OLEVEL ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS REVISION NOTES

Compiled by: FAHMEED RAJPUT

Chartered Accountant, Petroleum Engr.
MBA, M.Phil
 Tables and Matrices

Tables of values may often be naturally represented as matrices, and operations performed on
them.

The table below shows the results achieved by four teams in twelve events of an athletics
match. In each event, 1st place scores 5 points, 2nd place scores 3 points, 3rd place scores 2
points and 4th place scores 1 point.

We may use one matrix to represent the results:

and another matrix to represent the point awarded to each place:

Then the total number of points awarded to each team is given by the product of the two
matrices:
This is possible because the places in the table occupy the columns and the place values in the
column vectors occupy the rows. When we multiply as above we sum the total points for each
team.

This method is applicable to a wide variety of situations and suitable for calculation by
computers. It is widely used in spreadsheets.

Amplitude, Period, Maximum and Minimum of Trigonometric Functions

If is a basic trigonometric function – or – then

1. has period if is or and period if is

2. has maximum value of 1 and minimum value of -1
if is or and has no maximum or minimum value if is
The transformation of graph rules are applied in the usual way. This is illustrated above
for This means that the maximum and minimum values of are and respectively,

and the period of is the frequency is

The period and frequency of each curve above are the same since the coefficient of is the
same. The normal transformation rules apply. Adding 1 to sin x moves the curve up 1 and

subtracting from x moves the curve right

 Finding The Area Between Two Curves

The task is to find the shaded area above between the two curves and which intersect at the
points I labelled the curves top and bottom. Using this sophisticated notation, the area is

Sometimes it is not quite so obvious what the equation of either the top or bottom curve is.

The graph is We have to find the area

of the region marked A. The top is obviously
W take as bottom the curve then are the solutions
to so OR so so We have
then

Differentiation
We often have to differentiate functions. For functions of the form it is as simple as
multiplying by the power and subtracting one from the power.

Example:

This extends to multiples and sums of powers of If we remember that and that
when differentiating for these functions too we multiply by the power and subtract one from
the power then,

The process is the same for all powers of fractions and negative powers included:

Whatever form the question is given it we must expression the function to be differentiated in
the form For example,

We write this as then

These are some more examples,

Differentiation is used to find rates of change (when we differentiate with respect to time),
gradients, slopes, tangents and normals.

Maxima and Minima – The Second Differential Criterion

If a curve is sloping up is positive. and if a curve is sloping down then is negative

The graph on the left has increasing – it goes from negative to zero to positive. This means

that the gradient of is positive.

The graph on the right has decreasing – it goes from positive to zero to negative. This means

that the gradient of is negative.

In both cases at the actual turning point (maximum or minimum) the gradient is zero. To

find and classify the turning points we first differentiate and set equal to zero. We solve this

equation to find the x values of the turning points, then differentiate to find and put
the values we have found into this expression. If the value we obtain here is positive then we
have found a minimum for If the value we obtain is negative then we have found a maximum
for If we need to find the – coordinate too we can substitute the – values of the minimum
into the original expression for

To summarise:

To find a turning point solve for

To classify a turning point, put the values of the turning point into the expression for

If this value is positive, we have a minimum, and if it is negative we have a maximum. To find
the – value of the turning point, substitute the – values of the turning point into the
expression for

Example. Find and classify the turning points of

Solve

so the coordinates of the turning point are

Therefore this is a minimum.

Example. Find and classify the turning points of

Solve

When

When
At therefore this is a minimum.

At therefore this is a maximum.

2 x 2 Matrices – Sums, Products Determinants

Determinants and Inverses
Adding Matrices

Matrices add in the natural way:

Example:

Multiplying Matrices: Multiplying is a little more complex. Remember that you multiply
rows by columns.

Example:

Determinants of Matrices: To find the determinant of a matrix multiply diagonal corners

together and subtract.

Example:
Inverses of Matrices

Each entry in the matrix can be divided by in the natural way.

Example:

Velocity and Acceleration

The relationship between displacement, velocity and acceleration are much more general than
is given by the suvat equations, or the simple equations of motion. These equations only apply
for constant acceleration, but in fact the acceleration is not constant in general. The general
relationships are illustrated below.

So for example suppose we have the velocity and we want to find the acceleration. We
differentiate. If we have the velocity and we want to find the displacement, we integrate.

Example:

a) Find the acceleration when

b) Find the displacement s as a function of time if

a) so when
b}

We are told that when so

The Binomial
Binomial Expansion.
The binomial Theorem allows us to expand many brackets without multiplying each bracket
out one by one. It states:

To expand we could expand which would be a very long

winded process. Or we could just substitute for and into the expression for the binomial
expansion. Example: Expand then

which simplifies to

and further to

We may be asked to solve questions involving the coefficients. For example, the coefficient
of in the binomial expansion of is equal to 3 times the coefficient of .Find n.

Using the binomial expansion, the coefficient of is

Using the binomial expansion, the coefficient of is

Hence we can write down the equation

Now we have to perform some trickery:

Practical Vectors
Planes rarely fly in the direction they are pointing. If the wind is blowing and the world is turning the pilot
has to take account of these when he plots a course. Even with modern gps systems available, , it is
beneficial to the pilot to take these into account because of the resulting increase in fuel efficiency. It is
worse though for the sailor, who has to take the tide into account as well

We can deal with these problems by representing the velocities of the wind, tide and boat as vectors, then
using trigonometry to find the course to take or the velocity to travel at.

For example:

A motor boat travels in a straight line across a river which flows at 3m/s between straight parallel banks
200 m apart. The motor boat, which has a top speed of 6m/s in still water, travels directly from a point A
on one bank to a point B, 150m downstream of A, on the opposite bank. Assuming that the motor boat is
travelling at top speed, find, to the nearest second, the time it takes to travel from A to B.

What is the first thing you do? DRAW A DIAGRAM!!

The boat has to steer a course of The river is flowing downstream to
the right at 3m/s. We don't know the direction in which the boat will steer but we do know the
bearing of B from the start point is 36.87 hence the angle BA makes with the horizontal

is We can draw the following diagram:

We need to calculate V, the resultant velocity. Using the sine rule we can find x:

Then

Now use the cosine rule to

find

Then the time to reach B is .

 Integration by Parts
Parts
Integration by parts is used to integrate a product. It is derived from the product rule for
differentiating a product:

We subtract a term from the right hand side to give

and then integrate to give which is usually written

as

It is important to choose and the right way round. If there is an term, then is usually

chosen to be this power, so that the resulting integral term is easier to integrate than
the original integral. It is useful to write down all the terms of the equation first then it becomes
very easy to substitute them all into the formula.

Example: Find

Example:

It is usually the case that if this is possible but there are exceptions. The best example is
when we have to integrate a

Example: Find
Example: Find

To integrate this we have to write

Maximisation or Optimisation Problems

There is only so much to go around, even more so now with the Earth's resources running low
and the price of everything. We have to make the most of what we have, and decide what
things should be used for so that the most use can be got out of them.. W will consider the very
simplest type of problem – how to enclose the most area for a fixed length of fencing. Suppose
then that we have 100m of fencing. The fencing is to enclose a rectangle shaped field, but one
side of the field will be made up of a hedge so we will not need to use the fencing for this side.

From the diagram above the area of fencing is and we have to find
the maximum area and the value of that gives this maximum.
The graph of against Area is shown above. The maximum Area seems to be and the
value of is 25. We could have solved this problem by completing the square:

so when

or by differentiating to find the turning point of

Solving Simple Differential Equations

Simple differential equations take the form We have to solve the equation to find as
a function of We do this by putting all the 's on the right and integrating. Normally when
we integrate we have to add a constant. We can find the value of this constant if we are told a
point on the curve.

For example, dy over The point lies on the curve. Find as a function of

We now have to find C. We are told in the question that y=0 when x=5. Hence

Example: The point lies on the curve. Find y as a function of x.

We now have to find C. We are told in the question that when Hence
Example The point lies on the curve. Find as a function of

We now have to find C. We are told in the question that when Hence

Tangents and Normals

Normals
A tangent or normal to a curve is a line, taking the form where is the gradient
and is the intercept. Given a function we can find the gradient at by finding the

gradient function and substituting the value into this expression. Sometimes however
we don't have so is not given explicitly as a function of In these cases typically we

have to differentiate implicitly and find as a function of both and and then substitute a

point into the expression for to find the gradient at that point. Finally substitute into
the equation to find the equation of the line.

Example: Find the equation of the tangent to the curve at the point

We differentiate implicitly to get The gradient at the point

is

Example: Find the equation of the tangent to the curve at the point
We differentiate implicitly to get We have to make the subject of
this equation.

The gradient at the point is

Example: Find the equation of the normal to the curve at the point

We differentiate implicitly to get We have to make the subject of

this equation.

The gradient at the point is

 Solving Quadratic Inequalities

We may be given the curve and asked to find the set of values of for which
We can start by sketching the curve and obtain:

We can just read the solutions off here:

or We could have factorised the

expression for to obtain and solved to obtain hence the

set of values of

For the quadratic above, since the coefficient of is 1 which is positive, we know it will be a
“bum” curve,so the set of solutions for will come in two parts, or
The curve shown above is We are asked for example to find the set of values of
for which We can see from the graph that there is only one set of values: We
could have factorised the expression for to obtain and
solved to obtain hence we could write down the set of values
of

The curve shown is We are asked

to solve The curve is a “breast” curve and we can read off the solutions or

We can also factorise the expression for to obtain and solve hence
finding the set of solutions just given.
 The Remainder
Remainder Theorem

The Remainder Theorem is the generalized form of The Factor Theorem.

The Remainder Theorem

When a polynomial expression is divided by a linear factor the remainder

is If then is a factor of

Example:

Show that is a factor of

therefore is a factor.

Example

If the remainder when is divided by is 3 and the remainder when is divided

by is 4, find and

Remainder of on division by is
Remainder when p(x) is divided by is

We solve the simultaneous equations

(1)

(2)

(1)+2*(2) gives then from (2)

Then

Using Straight Line Graphs to Find the Relationship Between Two Quantities
A linear relationship is the easiest relationship to decode ie. find a relationship for. It may be that even if
two quantities are not in a linear relationship, functions of the quantities can be found that do bear a linear
relationship. We may then plot graphs of the functions, and if the relationship appears linear we may write
down a linear relationship between the two functions over the range of observations.

In attempting to find a straight line relationship we may try logarithmic, reciprocal or power relationships.
We can plot products of powers of and against logs of functions of and We are looking to obtain a
straight line relationship. Towards this end we make the following observations:

If the graph curves up the taking or a root of – or equivalently, exponentiating or raising to

some power – will tend to straighten the curve out, but often some foresight is needed. There is a positive
relationship between and in the table below,
0.100 0.125 0.160 0.200 0.400

0.050 0.064 0.085 0.111 0.286

since both increase together, but the relationship is not linear since the gradient between

is not the same as

for

We can take the reciprocals of both and and plot against The transformed data is
 10.0 8.0 6.3 5.0 2.5

20.0 15.6 11.8 9.0 3.5

The graph below shows an excellent fit to a straight line with equation

The Factor Theorem

We can use the factor theorem to find if a particular value of is a root of a polynomial
equation or to find out if a particular linear factor divides a polynomial perfectly, with no
remainder.

The Factor Theorem

If is a factor of the polynomial then has no remainder or

equivalently,

We show uses of the factor theorems in the following examples.

Example: Show that is a factor of

Solve to get

therefore is a factor of

Example: Find the polynomial with with integer coefficients whose roots are
If these are the roots, the factors are or or and hence we
expand and simplify to get #

Example: When is divided by or the remainder is zero. Find

a and hence find the polynomial

Remainder 0 when is divided by

Remainder 0 when is divided by

Now we solve the simultaneous equations

(1)

(2)

Hence
 Logarithms
There are several “Laws” of Logarithms. They are:

The bases seem to cancel in the first expression

and to swap with the argument in the second.

Ie we eliminate a log by raising the base to the power of both sides.

Problems involving logs usually reduce to a simple linear or quadratic equation.

Example:

Use the first rule to obtain a single log.

Use the sixth rule to eliminate the log.

Expand this and simplify.

Factorise and solve.

Example:

We must make the bases the same for both logs. We can do this with the

second case of the fifth rule: We have,

Substitute to give and multiply throughout by p:

Subtract and simplify to give, then factorise.

So,

or
 Differentiation – The Product Rule

You may know hoe to differentiate a simple function such as or Generally functions
are built out of these simple functions to make more complicated functions and we must learn
to differentiate these more complicated functions too. The simplest way two functions can be
combined to make a more complicated function is to multiply them. Then they can be
differentiated using the product rule:

The Product Rule:

If a function h consists of two simpler functions and multiplied together, then

Example: Differentiate

It is a good habit to get into to write down and then you can just substitute them

into the expression for

Example: Differentiate
The product rule can be used repeatedly with any number of products.

If a function h consists of three simpler functions and multiplied together, then

Example: Differentiate

Combinations and Permutations

This topic deals with the numbers of ways ways we can pick a selection from a number of
possible combinations. For instance, suppose we have 10 people lined up and we have to pick a
team of 4.

The number of ways we can pick 4 from 10 is written or

Working from first principles we can pick the first from 10, the second from 9, the third from
8, the fourth from 7, hence 10*9*8*7=5040. But the order of the picking will not matter here.
The four people can be picked in any order and we have not taken account of this. To take
account of this objection we notice that 4 people can be arranged in 4*3*2*1=4!=24 ways, so
now we divide 5040 by 24 to get 210.

The order did not matter for the above question, but sometimes the order does matter, For
example 10 runners in a race will obviously differentiate between first, second and third place.
In this case we find different possibilities.
Sometimes we have combinations of combinations. Suppose we have 6 men and 5 women. We
have to form from these a team of 4 men and 3 women. We can pick the four men in
different ways and the 3 women in different ways. The choices of men and women are
completely independent. INDEPENDENT! That should ring a bell. If probabilities are
independent we multiply, and so with combinations. Hence the number of ways in which we
can pick four men and three women from 6 men and five women is

Sometimes though, we have to write down list of possible arrangements because not every
arrangement is acceptable.

Suppose a committee of 5 people is to be selected from 6 men and 4 women. We are required
to find the number of selections which has more men than women.

We could have 5 men and no women: possible choices.

We could have 4 men and 1 woman: possible choices.

We could have 3 men and 2 woman: possible choices.

Hence there are 6+60+120 possibilities.

Completing the Square and Solving Quadratic Equations

Completing the square make it possible to find the maximum of minimum value of a quadratic function without
sketching it., or to solve quadratic equations without using the quadratic formula.. We start with an expression
to express in the form

We might multiply this out to obtain Now we equate to this and solve for the
coefficients a, b, c.

Example: Complete the square for the expression

Equating coefficients of

Equating coefficients of

Equating constant terms:

Hence in completed square form is

Having completed the square we can solve the equation

Example: Complete the square for the expression Hence solve the equation

Equating coefficients of

Equating coefficients of

Equating constant terms:

Hence in completed square form is

Now we can solve

Differentiation – The Quotient Rule

The quotient rule is used when two functions are divided – they form a quotient of the

form

The Quotient Rule:

If a function h consists of two simpler functions and with then

(1)

Proof:
At this point we perform the sort of trick common in maths. We take from the first
term and add it to the second. We can then factorise and simplify.

and and if we we let then in the

denominator, We then obtain (1).

Example: Differentiate

It is a good habit to get into to write down and then you can just substitute them

into the expression for

Example: Differentiate
 Solving Absolute Value Equations

Most equations of the form have two solutions. If we sketch the graphs
of the graphs will cross at two points which will be the solutions to the
equations. For the graphs

(blue) and (red)

We can either read off the solutions or solve algebraically in the following way. When the
modulus signs are removed the result can either be positive or negative.

or

or

or

Solving Exponential Equations

The simplest sort of exponential equation is of the form By inspection because
However not all equations can be solved by inspection even if they are of the simple form given above.

The equation has no simple integer solutions. This equation can only be solving by taking the log of
both sides:
and then using the power rule for logs:

to 4 significant figures.

Slightly more complicated are expressions where is a power on both sides, for example,

We log both sides to get

Rearrangement of this expression gives

Now we can factorise this expression with x as a common factor on the left hand side to give

to 4 decimal places.

Sometimes an equation may have to be rearranged to express it in one of the above forms. For

example, We use the rule

Then we can log both sides as above

As before we rearrange this equation to make x the subject: to 3 significant figures.

Solving Quadratic Exponential Equations by Substitution

Some exponential equations can be factorised in linear factors. The simplest can be factorised
into quadratic equations. We then put each factor equal to zero and solve it.

Example: Solve (1)

Factorise to get
 or

The above equation has two solutions. In general, as for quadratic equations, an exponential
which can be expressed as two factors can have one, two or no solutions. It is convenient to
make clear the connection by expressing the original equation as a quadratic using the
substitution Then and equation (1) above becomes This equation
factorises to give so Since the original equation was expressed in terms
of we still have to find but we can use the substitution with the values of that we
have found, to find

or

Example: Solve

Substitute to get and factorise this expression to give

This has no solution since there is no real log of a

negative number.

Example: Solve

Substitute to get and factorise this expression to give

This has no solution since there is no real log of a

negative number. This has no solution since there is no real log of a negative number hence the
equation has no solutions.

Solving Trigonometric Equations

The basic and curves are given on the left below and on the right below:
 – blue black

We have typically to solve equations such as

1. We start by making cosx the subject:

2. We take the inverse cos:

Now is the tricky part. There is more than one solution for We have found one. The other
solutions are given by using the symmetry of the cosine graph. It is symmetric about 180 We
are using degrees here. The solutions are

41.41, 360-41.41, 360+41.41, 720-41.41, 720+41.41, 1080-41.41, 1080+41.41 ....degrees

Example: Solve

Now we use the symmetry of the sin curve. The solutions are

17.46, 180-17.46, 360+17.46, 540-17.46, 720+17.46,900-17.46 ....degrees

Example: Solve
Now we we the property of the tan curve that it repeats every 180 degrees. The solutions are

60.26, 180+60.26, 360+60.26, 540+60.26, 720+60.26, 900+60.26.....degrees