Upon completion of this Topic, you should be able to:

• Define what is constructivism

• Trace the proponents of constructivism
• Discus the principles of learning derived from constructivism
• Compare the constructivist and traditional classroom

In the Topics 2, 3 and 4, we examined behavioural and cognitive theories of learning. In

this chapter, we discuss another school of thought about learning called constructivism.
Constructivism has its roots in 18th century philosophy. It provides an alternative view of
explaining how humans learn. As the name suggests, it focuses on learners constructing
knowledge based on their prior knowledge and experience. Reality is not in the object
observed or the events experienced but reality is constructed by person. .
5.1 WHAT IS CONSTRUCTIVISM?

Constructivism is not a new concept and its roots can be traced to the work of 18th
century philosopher Giambattista Vico, who held that humans can only clearly
understand what they have constructed themselves. He commented that “one only
knows something if one can explain it”. Another philosopher Immanuel Kant further
elaborated on this idea by asserting that human beings are not passive recipients of
information. More recent advocates of constructivism include John Dewey, Jean Piaget,
Jerome Bruner, von Glaserfeld and Vygotsky.

• Jerome Bruner (1960) He defines constructivism as a learning theory in which

learning is seen as an active process in which learners construct new ideas of
concepts based upon their current and past knowledge.

• Dewey (1916): Education depends on action. Knowledge and ideas emerged

only from a situation in which learners had to draw them out of experiences that
had meaning and importance to them. These situations had to occur in a social
context, such as a classroom, where students joined in manipulating materials
and, thus, creating a community of learners who build their knowledge together.

• Piaget (1930): The growth of human thought occurs through the construction
of knowledge through assimilation and accommodation. Knowledge is not
something that individuals gain from the outside rather it is something that they
gain through their own active experiences, their own acting on the world
physically or mentally to make sense of it.

• Von Glaserfeld (1984): He sees knowledge as being actively received through

the senses or by way of communication and actively constructed by the subject.
The subject interprets and constructs a reality based on his or her experiences
and interaction with his or her environment.

• Vygotsky (1962): A person constructs knowledge through social interaction in

the context of a culture. Culture and social interaction teaches a person both
what to think and how to think.

• Cunningham and Duffy (1996) stated that learning is an active process of

constructing rather than acquiring knowledge. Instruction should be directed
towards supporting that construction of knowledge rather than communicating
or transmitting knowledge.

The main principle of constructivism is that a person interprets events, objects

and perspectives from his or her experiences, mental structures and beliefs. People
construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing
things and reflecting on those experiences. For example, when we encounter something
new, we have to reconcile or settle it with our previous ideas and experiences, maybe
changing what we believe, or maybe discarding the new information as irrelevant [Refer
to the concepts of assimilation and accommodation proposed by Piaget which we
discussed in Chapter 3]. Thus, based on this principle, knowledge is constructed and
not merely reproduced. The knowledge constructed is personal and individualistic. In
other words, we as human actively construct knowledge and knowing is an adaptive
process in which we make sense of the world on the basis of our experiences, goals,
curiosities and beliefs (Wilson and Cole, 1991).

Poison!
Bites!
Kills!

Snake Encounter!!!
What is your initial reaction when you encounter a snake? For most people
the initial reaction is fear and to run away, even though they have not seen a snake
in real-life. For the slightly braver ones, they might come back with a stick or
changkul to kill the snake. Why do we fear snakes? Why do we have the urge to
kill the creature?

We have constructed the concept of fear of snakes based on our prior knowledge
of snakes. This prior knowledge could have been built from what we saw on TV, the
movies or stories we have heard about snakes. The concept of fear is not in the snake
but created by us based on our belief that snakes are evil and cold-blooded killers
capable of dealing quick death in a single venomous strike.
When we encounter new information, we relate it to our previous ideas and
experiences. We are constantly doing something to the new information and what we
already know and in the process create of our own knowledge. To do this, we always
are asking questions, exploring and assessing what we know. According to the
constructivist perspective, knowledge cannot be imposed or transferred intact from the
mind of the knower to the mind of another (see Figure 5.2). If this be the case than
learning and teaching cannot be synonymous. Even if we teach very well, students may
not learn unless they have constructed their own knowledge. By reflecting on our
experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us
generates our own "rules" and "mental models," which we use to make sense of our
experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models
to accommodate new experiences.

Socrates said;
‘I only wish that wisdom were the kind of
thing one could share by sitting next to
someone – if it flowed, for instance, from
the one that was full to the one that was
empty, like the water in two cups finding
its level through a piece of worsted’
(Symposium, 175d).

Figure 5.1 The Greek philosopher

Socrates, talking with some of his
students in Athens

5.1 ACTIVITY
“Even if we teach very well, students may not learn unless
they have constructed their own knowledge”
a) To what extent do you agree with the above statement?
b) Comment on the statement by Socrates in Figure 5.1.

5.3 SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM

Constructivism promotes social and communication skills by creating a

classroom environment that emphasises collaboration and exchange of ideas. Students
must learn how to articulate their ideas clearly as well as to collaborate on tasks
effectively by sharing in group projects. Students must therefore exchange ideas and so
must learn to "negotiate" with others and to evaluate their contributions in a socially
acceptable manner. This is essential to success in the real world, since they will always
be exposed to a variety of experiences in which they will have to cooperate and navigate
among the ideas of others.

The Russian scholar, Lev Vygotsky contributed

much towards our understanding of an important aspect of
constructivism. His career was cut short by his death from
tuberculosis in 1934 at the age of 38. His theory was made
famous when his books Thought and Language (1962) and
Mind in Society (1978) were translated into English. His
ideas formed the basis for social constructivism which
emphasised the importance of social interaction and culture
in the construction of knowledge and learning. According
to him knowledge and learning are constructed through
humans interacting with one another. Knowledge is a
human product that is socially and culturally constructed
(Gredler, 1997).
Lev Vygotsky
1896-1934

But I
only see
Why is Because
a You’re right
there a it just
rainbow there must be
rainbow rained.
when it sun.
? is

1 2

So we need Figure 5.2 Social Construction of

sun and rain Knowledge about ‘Rainbows’
for a rainbow!
[source: Beaumie Kim (2001). Social
constructivism. In M. Orey (Ed). Emerging
perspectives on learning, teaching and
technology.
http://www.coe.uga.edu/epltt/SocialConstructivi
3 sm.htm]
 Learning is not simply the assimilation and accommodation of new knowledge
but acquired by actual relationships between learners. Figure 5.2 shows a simple
example of how ‘knowledge about a rainbow’ is socially constructed from the
interaction between two children. The two children share their personal meaning of a
‘rainbow’ and through the process of negotiation shape their understanding of
rainbows. Vygotsky believed strongly that language and culture play an important role
in the intellectual development of humans. Language and culture are the frameworks
through which humans experience, communicate and understand phenomena. For
example, when you see the colours red, yellow or white in the environment, you do not
merely see colours but more importantly the meaning associated with the colours. You
may associate the colour ‘white’ with clean, pure, reflects light and so forth which are
determined by your culture.

5.4 ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT

Based on his believe that learning is a collaborative process and influenced by

culture, he distinguished two levels of development (see Figure 5.3). The level of Actual
Development is the level of development that the learner has already reached. It is the
level at which the learner is capable of solving problems independently. The level of
Potential Development is the level of development that learners are not capable of doing
at the moment but have the potential to do so. In between the actual and the potential
level, Vygotsky proposed what is called the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
"Proximal" simply means "next". The three stages may be viewed as a check-list of
• what learners can do alone (Actual)
• what learners can do with help (ZPD)
• what learners cannot yet do (Potential)

Figure 5.3 Zone of Proximal Development

 The ZPD is not a permanent state but is the ‘next’ step towards learners being
able to do something on their own. The key is to "stretch" learners to know their ZPD
so that teachers and other adults can lead them towards realising their potential. He
observed that when children were tested on tasks on their own, they rarely did as well
as when they were working in collaboration with an adult. Hence, for him, the
development of language and articulation of ideas was central to learning and
development.

SELF-CHECK
a) What is social constructivism?
b) Explain the zone of proximal development. How would you
apply it in teaching?

5.1
a) What is constructivism?
b) How constructivism different from behaviourism?

5.4 SCAFFOLDING INSTRUCTION

You would have observed that at any construction of a high rise building, a
series of structures called scaffolding are erected. This
is to which permit workers to carry out their work in
high places. When the building is complete, the
scaffolding is removed. Scaffolding instruction
originated from Vygotsky’s ideas on learning. The
term has become a useful metaphor to describe how
teachers help students in learning. Generally, teachers
would focus on the ZPD. Teaching or instruction that
falls outside the zone (above or below a student's ZPD
will not contribute to the intellectual development of
students. Why? It would be pointless to focus on ‘what
learners can do’ or ‘what learners cannot yet do’. So,
the most logical step would be for the teacher to
mediate between learner’s actual development and
Figure 5.4. Teacher potential development; i.e. the ZPD.
scaffolding students by The teacher should act as a scaffold, providing
constantly challenging them the support necessary for learners to proceed towards
the next stage or level and independently complete the
task (see Figure 5.4). To effectively scaffold a student,
a teacher should stay one step ahead of the student, always challenging him or her to
reach beyond his or her current ability level. The challenge for the teacher, then, is to
find the optimal balance between supporting the student and pushing the student to act
independently. The role of the teacher is not teaching students how to perform a task,
but to refine their thinking through engagement and enhancing their performance. The
teacher continually adjusts the level and amount of help in response to the learner’s
level of performance. The purpose of scaffolding is to instil the skills necessary for
independent learning in the future. To effectively scaffold students within their ZPDs,
a teacher could also model the behaviours needed. For example;

• The teacher could model a particular skill that students are weak in
• Students imitate the teacher’s behaviour in performing the skill
• Students practice the skill until it is mastered by all in the classroom.

Scaffolding Activities
• Motivating learners to be interested in the task
• Simplify the task to make it more manageable and achievable
• Keep students on task by focusing on the goals and the path to choose
• Indicate the differences between the learner’s work and the desired standard
• Reduce confusion, frustration and risk by providing clear instructions towards meeting
expectations
• Model the skills required

[source: adaptation of Bransford, J. Brown, A. & Cocking, R,. 2000; McKenzie, J. 2000]

So, scaffolding instruction guides learners towards independent and self-

regulated competence of skills. Since the work that learners have to perform are more
structured and focused time on task is increased and efficiency in completing the task
is increased. Through the structure provided by scaffolding, students spend less time
searching and more time on learning and discovering, resulting in quicker learning
(McKenzie, 2000). Scaffolding instruction minimises the level of frustration among
learners, especially among academically weak learners who become frustrated very
easily, then shut down and refuse to participate in further learning.

SELF-CHECK
a) How do you scaffold instruction?
b) What are some benefits of scaffolding instruction?
c) Is scaffolding the same as giving tuition? Explain
5.5 CONSTRUCTIVISM APPLIED TO TEACHING

Let us now examine how constructivism operates applies to teaching. As

mentioned earlier, constructivism argues that learners construct knowledge individually
and socially. Teaching in a non-constructivist setting, involves imparting a body of
knowledge that has been predetermined by the curriculum. As teachers, we present this
information to learners because we believe that is what they should ‘know’. We may
engage them in activities and hands-on learning, with opportunities to experiment and
manipulate objects. But, our main purpose is still to ‘show’ learners how the facts,
concepts and principles of a body of knowledge are organised and applied. In short, we
merely present content and at no point do we encourage them to ‘construct’ their own
knowledge or understanding of the facts, concepts and principles presented.

In 1786, Francis Light

Penang opened Penang. The island
has was chosen because of its
beautiful location and deep water
beaches harbour.

Figure 5.5 The Teacher presenting information and the learner

constructing his own conception of the information

In Figure 5.5, the teacher is talking about Francis Light and the opening of
Penang. The learner is constructing his own meaning or conception of the information
presented about ‘Penang’. Most probably, the teacher is not aware of the learner’s own
construction of meaning. If we accept the constructivist theory of learning, teachers
have to accept that there is no such thing as knowledge “out there” that is independent
of the learner, but only knowledge learners construct for themselves as they learn. This
may be very much different from what teachers usually do in the classroom. The
constructivist position requires that teachers provide learners with the opportunity to
interact with the information presented and allow them to construct their own meaning
or interpretation of the information. However, the teacher cannot assume that all
learners have the same background knowledge or experiences on which to build new
knowledge. In such situations, the teacher has to design instruction in such a way as to
make the missing connections for learners. In other
5.6 A CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW OF LEARNING

Ernest (1999), Brooks and Brooks (1999) offer the following guiding principles
of constructivism. They argue that when applied to the classroom, the concept of
learning should be viewed differently (see Figure 5.6). Specifically,
• Learning should be viewed an active process in which learners receive
information and constructs meaning out of the information received. The learner
needs to do something, because learning involves the learners engaging with the
world.

Learning is an active (mental or physical)

People learn to learn as they learn

Some Learning involves language
principles of
learning
Learning is a social activity
derived from
constructivism
Learning is contextual

Learning needs knowledge

Learning takes time

Figure 5.6 A Constructivist View of Learning

• It should be understood that people learn to learn as they learn. In other words,
we learn by constructing meaning which in turn influences further learning. For
example, if we learn about climate of different countries, we are simultaneously
learning the meaning of climate. Each meaning we construct makes us better
able to give meaning to other information which can fit a similar pattern.

• Learning involves language. In other words, the language that we use influences
our learning. Language and learning are inextricably intertwined. It is not
surprising that many people talk to themselves as they learn.

• Learning is a social activity. Our learning is closely related with our connection
with other human beings (our teachers, our peers, our family, etc). Much of
present education is directed towards isolating the learner from social
interaction. It is seen as a one-to-one relationship between the learner and the
material to be learned.
 • Learning is contextual. We do not learn facts and theories in isolation, but rather
we learn in relationship to what we know, what we believe, our prejudices and
our fears.

• It should be understood that one needs knowledge to learn. It is not possible to

absorb new knowledge without having some structure developed from previous
knowledge to build on. Therefore, any effort to teach must be connected to the
state of the learner. The learner is brought to interact with the information based
on the learner’s previous knowledge.

• Learning needs time. It takes time to learn because we need to revisit ideas,
ponder on them, try them out, play with them and use them. For example, an
insight into an idea comes about after long periods of thinking and deliberating.

In short, learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with
the issues around which students are actively trying to construct meaning. Meaning
requires understanding wholes as well as parts. And parts must be understood in the
context of wholes. Therefore, the learning process focuses on primary concepts, not
isolated facts. In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that
students use to perceive the world and the assumptions they make to support those
models. The purpose of learning is for an individual to construct his or her own
meaning, not just memorise the "right" answers and regurgitate someone else's
meaning. Since education is inherently interdisciplinary, the only valuable way to
measure learning is to make the assessment part of the learning process, ensuring it
provides students with information on the quality of their learning.

5.7 WHAT HAPPENS IN THE CONSTRUCTIVIST CLASSROOM?

A constructivist classroom is different from non-constructivist classroom.

Generally the teacher in the constructivist classroom guides learning, scaffolds
instruction, help learners in the zone of proximal development and develops the
metacognitive ability of learners [We will discuss metacognition in Chapter 6].
Jacqueline G. Brooks and Martin G. Brooks (1993) offer the following suggestions as
to how constructivism is to be applied in the classroom. According to them, in the
constructivist classroom:

• The ideas and opinions of students are respected

Students are encouraged to express their opinions, give ideas and comments (see
Figure 5.7). This encourages independent thinking among students who take
responsibility for their own thinking.
 Opinion
Idea

Commen Questio
t n

Figure 5.7 Ideas and Opinions of Students are Respected

• Teacher asks questions.

The questions framed encourage students to reflect on their thoughts and attain
their own intellectual identity. Sufficient wait time is given for students’ to
respond to questions.

• Students engage in dialogue with the teacher.

o Encourage students to engage in dialogue, both with you and one
another. Classrooms discourage dialogue and teachers often monopolise
the talking and teaching becomes a lecture.
o Draw students our especially those who are shy or inarticulate.

• Students discuss in groups

Through group discussions, students change or reinforce their ideas. If they have
the chance to present what they think and hear others' ideas, students can build
a personal knowledge base that they understand. Only when they feel
comfortable enough to express their ideas will meaningful classroom dialogue
occur.

• Prompt inquiry by engaging in tasks requiring higher-level thinking

o The questions asked go beyond simple factual response.
o Students are encouraged to make connections, summarise information,
analyse, predict and defend their ideas.
o Students generate and test their hypotheses by manipulating raw data,
primary sources and physical materials. For example, community
resources provide opportunities for students to collect and classify
primary material.
o Students are viewed as thinkers with emerging theories about the world.
 Opinions and ideas of
students are accepted

Students enjoy their

work and want to learn Students become
interested in what is being
studied

Students take
ownership of what is
being studied

Figure 5.8 The Benefits of Student Involvement in Learning

What are the benefits of constructivism? Advocates of constructivism argue that

when the opinions and ideas of students are accepted, they will become more
involved and interested in what is being studied (see Figure 5.8). When students
become involved and interested, they will take ownership in what is being studied
and enjoy their work and want to learn. Constructivist teaching fosters critical and
creates active and motivated learners (Zemelman, Daniels and Hyde, 1993).
Constructivist teaching creates learners who are autonomous, inquisitive thinkers
who question, investigate and reason.

SELF-CHECK
A a) How is constructivist teaching different from traditional
teaching?
b) What problems do you foresee in applying constructivist
principles
in the classroom?
 In its strict sense, CONSTRUCTIVISM:

Curriculum – Constructivism calls for the elimination of a standardised

curriculum. Instead, it promotes using curricula customized to the students' prior
knowledge. Also, it emphasizes hands-on problem solving.

Instruction – Under the theory of constructivism, educators focus on making

connections between facts and fostering new understanding in students. Instructors
tailor their teaching strategies to student responses and encourage students to
analyse, interpret, and predict information. Teachers also rely heavily on open-ended
questions and promote extensive dialogue among students.

Assessment – Constructivism calls for the elimination of grades and standardized

testing. Instead, assessment becomes part of the learning process so that students
play a larger role in judging their own progress.

ACTIVITY
Comment on the implication of constructivism on the
curriculum, instruction and assessment of your subject
area as stated above.

5.8 CASE STUDY: Teaching Science from a Constructivist

Perspective

Non-Constructivist Science Teaching

• Teaching of science tends to resemble a
one-person show with a captive
audience. Lessons are usually driven by
‘teacher-talk’ and depend heavily
textbooks and notes for the structure of
the course.
• There is the idea that there is a fixed
world of knowledge that the student must
know. Information is divided into parts
which are built into a whole concept.
• Teachers serve as pipeline and seek to
transfer their thought and meanings to the passive student. There is little room for
student-initiated questions, independent thought or interaction between students.
• ‘Cook book’ experiments are common where students follow closely the
instructions on what hypotheses to test and method of carrying out experiments.
• The goal of the learner is to regurgitate the accepted explanation or methodology
presented by the teacher.

Constructivist Science Teaching:

• The teacher organises information around problems, questions and issues in order
to engage the interest of students. eg. do a demonstration, show a short film, present
data.
• Next, present some information or data that does not fit with their existing
understanding.
• Students break up into small groups to formulate their own hypotheses and
experiments. They plan their own investigation and activities to resolve the
discrepancy between the new information presented and their previous learning and
understanding.
• The role of the teacher is to move from group to group asking probing questions
that aid students in coming to an understanding of the concept or principle being
studies. The teacher is a resource and facilitator.
• After sufficient time for experimentation, the small groups share their ideas and
conclusions with the rest of the class. The idea is to come to a consensus about what
they learned. Concepts and principles emerge from the discussions and they suggest
how the concepts and skills may be applied to new situations.

ACTIVITY
We have all been in a classroom where the teacher
asks question and students’ hands fly up excitedly
because they feel they know the answer. The teacher
then looks around the room and chooses as student
She answers, and the teacher says, “No”. The teacher
then calls on another student who answers and the
teacher says, “Close but not quite”. The teacher then proceeds to all on
a third student who answers and then the teacher replies, “Yes, that is
the right answer!” The teacher has conveyed many messages by
conducting the classroom in this manner. The student now knows that
there is one answer to the teacher’s questions and that they have to
find that one right answer. Another thing is that students now know
that they put themselves at risk if they raise their hand, unless they
are certain that they have the right answer.

a) Is this an example of a constructivist classroom?

b) If this was a constructivist classroom, how would it be different?
REFERNCES:

• Bransford, J., Brown, A., Cocking, R. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind,
experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

• Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University

Press

• Brooks, J.G. and M.G. Brooks (1993) In Search Of Understanding: The Case
For Constructivist Classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development, 1993.

• Ernest, P. (1991) Philosophy of Mathematics Education, London: Falmer.

Glasersfeld, E. von (1983) “Learning as a Constructive Activity”, in
Proceedings of PME-NA, Vol.1, 41-69.

• Kearsley, G. (1994, 1999). Explorations in learning & instruction: The theory

into practice database. Washington, DC: George Washington University.
Retrieved May 1999, from http://www.gwu.edu/~tip/

• McKenzie, W. (2000). Are you a techno-constructivist?. Retrieved April 21,

2008, from Education Word Website:
http://www.education-world.com/a_tech/tech005.shtml

• Piaget, J. (1972). The psychology of the child. New York: Basic Books.

• Vygotsky, L.S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

• Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University

Press

• Wertsch, J.V. (1985). Cultural, Communication, and Cognition: Vygotskian

Perspectives. Cambridge University Press.

• Wilson, B. G., & Cole, P. (1991). A review of cognitive teaching models.

Educational Technology Reseach & Development, 39 (4), 47-63.

• Winn, W. (1993). A constructivist critique of the assumptions of instructional

design. In T. M. Duffy, J. Lowyck, & D. H. Jonassen (Eds.), Designing
environments for constructive learning (pp. 189-212). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

• Zemelman, S., Daniels, H. and Hyde, A. (1993). Best Practice: New Standards
for Teaching and Learning in America's Schools. Portsmouth: Heinemann.