhill (2009). To divide the data into categories for thematic coding the process of
Robson (2011) was used.
To analyse the interviews and group discussions the first expert interview was transcribed
completely. According to Robson (2011), the interviewee’s logic and the literature a matrix
was created and completed with the residual interviews. For the main interview series further
key aspects were added and the interviews were partially transcribed. For categorising the
data the matrices were grouped to codes and themes according to Robson (2011). The
statements, experiences and perspectives were directly or paraphrased included to the matrix.
The completed matrix was generalized afterwards to ensure confidentiality.
The final step of comparing insights and opinions the transformed data of the matrices were
used and analysed to the results, described in the following chapter.
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
To answer the research question the insights of both interview series and the group
discussions need to be compared and discussed. Analysing the interview data was
challenging in the sense that the estimation of S&S matters and their importance was
particularly completely different. Discussing these results depends on perspectives,
knowledge and experiences. When dealing with S&S matters it is also discussing about being
safe. Emotional factors based on certain experiences can influence the perspective of
necessity and effectiveness of measures. However, FM need to create an environment that
makes employees, customers and the public feels well and safe according to EN 15221-1
(CEN European Committee for Standardization, 2006).
FM is not that much known in the field of S&S and is still seen as a house keeper or building
cleaner. During the discussions S&S matters were always located in the scope of FM. This
insight leads to the main result of this study:
FM has a central responsibility when dealing with S&S matters. In order to create an
environment which supports the company’s core business in the best way FM has to meet
several requirements. Factual roles of FM differ again strongly in every interview and
discussion. Currently FM is taking over different roles and responsibilities, depending on the
company’s strategy. But according to corporate and social responsibility in a company, FM
356
was always seen in a generalist function with a comprehensive knowledge qualified to

function as a moderator, coordinator and interpreter between all involved stakeholders.
Positioned in that functions FM obviously has great potential to improve the overall service
quality in S&S. In single examples FM had a much greater responsibility and was carrying
out lots of services. However, functioning as an S&S service provider wasn’t seen as a
competence of FM in general, even as FM service provider often are offering S&S services.
This result also reflects the contents of risk management according to Coleman (2011) and
Sennwald (2011).
However, as FM interfaces with almost all people, departments and processes, the greatest
potential of improving service quality is in using FM’s comprehensive knowledge and scope.
Positioned as a moderator, coordinator and interpreter and functioning as a bridge for the
different stakeholders, as seen in Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.,
FM can directly influence the effectiveness. By mediating communication and all
expectations the whole process of conceptualising and implementing S&S measures can be
optimized. Especially on the level of organizational measures FM is in a great position to
create and maintain awareness and acceptance for the overall situation and all measures,
which is mandatory to keep up functionality of all measures. Adapting, organising and
conducting the awareness program according to Loos (2010) and Talaei-Khoei, Ray,
Parameshwara, & Lewis (2012), the FM serves great untapped potential.
Therefore the core value FM has in S&S is the extensive knowledge about the company
itself, the setting, all needs and wants, as well as all interdependencies. Using this background
FM is able to reduce the overall effort by moderating perspectives and coordinating
stakeholders. Technical and constructional measures are available for any situation, the
greatest potential for improvement lies in organizational measures as people will not accept
measures unless they understand the value of the measure (Sack, 2010).
Also knowledge and expertise were mentioned as an important factor for effectiveness when
dealing with S&S matters. Particularly S&S service providers, designers, but also consultants
set a certain level of knowledge and expertise as a mandatory factor for effective
collaboration. Coherences of all different processes and S&S matters can get vast complex, as
it is also described by Ohder, et al. (1999). Comprehensive knowledge about the company,
their processes and organization, as well as about S&S measures and tools are simplifying the
whole venture measurably in cost, time and effort. If the knowledge and expertise is not
there, conceptualization and implementation is getting complicated. Furthermore, a lack of
knowledge and expertise also hinders the maintenance of the implemented measures. Thus
ensuring a certain level of service quality becomes difficult.
The matter of outsourcing S&S services and FM was another important factor mentioned in
all interviews. Individual beliefs were again different what follows economic as well as
subjective reasoning. Service providers are rather focusing on outsourcing and enquire
experts, whereby consultants and customers are more split. Personal experiences and quality
expectations lead to different statements. But there seems to be an agreement on a certain
saving potential, outsourcing might have. Measures have to be economically efficient but
inappropriate savings can have serious consequences. Over all, the focus needs to be on
achieving the best solution for a company’s matters, which reflects the overall FM objective
according to EN 15221-1 (CEN European Committee for Standardization, 2006).
5 CONCLUSION
S&S matters are a serious topic of today’s FM, as it has become for every organisation.
Pursuing FM’s objectives is increasingly influenced by these matters – also in Switzerland.
Nevertheless, in practice the understanding of FM’s role and responsibility in that sense
357
differs. There is no distinct agreement in the field of FM companies, educational institutions,

and S&S business or on the customer side.
However, due to the potential high complexity of S&S matters, the core value FM can deliver
in terms of these matters is the management. Single services may be allocated,
conceptualized and controlled by the FM on a service level but there is no one-fits-all
solution. Certain services and tasks can be easily carried out by the FM in the one company
setting, but maybe not in another. It is mandatory to assess every situation individually and
decide what needs to be done in each case. Therefore a rather general and broad field of
knowledge is required to adapt to the particular situation appropriately.
The part of managing is already a serious task. In terms of a risk management or S&S
management companies are already managing all risks, hazards and measures. In doing so
S&S matters are mostly handled separately and are not integrated to a company’s
organization and culture. However, to achieve a safe and secure environment every single
person has to support the all measures. It is therefore also important to involve everybody
when conceptualizing any kind of measures, as measures can influence processes, habits and
well-being which are directly linked to performance.
Getting everybody involved sounds complex and costly. And indeed the initial effort is
assessed as extensive. Nevertheless, involving people right from the beginning is the first step
of creating awareness. It is also not necessary to involve everybody directly with the process
of conceptualizing the measures. But asking different departments for their opinion and
suggestions, at least the ones which are affected, will help to avoid unexpected
interdependencies, improve the direct effectiveness, raise awareness and creates acceptance.
Getting all the individual stakeholders together, internally and externally, is a fundamental
task of FM.
Stakeholders can be as different as different locations and their environment. However, those
stakeholders might be necessary for the company’s core business and all processes to
function as an economical enterprise. Therefore coordination between the different
stakeholders in that network of relationships is mandatory to raise the understanding for
objectives, strategies and values. Also S&S terminology or technical terms of other
businesses can cause misunderstandings. Communication with the stakeholders should be
coordinated and the different perspectives moderated so that the whole process of achieving
S&S can be optimized in cost and effectiveness by FM. The added value of FM can therefore
be summarized as
 Improve effectiveness of S&S measures
 Improve effectiveness of communication and collaboration
 Decrease cost
 Create and maintain awareness
 Align the corporate culture to the strategic objectives and all physical and regulatory factors
Finally, S&S matters are important for FM. Depending on the individual situation different
measures are required, which may not be easy to assess. But a proper review of all S&S
measures is important for efficiency and effectiveness as well as the acceptance by all the
people influenced and affected by these measures. In this network of relationships FM has the
responsibility to moderate and coordinate in order to achieve the company’s objectives and
support the company’s core business in the best way. However, depending on the knowledge
and individuals expertise FM can also carry out different services in the field of S&S, but a
general statement about the required background and expertise is not possible cause of the
variety of situations. The focus has to be on integrating S&S to a company’s effective and
comprehensive risk management.
358
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Author wants to thank all participants of interviews and group discussions as well as all
companies for sharing information, knowledge and expertise. Very special thanks go to the
Institute for Facility Management and the Zurich University of Applied Sciences for
supporting the idea behind that research.
FIGURES
Figure 1: The risk impact/probability chart, according to Mind Tools Ltd (2013)
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360
Facilities Management Approach For Achieving Sustainability in

Commercial Buildings in Nigeria.
Olayinka Oluseyi Olaniyi
University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK
yinka2k1@yahoo.com
+2347031180425
Andrew Smith
AJSmith3@uclan.ac.uk
Champika Liyanage
clliyanage@uclan.ac.uk
Akintola Akintoye
aakintoye@uclan.ac.uk
Abstract
The purpose of this research is to determine the extent of sustainable facilities management
(FM) practice in the management of commercial buildings in Nigeria and identify barriers to
it, in order to develop a solution model that will proffer ways of overcoming these barriers
and ultimately determine sustainable methods by which facility managers in Nigeria can
effectively manage commercial properties. This study is a work in progress and it presents a
theoretical review on the extent of sustainable FM in developed countries, especially the
United Kingdom (UK), and comparing it with the development of sustainable FM in
developing countries and Nigeria in particular. Nigeria has a history of unsustainable building
practices, mismanagement of buildings and poor maintenance culture with no consideration
for its impact on the environment. Findings reveal the three main barriers to sustainable FM
practice in corporate organisations in Nigeria, as lack of training and tools, lack of relevant
laws and regulation, and lack of knowledge and awareness. Nevertheless, there remains the
urgent need to investigate barriers of sustainable FM practice in the management of
commercial buildings in Nigeria.
Keywords:
Sustainability, Sustainable facilities management, Nigeria.
1. Introduction
Sustainable development has been defined as “development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”
(WCED 1987). According to Brandon and Lombardi, (2005) sustainability is about leaving
the environment in at least the same state by a generation and leaving it in a better state for
newer generations to come.
361
The race towards sustainability has shown the role of buildings as an agent of decay on the
natural environment, bringing fresh challenges for building engineers to devise new ways of
reducing the use of natural resources, making use of renewable materials and minimising
waste. This has created the need for sustainable FM, which has been seen to be vital in the
longest phase of the life-cycle of a building, where severe impact on the environment occurs
(Alnaser et al, 2008; Mora et al, 2011).
Buildings are the main physical assets of any nation; they are created for providing shelter
and enhancing people’s quality of life (Lam et al, 2010). If these buildings are not properly
planned and maintained, they will become liabilities (Wood 2006). In the UK, from the year
2002, 50% of all annual construction activities were exclusively for building maintenance
(Lam et al, 2010). However, this is not the case in Nigeria, where there is poor maintenance
culture and values (Iyagba, 2005). Commercial buildings in Nigeria have a record of poor
performance operations, poor maintenance and mismanagement (Abigo et al, 2012). In the
past two decades, the emphasis has been on the development of new properties, with little
attention paid to the maintenance of the existing stock and the future maintenance needs of
the proposed ones (Odediran et al, 2012). These problems form the basis of this study. This
paper argues that an integration of sustainable FM practice is required to promote the
development and preservation of sustainable buildings with suitable environmental initiatives
and practices within Nigeria.
2. Research Methodology
This study reviews existing literature on how developed countries have benefited from the
development of sustainable FM in the management of buildings in order to identify ways by
which Nigeria can adopt sustainable practices in the management of commercial buildings to
achieve sustainability. The study also reviews existing literature on sustainable FM in
Nigeria, so as to determine the extent of sustainable FM in Nigeria.
3. Sustainable FM Practice in Developed Countries

Facilities management in the United States has been established for over 30 years (Wiggins
2010) and the International Facility Management Association (IFMA) is the world's largest
and most widely recognized international association for facilities management professionals,
supporting more than 23,000 members in 85 countries (IFMA n.d.). The FM market spread to
Europe with the establishment of Euro FM in 1990 and the British Institute of Facilities
Management (BIFM) in 1993 (Shah, 2007). In the UK, FM is one of the fastest growing
professions with a market worth of £106.3 billion and an anticipated annual growth of
between 2% and 3% up to the year 2012 (Elmualim et al, 2008; Shah 2007).
Developed countries, particularly in Europe, have applied research focus to sustainable FM,
although this is arguably still in its infancy. In Finland, for example, a case study (Aaltonen et
al, 2013) showed that relatively light changes to FM service processes achieved extensive
environmental benefits. In the case study building, they found that FM had direct or indirect
(operational) influence on 82% of the green building certification (LEED) points achieved by
the building.
However, even in developed countries, it seems that action towards sustainable facilities
management is, at times, minimal. According to Nielsen (2012), the term sustainable FM is
unknown in Denmark but there may be greater awareness in the UK and other countries.
362
According to Elmualim et al, (2012), facilities managers have a great role to play in
advancing the sustainability agenda in the built environment through the practice of
sustainable FM. In the UK, the concept of sustainable FM has developed and grown in
parallel with the all-embracing theory of sustainable development and the growing
appreciation for climate change (Shah, 2007). According to the study carried out by
Elmualim et al, (2008), facilities managers are now aligning their practice with the
sustainability agenda along its three strands, economic, environmental and social. However,
they are constrained by time, lack of knowledge of the basic information necessary to
implement sustainability policies and lack of senior management commitment to the
sustainability agenda.
According to Elmualim (2012) the main driver for sustainable FM in the UK, is the
formulation of legislation. These pieces of legislation, according to KPMG, (2008) make
organisations conform to stipulated regulations and, in the process, drive the compliance of
sustainable practices by facilities managers. These laws incorporate sustainable policies that
involve waste management, recycling, energy management, carbon footprint and health and
safety (Shah, 2007).
In other developed countries, such as Japan, New Zealand, Hong Kong, Singapore and South
Africa, FM has been successfully developed and established. It is recognised in these
countries as an activity that can achieve more effective management of buildings, its services
and associated workforce, in support of the strategic objectives of an organisation
(Kamaruzzaman and Zawawi, 2010). According to Shah (2007) FM in Australia is one of the
fast growing industries with an annual turnover of more than AUD$60 billion.
4. Sustainable FM in Nigeria
In developing countries such as Malaysia, the development of FM started in the second half
of the 1990s. Now Malaysia has put great focus and emphasis on the development of FM
particularly in the public sector (Kamaruzzaman and Zawawi, 2010). In Uganda, a study was
carried out in order to project the growth of FM, which concluded that the FM industry in
Uganda, though not officially recognised, exists in a capacity to grow steadily in line with the
economy (Natukunda et al, 2013).
Sustainability in terms of environmental impact of various industries, especially the oil and
petrochemical industry in Nigeria, has been well documented, (Odeyemi and Ogunseitan,
1985; Olokesusi, 1992; Osuji et al, 2006; Agbalagba et al, 2012). However, sustainability in
FM, in the country is yet to be embraced, as its growth has been slow, awareness is low and
also there is little literature on the subject (Adewunmi et al, 2012). Literature that is available
tends to focus on environmental issues in sustainability (Kadiri, 2006; Adewunmi et al,
2012), with little focus on the economic and social aspects. Existing literature includes Abigo
et al, (2012) and Adewunmi et al, (2012), on sustainable FM in the management of public
buildings in Nigeria and on the development of a sustainable approach to corporate FM in
Nigeria. Adewunmi et al, (2012) emphasised environmental sustainability in their study
involving the use of questionnaires and interviews of FM professionals, regarding key themes
including environmental awareness, performance of ecologically sustainable development
activities and strategic management. Their results showed that FM only minimally addresses
sustainability in Nigeria.
Abigo et al (2012) undertook a comparative study of sustainable FM in the UK and Nigeria
and found that the top three barriers to sustainable practice in Nigeria are lack of regulations
363
or legislation; lack of sustainable policies and lack of awareness. They proposed a framework
for embedding sustainable FM in public buildings in Nigeria, based on six phases: (1) public
awareness; (2) training and education; (3) creating legislation; (4) public organisations
developing written sustainability policies; (5) incorporating sustainable practices in the
management of public buildings and; (6) enforcing regulations/legislation.
A study was also carried out by Ikediashi et al, (2012) on assessing the level of commitment
and barriers to sustainable FM practice by facilities managers within corporate organisations
in Nigeria. This study revealed the three main barriers to sustainable FM practice. These are
lack of training and tools, lack of relevant laws and regulation, and lack of knowledge and
awareness. The study also identified the commitment of senior management personnel, as a
major driver to the course of sustainable FM within organisations in Nigeria. Nevertheless,
there remains the urgent need to investigate barriers of sustainable FM practice in the
management of commercial buildings in Nigeria. Commercial buildings, being the economic
powerhouse of the nation, serving the whole of the country in respect of imports and locally
manufactured goods; contributing more than 70% of the national economic output (Research
Unit, 2011).
5. Conclusion
Although barriers to sustainable FM within corporate organisations have been identified,
there remains the need to identify barriers to sustainable FM practice in the management of
commercial buildings. The extent of sustainable FM in commercial buildings in Nigeria has
not yet been determined. However, the findings so far, identify commitment of senior
management personnel, as a major driver to the course of sustainable FM. This study is a
work in progress and therefore, continuous effort will be made to determine the extent of
sustainable practices in the management of commercial buildings and identify barriers to
sustainable FM in commercial buildings in Nigeria. This will be achieved by a pilot study,
followed by questionnaire survey of qualified professionals in the various institutes in
Nigerian, as well as stakeholders and building users.
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365
Facilities Planning Promoting Efficient Space Use at Hospital

Buildings
Emma Zijlstra
Hanze University of Applied Sciences Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
e.zijlstra@pl.hanze.nl
Telephone +31 (0) 50 595 2672
Mark P. Mobach
Hanze University of Applied Sciences Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
The Hague University of Applied Sciences, The Hague, The Netherlands
University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
m.p.mobach@pl.hanze.nl
Cees P. van der Schans

Hanze University of Applied Sciences, Groningen, The Netherlands
University Medical Center Groningen, Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Groningen,
The Netherlands
c.p.van.der.schans@pl.hanze.nl
Mariët Hagedoorn
University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Department of Health
Psychology, Groningen, The Netherlands
mariet.hagedoorn@umcg.nl
ABSTRACT
Purpose – Due to an increasing demand for care delivery and emerging new health care
technologies facility managers are frequently confronted with changing spatial demands of
end-users. The purpose of this study is to explore if facilities planning at a diagnostic
outpatient clinic can increase the level of space utilization and the speed of care delivery.
Design / methodology/ approach – The current study was made in the context of discovery
and exemplification. The influence of facilities planning, by means of resource allocation and
patient categorization, on the actual use of facilities was investigated. A comparison was
made between the planned and the actual space utilization level of a scanning room. In a time
study the actual utilization times of 55 patient examinations were compared with the planned
times. Moreover, the nature of activities was registered by a multidimensional work sampling
method.
Findings – This study showed that the actual space utilization level deviated from the
planned utilization level. In this case the actual fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) whole-body
examinations on a positron emission tomography-computed tomography (PET-CT) scanner
took less time than planned and, in addition, the weight of patients significantly influenced
the actual examination times. Patients with a heavy body weight took more time than patients
with low weight. Moreover, this study showed that employees only spend 47% of their
activities on care-related activities.
Practical implications – This current study has shown that facility management research
(FMR) allows facility managers to improve their insight in the efficiency of space use, and, in
addition, to refine the spatial planning systems in hospital settings. Firstly, in facilities
planning the planned space utilization should be compared with the actual space utilization
periodically. Secondly, information on the properties of end-users, in this case the weight of
366
the scanned patients, allows for better planning. Thirdly, the nature of activities should be
taken into account to determine the optimal organisation of care delivery. With FMR the gap
between planned and actual space use can be reduced, information on the properties of end
users allows for better planning, and a reduction of non-care-related activities better meets the
needs for increasing demand for care delivery; all promoting efficient space use at hospital
buildings.
Originality / value – The results of this study showed that it can be cost-effective to compare
facilities planning with the actual spatial use, include end-user properties, and collect
information about the nature of activities before reconstructing a building.
Keywords
Cost Reduction, Diagnostic Imaging, Facilities Planning, Reconstruction, Space Utilization
1 INTRODUCTION
The central function of a hospital is to provide patient care (Vissers and Beech, 2005).
Nowadays, Dutch hospitals have the challenge to decrease costs owing to health care cuts
while the quality of patient care has to improve. Delivering high quality care in a consistent
and efficient manner can be accomplished by operational improvements (McLaughlin and
Hays, 2008). Due to an increasing demand for care delivery and emerging new health care
technologies facility managers are frequently confronted with changing spatial demands of
end-users. Facility managers of Dutch hospitals invested more than 1.6 billion euros in
buildings and ground in 2010 (Heumen and Brouwers, 2011). According to Vissers and
Beech (2005) services have to be modernized in such a way that hospitals can make more
intensive and efficient use of existing health care resources. This paper argues that these
improvements can also be realised with well-considered space allocation and optimization in
the organisation of activities.
According to Vermeulen et al. (2009) diagnostic resources in healthcare, such as scanners,
are central to the clinical pathways of patients. Therefore long waiting times to access
diagnostic resources are directly felt as bottlenecks for healthcare processes. Typically,
simply increasing capacity results in lower waiting costs but also in higher service and space
costs. Even more important, when an examination is delayed and patients have to wait,
patients can face substantial risks of complications or even death (Wang, 2004). This
particularly applies for patients who undergo a positron emission tomography (PET) scan.
According to Boellaard et al. (2010) the most common PET examinations are for detecting,
staging, re-staging as well as for assessments of therapy response of oncology patients.
Because in the Netherlands the cause of death by cancer is relatively still growing, it seems
evident that waiting times for patients need to be reduced to a minimum (Hoogenboezem and
Garssen, 2009). Consequently, it was pre-supposed here that efficient space planning for
scanners is vital for speed of care delivery and the health and well-being of patients.
The management of the diagnostic outpatient clinic reported increased access times for
examinations above the pre-defined requirement of 5 working days and even considered to
purchase a new camera (expectedly leading to a reconstruction). In this study it is explored if
facilities planning can increase the level of space utilization and the speed of care delivery at
the scan room (location 5, figure 1) of the diagnostic outpatient clinic. This outpatient clinic
performs scans on a PET camera, so-called the mCT 64 slices (figure 1). At this outpatient
clinic patients arrived at the reception desk where they were registered (1). After registering,
the patient waited in the waiting area (2) until they were picked up by diagnostic staff.
Diagnostic staff administered radioactive substance to the patients in one of the two
preparation rooms (3) and brought the patient to the relaxation room where the radioactive
substance can localize to specific organs or cellular receptors of the patient (4). When this
367
osium EFM
MC 2014
exposurre time elappsed, the paatient was ppicked up fromf the rellaxation rooom and enttered the
scanninng room (5)). The patien nt took placce on the camera and diagnostic w workers staarted the
scan. WWhen the scaan was finisshed, the pattient left thee scanning room
r and thhe outpatien
nt clinic.
The maanagement of the diaagnostic ouutpatient clinic reporteed congesttion; camerra space
utilizatiion was believed to be the cause oof a lack off space capaacity. Thereefore this stu udy will
exploree the space planning
p off the cameraa and the acctivities surrrounding thhe camera (location
(
5, figure 1).
Fig
gure 3 Facilitty layout of diagnostic
d clinic
2
3
1 5
3
1 = Reeception
desk
2 = Waaiting area 4
3 = Preeparation
2 FACILITIIES PLANN NING

Tompkiins, White,, Bozer, an nd Tanchooco (2010, p. 6) defi fined that ‘‘facilities planning
p
determiines how an a activity’s tangible fixed assets best sup pport achievving the activity’s
a
objectivve’. Accordding to Roper, Kim andd Lee (2009) a ‘strateg gic facility planning iddentifies
the typee, quantity and location ns of spacees needed by y the organization andd contains tw wo main
componnents – thee first being g an in-deppth analysiss of existin ng facilitiess, and the other
o an
achievaable and afffordable plaan to meet tthe organization’s need ds’ (p. 3). TThe main objective
o
for the outpatient clinic
c of thiis study is tto examine patients wiithin 5 work rking days from
f the
momennt the application for the scan is knnown.
According to Mango and Shapiro (2001)) the flow of o patients th hrough a hoospital is lim
mited by
the weaakest link in i the heallth care proocess within n the hospital. For exxample, if too few
workerss or too feww cameras are a availablee at the outp patient cliniic, patients hhave to waiit longer
before they can be b examineed at the cclinic. Thiss problem will turn iinto delay for the
consecuutive patiennts. Therefo ore, developping an effficient process is impoortant. An efficient
processs in the heaalthcare indu ustry contexxt means a process thaat reduces ccosts and im mproves
quality (Cayirli annd Veral, 2003).
2 For tthat reason n it is impoortant to ideentify the potential
p
bottleneecks and allleviate theem by balaancing the process,p sm
moothing deemand and control
capacityy (Mango and Shapirro, 2001). M Mango and d Shapiro (2001) conttend that when w the
problem m becomes clear,
c it is usually
u posssible to elim
minate these problems bby applying g a better
planninng. Accordinng to Cayirlli and Veraal (2003) a well-design
w ned planningg creates the ability
to increease the utilization of expensive employees and equipm ment-based medical reesources.
Facilityy managers are often reesponsible ffor space alllocation wh hich providdes a framew work for
space pplanning (W Wiggins, 201 10). Conseqquently it iss important to considerr the issue of o space
utilizatiion from thee facility maanagement perspectivee.
Cayirli and Veral (2003)
( statee that in a hoospital the reconciliatio
r on of demannd and supp ply leads
to betteer utilized resources (personnel
( and equipm ment) and minimized waiting times for
368
internal customers (referring specialists) and external customers (patients). According to

Green, Savin, and Wang (2006) medical imaging facilities are accessed by a wide range of
patients, both inside and outside the hospital. On the supply side an operation has resources.
Resources of a service are the facilitating goods, employee labour and capital (Fitzsimmons
and Fitzsimmons, 2006). Resources have capacity, which means that a resource has the
ability to generate production. Production can be measured in healthcare in terms of the
number of patients per unit of time (Vissers and Beech, 2005). By using the experiences of
customers (internal and external) the usability of the built environment can be improved
(Fronczek-Munter, 2012) in order to achieve goals with effectiveness, efficiency and
satisfaction (ISO, 1998). Matching fluctuating demand with available capacity is one of the
most significant challenges for managers in any service industry (Jack, Bedics, and McCary,
2006). Roper et al. (2009) state that an analysis of existing facility assets is critical in order to
plan and react to changing facility needs. The inability of matching demand with available
capacity can have serious consequences in the healthcare industry, like denying or limiting
patients (Naylor, 1991). Therefore the challenge for facilities planning is to increase space
utilization and increase the speed of care delivery in order to make full use of the existing
facility. Subsequently, these operational performances will be further elaborated.
2.1 Space utilization

The allocation of limited capacity of resources among several customer types is a critical
decision encountered by many service firms (Ayvaz and Huh, 2010). Fitting the
organizational structure into a building structure is covered by space planning (Wiggins,
2010). According to Naylor (1991) every healthcare system in every country, no matter how
rich the country is, has to ration medical services because resources that have to be allocated
are always limited. Therefore the utilization level of an outpatient clinic is important.
Utilization of available resources is an issue of administrators because they have to deal every
day with the capacity management challenges (Jack and Powers, 2009). Space is one of these
essential resources of an organization. Space can easily be under-utilized which is expensive
because space is expensive to buy, costly to maintain but also slow to dispose of (Wiggins,
2010). The key role of the facility manager is to translate business data into a set of
requirements for workspace and its infrastructure (Finch, 2012). Finch (2012) states that an
understanding of the current space is critical for a successful space planning to achieve a
match between supply and demand.
A lot of research focused on the occupancy rate of hospital beds or the utilization of
outpatient clinics where patients have direct contact with a physician. However, there is a gap
in research regarding space utilization of outpatient clinics that perform PET scans.
According to Green et al. (2006) diagnostic-imaging equipment is very expensive and
therefore hospital managers have the need to keep these machines fully utilized by examining
patients. Machine capacity refers to the hours the machine is used. The following formula is a
measurement for machine utilization (Schönsleben, 2007).
actual output
maximum possible output
The aim of the outpatient clinic in this study was to achieve a space utilization level of 70%.
According to Wiggins (2010) no organization achieves a 100% utilization level of spaces, but
a space utilization level of 85% is generally found acceptable (taken into account holiday,
sickness or absence on business). Therefore, this study will measure space utilization by
dividing the actual space utilization in minutes by the maximum available time in minutes
during one week (taken into account current opening hours and quality check moments).
369
Several studies assessed how the properties of end-users can influence the allocation of
resources. Although various patient types exist, the majority of studies assume patients are
homogeneous and are scheduled on a first in first out (FIFO) method (Caryirli and Veral,
2003). When patients were homogeneous, for instance, they all had the same disease, the
same degree of illness, and the same response to therapy (Litvak, 2000). According to Vissers
and Beech (2005) a planning is more manageable when the patients were categorized. The
underlying assumption is that the patient population can be classified into groups based on
examination time characteristics (Cayirli and Veral, 2003). Therefore, the challenge for a
healthcare system is to create a naturally variable group of patients into a homogeneous group
in order to achieve higher efficiency (Litvak, 2000). According to Vissers and Beech (2005)
patients have to be grouped according to their utilization of resources. This means that
patients in the same group have a similar length of stay and require on average the same
amount of nursing and operating time, regardless of disease, illness, and response to therapy.
Studies focused on PET-scans discuss whether the individual weight of the patient can
influence the quality of images, depending on the amount of radioactive dose and the type of
camera (Willowson et al., 2012). This study will explore whether the individual weight of
patients can also influence the utilization of resources.
The physical properties of Dutch residents changed over the last 30 years. In the Netherlands
the population of overweight people has increased over the last 30 years. In the period 2009-
2011 over 6.5 million people were moderately or severely overweight in the Netherlands.
This amount equals a share of 41 per cent (Groot and Bruggink, 2012). According to Kuper
and Kuper (2009) worldwide even more people are overweight than underweight. This
physical change of Dutch residents will increase the overall demands of health care and it is
likely that it will affect the ways in which health care is delivered and the spaces are used.
Willowson et al. (2012) categorized patients based on individual weight and showed that
weight influences the amount of dose which is required for qualitative images on a mCT
scanner. Optimization of the injected dose minimizes patient discomfort and can increase
throughput of patients (Lartizien et al, 2001). Therefore, this study will explore whether the
current space utilization can potentially be increased and how this can be influenced by the
individual weight of the patients.
370
2.2 Speed of care delivery

When an examination for a PET scan is delayed, patients can face substantial risks of
complication or even death (Wang, 2004); especially in the current case study of oncology
patients. Therefore speed of care delivery is an important performance objective. Delays
often occur in health care and the only solution almost seems to be adding capacity (Van der
Voort, Van Merode, and Berden, 2010). Many health care practices are in state of disarray
because the appointment books are overfilled. According to Vermeulen et al. (2009) short
waiting times of local resources are important to achieve a high hospital-wide patient
throughput. Because diagnostic resources are literally central in the clinical pathways of
many patients it is immediately a bottleneck for health care processes in a hospital when long
waiting times occur. According to Murray and Berwick (2003, p.1036) the major barriers to
perform efficiently are psychological; ‘the fear of change and the lack of confidence that
existing resources can meet the demand for care’. This can be empirically improved by the
fact that the length of waiting lists remains steady at a given number of weeks or months.
When supply is absolutely insufficient the waiting list will grow.
Fast response to the customer is important but speed inside the operation is also important
(Slack et al., 2004). Internal speed is for example caused by speedy decision making or
speedy movement of materials. By decreasing internal throughput times waiting times will
reduce. Groover (2007) relates this to the workers performance. He states that when manual
work takes place and the worker performance increases, the time to accomplish the work
cycles decreases. According to Groover (2007) it is important to accomplish only productive
work by minimizing the non-value-adding activities. According to Kanawaty (1992) three
main categories can be distinguished for non-productive activities: (1) poor design of the
product or service, (2) inefficient methods (poor work layout and interruptions), and (3) the
human factor (Kanawaty, 1992). Examples of a poor design of the product or service are
quality standards that are more stringent than necessary. The second category reflects for
example the inefficient layout that requires excess movements of materials, long set-up times
between batches of work, workers waiting for work or inefficient material handling. The third
category refers to non-productive activities of humans like absenteeism, workers spending
too much time socializing, inadequate training of workers, or workers that work slowly
(Kanawaty, 1992). However, the working climate of personnel is also an important indicator
for efficiency (Vissers and Beech, 2005). Groover (2007) states that several studies
confirmed the fact that rest breaks increases the overall productivity of the worker during the
shifts. More work is accomplished and fewer mistakes are made at the end of the day. Hence,
it is important to explore whether the nature of activities can influence the speed of care
delivery. Consequently, it was pre-supposed here that a high frequency of care-related
activities would positively influence the speed of care delivery.
3 METHODS
The current study was made in the context of discovery and exemplification. A comparison
was made between the planned and the actual space utilization level of a scanning room by
performing direct observations in order to assess if the current space utilization can
potentially be increased. Individual patient weights were collected from the patients who
have been examined on the mCT camera in order to assess whether the speed of care delivery
can be improved. Moreover, the nature of activities was also studied by applying the
multidimensional work sampling method to assess whether the current employees can
examine more patients in order to increase the speed of care delivery and space utilization.
All data were acquired on the mCT 64 slices PET/CT camera.
371
3.1 Time study

Space utilization was continuously observed during one week whereby the observer used a
timekeeping device to record the time it takes to accomplish an examination (location 5,
figure 1). For this study the set-up time, cool-down time, scanning room time, and scan time
were observed (figure 2). The set-up time was the observed time interval between the
moment the patient placed a first step into the scanning room (T0) and the moment the
nuclear worker pushed a button on the self-controller to start the scan (T1). Cool-down time
was the time interval between the moment the clock of the scan time on the computer stopped
(T2) and the moment the patient placed a first step out of the scanning room (T3). The
scanning room time was the time interval between the moment of arrival in the scanning
room (T0) and the moment the patient left the scanning room (T3). Scan time was the time
interval between the start of the scan by the nuclear worker (T1) and the time the scan was
finished (T2).
Figure 2 Lead time scanning room
T T1 T T
Set-up time Scan time Cool down
Scanning room time
These different times were observed per patient. During the time study the type of
examination was also registered in order to find out whether there is a correlation between the
times and the type of examinations. Next to the type of examinations the weight of patients
was also registered in order to find out whether there is a correlation between the time and
weight of end-users. This information was used to assess if the facilities can be planned more
efficiently to increase the speed of care delivery. The data on time and patient weight were
assumed to be ordinal. Comparison was made with descriptive statistics. For calculating the
correlation the Spearman Rank Correlation analysis was used.
3.2 Multidimensional work sampling method

Next to space utilization, the nature of activities of diagnostic staff was measured by applying
the multidimensional work sampling method (MDWS) which consisted of 501 observed
frequencies. Work sampling is a statistical technique for determining the proportions of time
spent on predefined categories of activity. To be able to define realistic activities, the
categories were inductively defined and discussed with the involved diagnostic staff and
management. During these discussions employees were also informed about the design and
the objectives of the study. A distinction was made between ‘care-related activities’ and
‘other activities’ (table 1).
372
Table 7 Work Sampling Activity Classification

Care-related activities Other activities
Prepare patient Quality control
Scan patient Administration / computer work
Bring / pick up patient Clean-up / prepare material
Data processing Discussion
Reading patient record Phone call
Waiting
Walking around
Own time
Absent
Other
Go to other camera
Activities were categorized care-related when the activity contained a direct relation with
patients. For reliable results the observations were made at random times during one
workweek. Therefore the so-called re-pipip was used. This is a pager which sounded at
randomly generated times to remind the observer to record the activities at that time. The
observer used the pager as a tool to define the random times when to observe the diagnostic
staff to assess whether the current nature of activities can influence the speed of care delivery.
4 RESULTS
4.1 Space utilization
During the measurement week one examination was cancelled. In total 56 examinations were
planned and 55 examinations were being held. The planned utilization and actual utilization
were calculated in comparison with the available scan room time (table 2). The available time
represents the total time the scanning room can examine patients during one week.
Table 8 Planned times versus actual times (in hours)
Available time Planned Actual
hh:mm:ss (%) utilization utilization
hh:mm:ss (%) hh:mm:ss (%)
(n = 55) (n = 56)
05:27:00
Set-up time (T0 – T1)
(12.5% )
43:30:00 37:45:00 21:34:00
Scan time (T1 – T2)
(100%) (86.8 %) (49.6%)
Cool down time (T2 – 03:16:00
T3) (7.5%)
Scan-room time (T0 – 43:30:00 37:45:00 30:17:00
T3) (100%) (86.8 % ) (69.6%)
The table shows that the planned utilization time is approximately 30 hours during one week
(69.6%). The actual utilization time can be divided in the set-up time that takes over 5 hours
(12.5%), the scan time that takes well over 21 hours (49.6%), and the cool-down time that
takes well over 3 hours (7.5%). In comparison with the planned utilization time the space is
not utilized for well over 7 hours during one week, and on top of this, in comparison with the
available time the space is not utilized for approximately 13 hours during one week. These
results show that the actual space utilization is lower than the planned space utilization.
373
In order to refine the difference between planned and actual time the properties of end-users
are studied. The focus of this study was on fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) whole-body
examinations because in this outpatient clinic the majority (59%) of examinations are FDG
wholebody examinations. An FDG whole-body examination takes 7 or 8 camera positions.
For adult patients weighing 60 kg or less it takes one minute per position. When adults
weighing between 60 kg and 90 kg it take two minutes per position and when adults weighing
90 kg or more it takes three minutes per position.
Table 3 Correlation weight and actual scan times (in minutes)
Correlati Actual scan time Actual scan Actual scan time
on patients ≤ 60 kg time patients 60 patients ≥ 90 kg
coefficien – 90 kg
t
FDG 0.881** 8.40 17.00 25.25
wholebody (N=22) (N= 5, SD= 1.52) (N= 13, SD= (N= 4, SD= 2.22)
without CT 2.48)
FDG 0.553* 22.00 26.55 34.00
wholebody (N=13) (N= 1, SD= ø) (N= 11, SD= (N= 1, SD= ø)
with CT 3.42)
FDG 0.607** 10.67 21.38 27.00
wholebody (N=35) (N= 6, SD= 5.72) (N= 24, SD= (N= 5, SD= 4.36)
(total) 5.65)
Notes: * p <0.05, ** p < 0.01
Table 3 shows there is a significant correlation between scan times and weight for the total
FDG wholebody examinations (0.607, p < 0.01). There is also a significant correlation for the
FDG wholebody examinations without CT (0.881, p < 0.01) and for the FDG wholebody
examinations with CT (0.553, p < 0.05) (table 4). These results show that the scan times for
heavy weigh patients are significant longer than for patients with low weight. Nevertheless,
the current space planning takes 30 minutes (without CT) or 45 minutes (with CT) into
account for the FDG wholebody examinations for all patients; this is significantly longer than
the actual times. This correlation clarifies the fact that using this property of the end-user
allows facilities planning to increase space utilization and the speed of care delivery by
planning more patients at the current facility.
4.2 Speed of care delivery

The results of space utilization showed that the each day more space and time is available
than actually used and even more time than planned. However, in a diagnostic imaging
centre, the number of patients examined does not only depend on the available scanning time
but also on the performance of employees. Therefore, it needs to be explored if the current
employees could potentially examine more patients in the same time-slots in order to increase
the speed of care delivery.
Table 4 presents the cumulative observed frequencies of the activities over one week, the
percentages per activity over one week and the standard deviation of the mean over one
week.
Table 4 Results multidimensional work sampling method
Item Frequency
(%) SD
Prepare patient 93 (19%) 3.29
Scan patient 83 (17%) 4.34
Pick up patient 20 (4%) 2.35
374
Data processing 27 (5%) 4.04

Reading patient record 10 (2%) 1.22
Subtotal care-related
activities 233 (47%) 6.07
Quality control 1 (0%) 0.45
Administration / computer
work 34 (7%) 4.21
Clean-up / prepare material 25 (5%) 1.00
Discussion 49 (10%) 3.27
Phone call 19 (4%) 1.92
Waiting 8(2%) 1.41
Walking around 0 (0%) 0.00
Own time 82 (16%) 4.51
Absent 22 (4%) 4.04
Other 5 (1%) 1.73
Go to other camera 23 (5%) 4.72
Subtotal other activities 268 (53%) 3.29
Total activities 501 (100%) 5.50
The table shows that in total 233 (47%) of the activities were care-related during the
observation week. A total of 268 (53%) of the observations were related to other activities.
The main other activities are own time (n=82), discussion (n=49), and
administration/computer work (n=34).
These results of the nature of activities show that much time was spent on other activities. For
instance, staff spent 16% of the activities for own time (staff has the right for 12% own time
during a day) and 10% of the activities was spent on discussions. Be reminded that it was pre-
supposed that a high frequency of care-related activities would positively influence speed of
care delivery. These current results suggest that there are opportunities to improve the
frequency of care-related activities with work design. By doing so, work design can increase
space utilization and the speed of care delivery.
5 CONCLUSION
The purpose of this study was to explore if facilities planning at a diagnostic outpatient clinic
can increase the level of space utilization and the speed of care delivery.
Firstly, in such research the planned space utilization should be compared with the actual
space utilization. This study showed that the camera was over 7 hours unutilized during one
week in comparison with the planned utilization. On top of this, the camera was over 13
hours unutilized during opening hours of one week. Although the management of the
diagnostic clinic reported congestion, these results showed that the camera was actually
under-utilized. By categorizing patients based on actual examination times the speed of care
delivery for seriously ill patients can be increased, likewise the space utilization.
Secondly, the results present that heavy weight patients take more scan time than patients
with low weight. The use of properties of end-users, in this case the weight of the scanned
patients, allows for even a better space utilization.
Thirdly, the nature of activities needs to be taken into account to study whether the work
should be done by the same employees in the current space. By measuring the nature of
activities this study showed that only 47% of staff activities was spent on care-related
activities. This signifies that employees spent relatively much time on other activities
resembling own time (rest breaks), discussion and administration. It was suggested that by
increasing the frequency of care-related activities, the speed of care delivery would also
increase.
375
In conclusion, the scanning room was under-utilized, the planning system suffered from lack
of specificity, and the staff was doing many activities other than delivery of care. The
hospital was advised to consider clearly dividing tasks (staff for scanning patients, staff for
other activities) and less time devoted to discussing breaks in order to decrease the number of
other activities. By reducing staff time to other activities space utilization and the speed of
care delivery can be increased. However, further research is necessary to determine whether
users are satisfied to achieve usability at the current facility.
This current study has shown that facility management research (FMR) allows facility
managers to improve their spatial planning systems in hospital settings. The results of this
study showed that it can be cost-effective to compare facilities planning with the actual
spatial use, include end-user properties, and collect information about the nature of activities
before reconstructing a building. Besides this study have shown that the studied diagnostic
imaging centre can decrease waiting times with respect to the current resources which is of
major importance for oncology patients. With respect to the current space and demand all
examinations can take easily place within the pre-defined requirement of 5 working days.
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EuroFM Green Paper
Appendix
Facility Management Innovation (FMI)
Green Paper
EuroFM Working Group (WG3)
Abstract
This current green paper deals with innovation in facility management (FM), a subject which is at the heart of
Working Group 3, in benefit of the EuroFM Research Network. It aims to stimulate discussion and further
collaborative work, and to generate new knowledge for the European FM community. We do this by knowledge
sharing on innovative case practices and creating awareness of possible pitfalls, with a notable sensitivity for
being evidence‐based, allowing us to improve our current understanding of the development of best practices
in FM. At this stage the paper is not conclusive nor does it claim general agreement on the subject; it seeks to
contest the status quo of our current knowledge in FM rather than solely refining or perpetuating it.
In this context the green paper argues that FMI is “the integration of space, infrastructure, people, and
organisation, which by doing so, creates new coherent services and spaces which proof to contribute to the
organisation, especially to the end-user”. Especially the integration of the above topics and the application of
interdisciplinary perspectives are at the heart of what we define as FM. This integration is action focused and
problem oriented, as it is directed at improved actions of the facility manager given specific practical and/or
societal problems. The working group FMI combines practical knowledge and experience in the FM business
with scientific knowledge and proven evidence-based work practices in FM.
Keywords
Facility Management, Innovation, Integration, Interdisciplinarity, Service, Space
Naarden (The Netherlands): EuroFM, November 24 2013

Mark Mobach (chair), Giulia Nardelli, Herman Kok, Jennifer Konkol; Steering Group FMI,
EuroFM WG3
Keith Alexander (chair); EuroFM Research Network
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EuroFM Green Paper
Introduction
As a management discipline facility management (FM) serves the primary process of
organisations and is being associated with a broad spectrum of supportive activities varying
from the design and management of buildings and technical systems to services as cleaning,
security, and catering. With the European Facility Management Network (EuroFM) it is
generally accepted that the core value of FM is the ‘integration of people, process, and place’
(Armstrong, 1982). In 2002, this triptych of FM had been refined into space, infrastructure,
people, and organisation. It is pre-supposed here that infrastructure refers to the physical
environment of organisations, such as buildings, interior, and technological devices.
Infrastructure encapsulates space, which comprises emptiness as well as air, light, scent, and
sound. As such, space emerges from within that infrastructure; space as an inversion of the
physical world of organisations. In addition, people also organise themselves, mostly to attain
specific objectives. In these organisations strategies emerge as well as financial and
hierarchical structures, HR and marketing policies, and cultures; to name just a few.
Moreover, people are subservient to natural laws because they are part of a natural system.
For instance, people need food, daylight, fresh air, and hygiene to stay healthy. In the
provision of these important human needs FM can play a major role. In 2006 the network
developed an agreed definition arguing that FM must be seen as ‘an integration of processes
within an organisation to maintain and develop the agreed services which support and
improve the effectiveness of its primary activities’ (EN 15221-1, 2006).
In practice FM innovation seems to be stuck somehow between FM demand side and
FM supply side. FM demand side often complains that the FM service suppliers are not
innovative enough. At the same time the service supplier, and in some cases in-house FM
managers, argue that the FM service margins are too low to be innovative and/or the
monetary rewards for innovation are too unclear. In these topics, it appears as if FM is just a
B2B relationship between client and service provider. Has FM lost contact with the end-user?
It is stressed here that FM should always include the end-user and the organisational context
in which he performs. However, the individual level of end-users is not the only level
involved in FMI, but it is rather interrelated with the departmental level of FM units and the
organisational and environmental level of the organisation as a whole and the environment in
which it functions. Be reminded that the needs and expectations of an organisation may or
may not match with the individual requests of the end-users. For innovation to be developed
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EuroFM
M Green Papper
mplemented, needs and

and im d expectatioons of end--users shou
uld be alwaays be inclluded to
ensure tthe best posssible functioning of thhe primary process.
p he end-user and the fit with the
Th
organisational context in whicch services and spacess are provid
ded are impportant prereequisites
to the innnovation of
o FM.
Figure
F 4: Fieeld of invesstigation of Facility
Maanagement Innovation
I
Integraation is keyy
The 2006 definitioon of the EN
E 15221-11 neglects people
p and spaces; in our view this
t is a
fallacy. Contempoorary effortss and chall enges to in
nnovate FM
M should foocus on inteegration.
Hence, in our view
w:
FM InInnovation is the inteegration of space, inffrastructuree, people, aand organiisation,

which by doing so, creates newn coheren nt services and spaces which prooof to contriibute to
the orgganisation,, especially to the end--user.
Essentiaal to this deefinition is that this innnovation geenerates pro

oven synerggetic effectss for the
mance of an organisatio
perform on. There iss a need for improved strategy,
s deecision mak
king, and
processses at the interface
i am
mongst orgganisation, service, and space. Inn the defin
nition of
servicess we follow
w Thompson
n (1967) andd Bitner (19
992) that services geneerally are pu
urchased
and connsumed sim
multaneously, and typiically requiire direct human
h contaact: custom
mers and
employyees interacct with eacch other wiithin the organisation
o n's physicall facility. We
W also
emphassise the impportance off the role oof the user and the in
nfluence off the organiisational
context. Ideally, therefore,
t the organisaation's environment and
a the phyysical envirronment
should support the needs an
nd preferencces of both
h FM serviice employyees and cu
ustomers
simultanneously (Biitner, 1992)). FM shoulld recognisee the organiisational conntext in wh
hich end-
users innteract on thhe demand side and sservice prov
viders interaact in partnnership to offer
o and
deliver services too meet chaanging dem t supply side. Conssequently, the FM
mands on the
commuunity needs to
t do more fundamentaal and appliied research
h into the intterwoven sy
ystem of
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EuroFM Green Paper
space, infrastructure, people, and organisation. Such an approach stimulates the advancement
of evidence-based FM, allowing new innovative managerial interventions to flourish with a
proven benefit for end-users.
The working group FMI will discuss the need and content of this change of direction.
It will seek to bring parties together and work on solutions that will be beneficial for the FM
community. The approach of this current working group FMI is a double stroke: drawing 1)
from the practical knowledge and experience from the FM business, and at the same time
combining this with 2) the existing scientific knowledge and proven work practices, for
instance, in the design of facility services, health care premises, and offices. Hence, the FMI
working group consists of a number of experienced researchers as well as practice
representatives from the FM demand as well as the FM supply side (see below FMI
organisation). These resources will be used to support and create innovation in better
integration of supportive structures in people, organisation, space, and infrastructure.
Innovation
During the last two decades, the term innovation has emerged as one of the key concepts of
the knowledge society. Innovation is increasingly recognised as a key driver for
organisational effectiveness, at all levels and in all sectors of the economy. The definition of
innovation, which the groups adopts, follows the three Schumpeterian criteria of innovation
as applied to services: (1) innovation is an idea, which is developed and carried into practice;
(2) innovation brings benefits to its developer(s); (3) innovation is reproduced, i.e. applied
more than once.
Transferred to the context of FM, innovation relates to the unlocking of synergies by
mobilizing knowledge and technological skills and experience to create novelty in the
offerings (services and spaces) and the ways to create and deliver those offerings
(organisation). Innovation is not about invention - coming up with good ideas but – but
making those inventions work both technically and ‘commercially’. For instance, well-
designed R&D spaces can stimulate creativity and innovation; well-considered services and
spatial conditions can stimulate patient recovery in hospitals; and radical workplace
innovations can support leadership in changing the culture of the organisation. Yet, the
evidence remains scarce. How exactly are the above elements related? Where do changes
emerge if we intervene in the FM system? In making what kinds of combinations? What
combinations proof strongest? Which of these are most effective? How can we improve the
evidence of the above?
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EuroFM Green Paper
In Facility Management (FM) innovation is in the integration of different but yet

coherent parts of an organisation. The integration of supportive particles is essential to FM
and allows FM to create synergy in benefit of an organisation. Within FMI we distinguish
between three domains of innovation studies: object, process, and outcome of innovation.
FMI research in these three domains seeks to develop evidence-based practices for the FM
community.
Object of innovation
The object of innovation within FMI is the integration of space, infrastructure, people, and
organisation. Such objects, for instance, building design, furniture, organisational processes,
and human behaviour will be studied as an interconnected set of objects. Be reminded that
such objects also includes all sorts of FM products, services, and processes. FMI is interested
in where and how connections between different objects yield better results for end-users and
which of these connections are the most fruitful. In our view FM could, for instance, relate to
facility design (e.g. synthesis of service and space), healthcare premises (e.g. restorative
effects), and offices (e.g. new ways of working). It is yet to be explored how these studies can
benefit from the support of the demand and supply side in FM. By definition, FMI is
interdisciplinary in its approach and has a strong focus on the relation between space and
organisation, i.e. a strong relation with end-users and organisational context.
Process of innovation
The process of innovation enables something new or novel to be created, taking ideas
forward towards designed features of service and space elements. Many of the techniques
engage customers and personnel in ways that build on their capacities, but also involve
outsourced FM providers relying on a co-creation approach. Moreover, FMI touches upon
drivers and barriers of innovation, which can be looked at from three related but different
perspectives. Firstly, drivers and barriers for FM innovation, which are often experienced by
the developers, i.e. the outsourced providers and internal FM functions. Be reminded that it
may be easy to assess the success of an innovation with hind side. But if there is nothing it
may be hard to imagine how things can improved and to find accommodations for change. In
this perspective our curiosity is in the origin of best practices that stem from innovation in
FM. Secondly, drivers and barriers for innovativeness and innovation at the client
organisation are taken into account also. In this perspective we will explore the unlocking of
innovative potential at end-users. Thirdly, we share interest in the area of co-creation. In
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EuroFM Green Paper
other words: where and how can developers and end-users work together to create better
outcome?
Outcome of innovation
The innovation outcome is an act that positively impacts on the environment, e.g. the
application of a new material, new organisational forms, or new (combinations of) service
and space elements. Furthermore, increase in the innovativeness of the client organisation is
also a potential, and desired, FM innovation outcome, which can be achieved through
improvements and innovations in FM. Basically, the outcome will have to illuminate the
contribution of the innovation to the operations of an organisation, such as efficiency,
efficacy, and effectiveness, quality of life, sustainability, and competitiveness. Alignment of
task structure with the layout of an operating room may, for instance, improve the efficiency
and efficacy of the surgical work. A better fit between the existing working culture and a new
building design may be an effective intervention to reduce sick leave. Mutual adjustment
between cleaning staff and end-users can even result in cleaner rooms and more efficient
work processes. Smart combinations of home automation, interior designs, and healing
gardens may improve the quality of life of psychiatric patients, whereas a combination of
deliberately designed inefficient walking lines and healthy food in catering offerings have the
potential to stimulate healthy behaviours. Programmes to raise cost awareness and awareness
of the marketing potential of zero-energy building design improves environmental
sustainability. Basically, the idea is that the right combinations can improve the performance
of the organisation which potentially increase its competitiveness in a market or added value
for society.
Conclusion
While different researchers and practitioners may adopt different definitions of and
approaches to FMI, it is important to depict the scope of FMI one is referring to. We have
chosen to define FM Innovation as “the integration of space, infrastructure, people, and
organisation, which by doing so, creates new coherent services and spaces which proof to
contribute to the organisation, especially to the end-user”. Due to different primary processes,
innovation processes and outcomes may play different roles within each FM party, and thus
require specific management approaches for each stakeholder. The client organisation, for
instance, can be expected to focus on the innovation outcomes, while the FM provider will
perhaps balance between the most efficient and best possible outcome for the client. In
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EuroFM Green Paper
between the two, the FM function, internal to the client organisation, can be expected to act
as a coordinator to ensure the efficacious functioning of the relationship between demand and
supply.
To the FM community it may be evident that the design of four objects infrastructure,
space, people, and organisation are all strongly connected in practice. However, to the wider
community in management and organisation sciences this is hardly known. Each object
solely and coherently influences the way in which people can function effectively within
organisations. As such, FM is responsible for an interwoven system of these four objects.
Consequently, it is assumed here that FM creates a holistic organisational-spatial micro-world
in which people in and around organisations can function well. An important toolkit for
innovation in FM is the holistic orchestration of organisation, architecture, technology and
nature; the outcome for organisations is in behaviour, mood, and health of users. FM may
also decide to intervene in the system, for instance, in the case of deficiencies, change or
disappointment in the outcome. Whether small cosmetic improvements are included in the
adopted definition of innovation, or the focus is on incremental and radical changes, research
on FMI should clearly state the scope of the innovation under investigation, to avoid
confusion and facilitate the understanding of practical implications by practitioners.
The FMI working group is specifically interested in the innovation of infrastructure
and spaces, as well as in the human, managerial, and organisational contexts that stimulate
innovation for the organisation and end-users. Especially the integration of the above topics
and the application of interdisciplinary perspectives are at the heart of what we define as FM.
Consequently, the current working group on FMI will seek to develop new knowledge to
advance the integral approach of infrastructure, space, people, and organisation by taking an
interdisciplinary design perspective. This integration is action focused and problem oriented,
as it is directed at improved actions of the facility manager given specific practical and/or
societal problems. Improved actions should, in turn, lead to a proven better organisation
performance and benefit for the end-user.
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EuroFM Green Paper
Epilogue
General approach
Be reminded that this current green paper aims to stimulate discussion and further
collaborative work, and to generate new knowledge for the European FM community. We do
this by knowledge sharing on innovative case practices and creating awareness of possible
pitfalls, with a notable sensitivity for being evidence-based, allowing us to improve our
current understanding of the development of best practices in FM. At this stage the paper is
not conclusive nor does it claim general agreement on the subject; it seeks to contest the
status quo of our current knowledge in FM rather than solely refining or perpetuating it.
FMI working process

The FMI working group will meet again in Berlin during the EFMC 2014 from 3-6 June. The
working group will come together in a one day workshop as part of EuroFM Research
Symposium. The procedure for the workshop comprises three stages. Firstly, this current
green paper will be sent out to the community of interest of working group 3 ‘Facility
Management Innovation’ (FMI) before the 2014 EuroFM Research Symposium in Berlin.
Feedback will be collected and digested. Secondly, the paper will be presented by the steering
group and discussed during the Berlin symposium. By doing so, this approach is provocative
as well as constructive: seeking both to stimulate discussion and to further collaborative
work, e.g. in the context Horizon 2020. Moreover, key areas will be defined, e.g. service and
space, health, work. Finally, a related road map can be developed. For instance, the
development of separate working groups for facility design, health space design, and
workspace design. Thirdly, working group papers will be presented and discussed.
FMI organisation
Mark Mobach chairs the steering group which furthermore consists of Giulia Nardelli,
Herman Kok, Jennifer Konkol, and Keith Alexander. On May 24 2013, during the initial
Prague meeting it was agreed that the FMI topic has relevance for both research and practice.
The initial community of interest being present during the Prague meeting was enthusiastic
about the possibilities to discuss and apply definitions, perspectives and applications of FMI
that may emerge if the topic is seriously grounded in literature and practice. This was
confirmed at the EuroFM Research Network Group meeting in Sofia at October 10 2013. It
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EuroFM Green Paper
was agreed that in the coming year the topic will be elaborated in papers to be presented
during EFMC 2014 in Berlin. The working group FMI consists of a steering group and a
community of interest. Contact details are listed below.
FMI steering group

Giulia Nardelli, Roskilde University, Denmark
Herman Kok, Wageningen University, AAFM, The Netherlands
Jennifer Konkol, Zürich UAS, Switzerland
Keith Alexander, Centre for Facilities Management (CFM), United Kingdom (chair EuroFM
RNG)
Mark Mobach, Hanze UAS Groningen, The Hague UAS, University of Groningen,
Wageningen University, The Netherlands (chair WG3 FMI)
FMI community of interest

Alexandra Kovacs , Vienna University of Technology, Austria
Antje Junghans, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway
Brenda Groen, Saxion UAS, The Netherlands
Eystein Husebye, Norges bygg- og eiendomsforening (NBEF), Norway
Giulia Nardelli, Roskilde University, Denmark
Gunnar Jentzen, Hochtief FM, Switzerland
Herman Kok, Wageningen University, AAFM, The Netherlands
Jennifer Konkol, Zurich UAS, Switzerland
Keith Alexander, Centre for Facilities Management (CFM), United Kingdom
Knut Boge, Oslo and Akershus University College of Applied Sciences, Norway
Marc van der Lee, Sodexo, The Netherlands
Mark Mobach, Hanze UAS Groningen, The Hague UAS, University of Groningen,
Wageningen University, The Netherlands
Michael Schmitt, European Investment Bank, Germany
Nathalie Tramonte, Haute Ecole de la Povince de Liège, Belgium
Olav Egil Sæbøe, Pro-FM Consulting, Norway
Sascha Muckenhaupt, Sodexo, Germany
Suvi Nenonen, Aalto University, Finland
Torben Bernhold, Münster UAS, Germany
Wilfried Hauffen, Baxter, Germany
FMI by mail
FMI steering group

herman.kok@wur.nl; Jennifer.konkol@zhaw.ch; keithalexander47@gmail.com;
mark@noorderruimte.nl; nardelli@ruc.dk
FMI community of interest

alexandra.kovacs@tuwien.ac.at; antje.junghans@ntnu.no; b.h.groen@saxion.nl;
eystein@nbef.no; gunnar.jentzen@ifma.ch; herman.kok@wur.nl; Jennifer.konkol@zhaw.ch;
keithalexander47@gmail.com; knut.boge@hioa.no; marc.vanderlee@sodexo.com;
mark@noorderruimte.nl; mi.schmitt@eib.org; nardelli@ruc.dk; nathalie.tramonte@hepl.be;
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EFMC

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See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

EuroFM Research Papers

Book · June 2014

EuroFM Research View project

Community-based Facilities Management View project

Advancing knowledge in Facilities Management:

PROMOTING INNOVATION IN FM ISBN/EAN 978-94-90694-06-7

Published by the European Facility Management Network (EuroFM)

EUROFM RESEARCH PAPERS

Welcome to the HTW Berlin

Section 1: Facilities Management Innovation

Layout mechanisms that stimulate innovative behaviour of employees 5

Section 2: Added value of FM

Introducing the MINDER research project: Daily energy-efficiency reliability 75

Section 4: Managing people and organisations

Capturing meal experience in nursing homes - an exploratory study 107

Selection of Key Performance Indicators for engineering facilities in

Section 6: Relationship management in Facilities Management

Section 7: Facilities Information Management Systems

Sustainable Facilities Management through Building Information Modelling 214

EUROFM RESEARCH WORKSHOPS

Section 8: Advancing knowledge in Facilities Management

Knowledge Map of Facilities Management 247

Academic Identities and Spatial Narratives 282

Section 10: FM Research World

Strategic FM procurement: An issue of aligning services to business needs 318

Section 11: Research in Progress

Safety and Security matters in FM 350

Ron vann de Weerd Prof Keitth Alexanderr

Prof. Drr. habil. Michhael May

Prof Keith Alexander

Layout mechanisms that stimulate innovative behaviour of employees

Towards an effective workspace design by end-users’ emancipation

EuroFM WG3: FM Innovation

In addressing and discussing Facility Management Innovation (FMI) many different

What exactly is FM?

What combinations proof strongest?

Layout mechanisms that stimulate innovative behaviour of employees

Figure i Causation according to Realistic Evaluation.

2.2 Layout mechanisms

Table 1 Literature on layout mechanisms

Figure ii Conceptual model.

Location inside the room

Compactness Knowledge sharing of

Position in the building # of KS meetings

Figure iiii Examplee of isovists at eye-levell from 2 different workkplaces.

Figure iiv A visibiliity graph exxample.

Figure v Layout caase buildingg.

Table 2 Correlation between layout metrics and amount of KS meetings

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

5 Discussion and Recommendations

Figure vi Visible workplaces and the # of KS meetings.

Berends, J.J. (2003), Knowledge sharing in Industrial Research, Doctoral dissertation,

Facilities Management soft service innovations – “Little bets” as risk

Table 1 The innovation space

4 A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF SOME OF NORWAY’S MAJOR THIRD PARTY

5.1 What are the main categories of FM soft service innovations?

5.2 How do FM soft service innovations take place?

Towards an effective workspace design by end-user emancipation

H.B. (Herman) Kok

M.P. (Mark) Mobach

S.W.F. (Onno) Omta

RQ Does the employees’ organisational position affect their perceived quality of

3 METHODS AND DATA COLLECTION