Models of Communication

Communication models are systematic representations of the process

which helps in understanding how communication works can be done. Models
show the process metaphorically and in symbols. They form general
perspectives on communication by breaking communication from complex to
simple and keeps the components in order. Communication models can
sometimes encourage traditional thinking and stereotyping but can also omit
some major aspects of human communication.

Methods and channels of communication to be used and the purpose of

communication, must be considered before choosing a specific
communication model. Models are used by business companies and other
firms to foster their communication, explore their options and to evaluate their
own situations. It is also used to understand how the receivers will interpret
the message.

Linear Model of Communication

Linear model of communication is a simple one way communication model.

The message flows in a straight line from sender to the receiver. There is no
concept of feedback. The only task that a receiver does here is to receive the
message. Different models that follow linear model of communication are:

 Lasswell’s Model
 Aristotle’s Model
 Shannon Weaver Model
 Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model

Transactional Model of Communication

In transactional model, senders and receivers both are known as

communicators and both play equally important role in communication.
Transactional model relates communication with social reality, cultural up-
bringing and relational context (relationships). Non-verbal feedback like
gestures, body language, is also considered as feedback in this
model. Different models that follow transactional model of communication are:

 Barnlund’s Transactional Model

 Helical Model
  Becker’s Mosaic Model

Interactive Model of Communication

Interactive model or convergence model is similar to transactional model as

they are both two way communication model. But, interactive model is mostly
used for new media like internet. Here, people can respond to any mass
communications like videos, news, etc. People can exchange their views and
ideas. Different models that follow interactive model of communication are:

 Schramm’s Interactive Model

Other Communication Models

Dance’s Helical Spiral of Communication

In 1967, Dance made a communication model based on a helix known

as helical model. He explains how a child learns to communicate and the child
grows up and continues to communicate. Communication depends on
previous experiences and activities of the speaker according to this model.

Westley and MacLean’s Conceptual Model

Westley and MacLean’s model explains the difference between interpersonal

and mass communication as feedback. Feedback can be direct in
interpersonal communication whereas indirect in mass communication.
According to this model, communication starts from the environment and not
when the message is spoken or shown.
Shannon and Weaver Model Of
Communication
Shannon Weaver model of communication was created in 1948 when Claude
Elwood Shannon wrote an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication”
in Bell System Technical Journalwith Warren Weaver.

Shannon was an American mathematician whereas Weaver was a scientist.

The Mathematical theory later came to be known as Shannon Weaver model
of communication or “mother of all models.” This model is more
technological than other linear models.

Concepts in Shannon Weaver Model

Sender (Information source) – Sender is the person who makes the
message, chooses the channel and sends the message.

Encoder (Transmitter) –Encoder is the sender who uses machine, which

converts message into signals or binary data. It might also directly refer to the
machine.

Channel –Channel is the medium used to send message.

Decoder (Receiver) – Decoder is the machine used to convert signals or

binary data into message or the receiver who translates the message from
signals.

Receiver (Destination) –Receiver is the person who gets the message or the
place where the message must reach. The receiver provides feedback
according to the message.

Noise –Noise is the physical disturbances like environment, people, etc.

which does not let the message get to the receiver as what is sent.
Explanation of Shannon Weaver Model
The sender encodes the message and sends it to the receiver through a
technological channel like telephone and telegraph. The sender converts the
message into codes understandable to the machine. The message is sent in
codes through a medium.

The receiver has to decode the message before understanding it and

interpreting it. The receptor machine can also act as a decoder in some
cases. The channel can have noise and the receiver might not have the
capacity to decode which might cause problems in communication process.

Here, for instance, brain might be the sender, mouth might be

the encoder which encodes to a particular language, air might be the
channel, another person’s ear might be the receptor and his brain might be
the decoder and receiver.
Similarly, air is the channel here, the noise present in his environment that
disturbs them is the noise whereas his response is the feedback. There were
only 5 components when the model was made. Noise was added later.

As Shannon was an engineer, this model was first made to improve technical
communication, mainly for telephonic communication. It was made to to
maximize telephone capacity with minimum noise.

Later, Weaver applied it for all kind of communications to develop effective

communication and the model became famous as Shannon Weaver model. In
engineering, Shannon’s model is also called information theory and is used
academically to calculate transmission through machines and also has a
formula.

Example of Shannon Weaver Model

A businessman sends a message via phone text to his worker about a
meeting happening about their brand promotion. The worker does not receive
the full message because of noise. It goes like this:

Businessman: We have a meeting at the office (“at 8 am” goes missing due to
phone network disruption or noise)

Worker (feedback) : At what time?

Here,

Sender: Businessman

Encoder: Telephone network company

Channel: Mobile network

Noise: Missing text due to disruption

Decoder: Mobile phone

Receiver: Worker

The transmission error is the noise in this case. The feedback lets the
businessman know that the message reached incomplete. The receiver gets
the chance to get the full message only after his feedback.

Levels of Communication Problems

There are three levels of problems of communication according to Shannon
Weaver. They are:

1. Technical problem –How a channel causes a problem

2. Semantic problem –Is the meaning of message sent and received very
different
3. Effectiveness problem –How effectively does the message cause
reaction

Advantages of Shannon Weaver Model

 Concept of noise helps in making the communication effective by
removing the noise or problem causing noise.
 This model takes communication as a two way process. It makes the
model applicable in general communication.
 Communication is taken as quantifiable in Shannon Weaver model.

Criticisms of Shannon Weaver Model

 It can be applied more for interpersonal communication than group
communication and mass communication.
 Receiver plays the passive part in the communication process as sender
plays the primary role that sends messages.
 Feedback is taken as less important in comparison to the messages sent
by the sender.
 The model is taken by some critics as a “misleading misrepresentation of
the nature of human communication” as human communication is not
mathematical in nature.
Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication
In 1960, David Berlo postulated Berlo’s Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver
(SMCR) model of communication from Shannon Weaver’s Model of
Communication (1949). He described factors affecting the individual
components in the communication making the communication more efficient.

The model also focuses on encoding and decoding which happens before
sender sends the message and before receiver receives the message
respectively.

Berlo’s Model has mainly, four components to describe the communication

process. They are sender, message, channel and receiver. Each of the
component is affected by many factors.
Components of Berlo’s Model of Communication
S -Sender

Sender is the source of the message or the person who originates the
message. The person or source sends the message to the receiver. The
following are the factor related to sender and is also the same in the case of
receiver.

 Communication Skills
Communication skills of a person is a factor that affects the
communication process. If the sender has good communication skills, the
message will be communicated better than if the sender’s
communication skills are not good. Similarly, if the receiver can not grasp
the message, then the communication will not be effective.
Communication skills include the skills to speak, present, read, write,
listening, etc.
 Attitude
The attitude of the sender and the receiver creates the effect of the
message. The person’s attitude towards self, the receiver and the
environment changes the meaning and effect of the message.
 Knowledge
Familiarity with the subject of the message makes the communicated
message have its effect more. Knowledge on the subject matter makes
the communicator send the message effectively.
 Social Systems
Values, beliefs, laws, rules, religion and many other social factors affect
the sender’s way of communicating the message. It creates difference in
the generation of message. Place and situation also fall under social
systems.
 Culture
Cultural differences make messages different. A person from one culture
might find something offensive which is very much accepted in another
culture.

M-Message

A message is the substance that is being sent by the sender to the receiver. It
might be in the form of voice, audio, text, video or other media. The key
factors affecting the message are

 Content
Content is the thing that is in the message. The whole message from
beginning to end is the content.
 Elements
Elements are the non verbal things that tag along with the content like
gestures, signs, language, etc.
  Treatment
Treatment is the way in which the message is conveyed to the receiver.
Treatment also effects the feedback of the receiver.
 Structure
The structure of the message or the way it has been structured or
arranged, affects the effectiveness of the message.
 Code
Code is the form in which the message is sent. It might be in the form of
language, text, video, etc.

C-Channel

Channel is the medium used to send the message. In mass

communication and other forms of communication, technical machines might
be used as a channel like telephone, internet, etc. But in general
communication, the five senses of a human being is the channel for the
communication flow and it affects the effectiveness of the channel.

 Hearing – We receive the message through hearing.

 Seeing – We perceive through seeing. We also get non-verbal messages
by seeing.
 Touching – Many of the non-verbal communication happens from
touching like holding hands.
 Smelling – We collect information from smelling.
 Tasting – Taste also provides the information to be sent as a message.

R- Receiver

Receiver is the person who gets the message sent in the process. This model
believes that the thinking pattern and all other factors mentioned above must
be in sync to that of the sender for the communication to be effective. The
message might not have the same effect as intended if the receiver and
sender are not similar. The receiver must also have a very good listening skill.
Other factors are similar to that of the sender.

 Communication skills
 Attitudes
 Knowledge
 Social Systems
 Culture
Criticisms of Berlo’s SMCR Model
 There is no concept of feedback, so the effect is not considered.
 There is no concept of noise or any kind of barriers in communication
process.
 It is a linear model of communication, there is no two way
communication.
 Both of the people must be similar according to all the factors mentioned
above.
Helical Model of Communication
“If you’re born today, you’ve limited expressions”- Frank Dance
Frank Dance proposed a communication model inspired by a helix in 1967,
known as Helical Model of Communication. A helix is a three dimensional
spring like curve in the shape of a cylinder or a cone.

Frank Dance proposed a communication model inspired by a helix in 1967,

known as Helical Model of Communication. A helix is a three dimensional
spring like curve in the shape of a cylinder or a cone.

Helix is compared with evolution of communication of a human since birth to

existence or existing moment. Helical model gives geometrical testimony of
communication. The model is linear as well as circular combined and
disagrees the concept of linearity and circularity individually.

Concept of Helical Model of Communication

Helical model of communication introduces the concept of time where
continuousness of the communication process and relational interactions are
very important. Communication is taken as a dynamic process in helical
model of communication and it progresses with age as our experience and
vocabulary increases.

At first, helical spring is small at the bottom and grows bigger as the
communication progresses. The same effect can be seen with communication
of humans, where you know nothing about a person at first and the knowledge
grows steadily as you know the person better. It considers all the activities of
the person, from the past and present.

Communication is affected by the curve from which it emerges which denotes

past behavior and experiences. Slowly, the helix leaves its lower levels of
behavior and grows upward in a new way. It always depends on the lowest
level to form the message. Thus, the communicative relationship reaches to
the next level in which people share more information.

Communication is supposed to be continuous and non-repetitive. It is always

growing and accumulative.

Example of Helical Model of Communication

A child crying at birth signifies the communication of the child to its parents
that he/she is alive. After some years, the child cries whenever the child
needs anything like food or attention. He/she learns words and starts
communicating with words.
The child learns specific languages and communicates with the people who
know the language that he/she knows. Communication becomes more
complex as the child grows into adult and to the existing moment. The adult
uses the same pronunciations and use of words or facial expressions that
he/she learned when he/she was a child. Communication is directly
dependent on his/her past behavior as a child but can also modify as the
person grows.

In this example, communication evolves with the child crying. This is where
the helix is small at the bottom. And he continues communication, the helix
gradually grows. When the communication becomes more complex, the spiral
grows wider. From then on, it grows steadily as his life goes on.

Advantages of Helical Model of Communication

 The model assumes sender and receiver to be interchangeable and

makes communication process to be two way.
 The model takes the communication process speculative and intellectual.

Disadvantages of Helical Model of Communication

 The model is taken as more simple than it should be.

 Some critics don’t take it to be a model as it has very few variables.
 It is not testable because it is abstract.
 It is not represent in a systematic and orderly way.
 Variables cannot be differentiated in this model.
 Continuity may not always be true for communication. There might be
breaks in situations as well as events can be meaningless, forced or
unproductive.
 The purpose of communication is not always growth.
Westley and MacLean’s Model of
Communication
Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication was suggested by Bruce
Westley (1915-1990) and Malcolm S. MacLean Jr. (1913-2001) in 1957. This
model was an adaptation from Newcomb’s model of communication, which
talked about co-orientation for simultaneous orientation in a two way
communication. It also consisted of some concepts from Lewin’s model.

Unlike Dance’s Helical Model of Communication, the model says that

communication does not begin when one person starts speaking, but it does
when a person responds to something from his/her surroundings. The person
must first receive message from the environment and then, he/she responds
according to his/her object of orientation.

The Westley and MacLean’s model can be applied in two contexts:

interpersonal and mass communication, the point of difference being the
feedback. Feedback is direct and fast in interpersonal communication and
indirect and slow in mass communication. The model also differentiates
message as purposive and non-purposive.

[Related Reading: Models of Communication]

Components of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

The major components in the communication process for the model are

 Source (A) – Source is the message creator and sender.

 Environment (X) – Environment is the physical and psychological
situation where the message is being created and sent.
 Sensory experience (X1…) – Sensory experience is the first thing that
the source sees by which the source gets the idea for the formation of
the message.
 Objects of Orientation (X1, X2,…) – Objects of orientation is the
person’s social and cultural reality that has formed from his/her past
experiences and teachings.
 Message Interpretation or Coding (X’) – Message is interpreted with
the objects of orientation of the receiver of the message.
  Receiver (B) – The person who gets the message sent by the source
and the person who interprets according to his/her objects of orientation.
 Object of Orientation of Receiver (X, b) – The views and ideas of the
receiver or his/her social reality is his/her object of orientation. That is
how the receiver interprets the message.
 Feedback (f) – The receiver forms another message after interpreting
the message and sends it back to the sender. It is known as feedback.
 Gatekeeper (C) – Gatekeepers are found in mass communication. The
gatekeeper is the editor who filters the message as per the needs of the
audience and media institution.
 Opinion Leader – Opinion leaders are well known and recognized
people who can influence public opinions.

Concepts of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

The process of communication in Westley and MacLean’s model of

communication starts when the source creates a message from his/her
environment. The communicator acts and creates the message as a response
to the sensory experience with his/her own objects of orientation.

Then, the response is coded after interpreting the environmental response.

The coded message is transmitted to a second respondent who interprets the
message differently according to his/her objects of orientation and provide
feedback to the sender.

Gatekeeper and opinion leader are the parts of communication process in

mass communication. They are the editors, proofreaders, etc. who choose
which message should be published and what effect will it have on the
audience. Filter of the message is dependent on many factors.
Gatekeeping is done in these levels:

1. Individual level: A person’s gender, sexual orientation, culture, likes,

dislikes, etc.
2. Routine practice level: Pre-established set of rules and practices for a
particular type of work to be done
3. Communication organizations: The policies of the organization that is
publishing the work
4. Social institutions: The social systems by which the message is formed
 5. Societies: Societal values and belief systems, rules and norms, etc.

Example of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

A person ‘A’ is going to a meeting. Thunderstorms ‘X1’ and heavy rains ‘X2’
start. The roads ‘X3’ are all blocked. ‘A’ will have to convey the message to
the people who are conducting the meeting that he/she will not be reaching on
time. ‘A’ can inform all others through phone.

Here, the message is conceived from the environmental message through the
person’s sensory experience. The object of orientation of the person makes
him call others because he thinks that reaching late is impolite. Sender ‘A’
creates the message as a courteous request.

The message is coded in a language form and is sent to the receiver ‘B’. ‘B’
interprets according to his/her own object of orientation like the receiver can
still find reaching late to a meeting rude. The feedback is given accordingly.

Similarly, in mass communication, ‘A’ sends a message to ‘C’ who is the

editor. ‘C’ acts as a gatekeeper and publishes the news after proper editing.
There might be readers’ ‘B’ replies to which are in the form of letters or directly
face to face. The process of letter reaching the writer takes a long time
whereas direct review reaches fast.

In a website, there are many writers. They write and send the articles to get
them published. But the editor chooses the articles that are relevant. The
comment box is the place where the audience can give feedback.

Here,

1. X1 is any article
2. X2 is the audience comments
3. X3 is the website
4. f is feedback
5. A is writers
6. B is the audience
7. C is the gatekeeper or the editor
So,

 there is a feedback loop between Audience (B) and the Editor (C) after
sending the article for publishing, which is known as “fBC”.
 There is a feedback loop between Editor (C) and Writer (A) giving
response to the writers, which is known as “fCA”.
 There is another feedback loop between Audience (B) and the Writers
(A) in the comments, which is known as “fBA”.

The message received from the environment can be accidental or abrupt, so

might not be intentional. So, the signals can be received anytime and
message is formed anytime.

Advantages of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

 There is the concept of feedback.

 As the message comes from the environment, sensory field improves the
message formation.
 Social and other factors are included in objects of orientation.
 The model can be applied to interpersonal, group communication as well
as mass communication.
 The model is very descriptive.

Disadvantages of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

 There are many variables even for simple communication which makes
the model very complicated.
 The model is only two-dimensional and does not explain communication
which involves multiple messages and complicated messages.
 The information can get modified while sending it from the sender to the
receiver as there can be noise. The model does not account for noise in
communication.