Moving Coil Galvanometer

Moving coil galvanometer is an electromagnetic device that can measure small values of current. It consists of
permanent horseshoe magnets, coil, soft iron core, pivoted spring, non-metallic frame, scale and pointer.

Principle

Torque acts on a current carrying coil suspended in the uniform magnetic field. Due to this, the coil rotates.
Hence, the deflection in the coil of a moving coil galvanometer is directly proportional to the current flowing
in the coil.

Construction of the Galvanometer

The construction of the potentiometer is shown in the figure below.

The moving coil, suspension, and permanent magnet are the main parts of the galvanometer.

Moving Coil – The moving coil is the current carrying part of the galvanometer. It is rectangular or circular
and has the number of turns of fine copper wire. The coil is freely moved about its vertical axis of symmetry
between the poles of a permanent magnet. The iron core provides the low reluctance flux path and hence
provides the strong magnetic field for the coil to move in.

Suspension – The coil is suspended by a flat ribbon which carries the current to the coil. The other current
carrying coil is the lower suspension whose torque effect is negligible. The upper suspension coil is made up
of gold or copper wire which is made in the form of a ribbon. The mechanical strength of the wire is not very
strong, and hence the galvanometers handle carefully without any jerks.

Mirror – The suspension carries a small mirror which casts the beam of light. The beam of light placed on the
scale on which the deflection is measured.

Torsion Head – The torsion head is used for controlling the position of the coil and for adjusting the zero
setting.
Working

Let PQRS be a single turn of the coil. A current I flows through the coil. In a radial magnetic field, the plane
of the coil is always parallel to the magnetic field. Hence the sides QR and SP are always parallel to the field.
So, they do not experience any force. The sides PQ and RS are always perpendicular to the field.

PQ = RS = l, length of the coil and PS = QR = b, breadth of the coil. Force on PQ, F = BI (PQ) = BIl.
According to Fleming’s left-hand rule, this force is normal to the plane of the coil and acts outwards.

Force on RS, F = BI (RS) = BIl. This force is normal to the plane of the coil and acts inwards. These two
equal, oppositely directed parallel forces having different lines of action constitute a couple and deflect the
coil. If there are n turns in the coil, the moment of the deflecting couple = n BIl – b

Hence the moment of the deflecting couple = nBIA

When the coil deflects, the suspension wire is twisted. On account of elasticity, a restoring couple is set up in
the wire. This couple is proportional to the twist. If θ is the angular twist, then, the moment of the restoring
couple = Cθ, where C is the restoring couple per unit twist. At equilibrium, deflecting couple = restoring
couple nBIA = Cθ

Hence we can write, nBIA = Cθ

I = (C / nBA) × θ where C is the torsional constant of the spring; i.e. the restoring torque per unit twist. The
deflection θ is indicated on the scale by a pointer attached to the spring.

The sensitivity of Moving Coil Galvanometer

The sensitivity of a Moving Coil Galvanometer is defined as the ratio of the change in deflection of the
galvanometer to the change in current. Therefore we write, Sensitivity = dθ/di. If a galvanometer gives a
larger deflection for a small current it is said to be sensitive. The current in Moving Coil galvanometer is: I =
(C/nBA) × θ

Therefore, θ = (nBA/C) × I. Differentiating on both sides wrt I, we have: dθ/di = (nBA/C). The sensitivity of
Moving Coil Galvanometer increases by:

 Increasing the no. of turns and the area of the coil,

 Increasing the magnetic induction and
 Decreasing the couple per unit twist of the suspension fibre.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
  Sensitivity increases as the value of n, B, A increases and value of k decreases.
 The eddy currents produced in the frame bring the coil to rest quickly, due to the coil wound over the
metallic frame.

Disadvantages

 Its sensitivity cannot be changed at will.

 Overloading can damage any type of galvanometer.

Applications of Galvanometer
The galvanometer has following applications. They are

 It is used for detecting the direction of current flows in the circuit. It also determines the null point of
the circuit. The null point means the situation in which no current flows through the circuit.
 It is used for measuring the current.
 The voltage between any two points of the circuit is also determined through galvanometer.

It is a device used to accelerate charged particles like protons, deutrons, αα-particles, etc, to very high
energies.

PRINCIPLE :
A charged particle can be accelerated to very high energies by making it pass through a moderate electric field
a number of times. This can be done with the help of a perpendicular magnetic field which throws the charged
particle into a circular motion, the frequency of which does not depend on the speed of the particle and the
radius of the circular orbit.

CONSTRUCTION :
As shown in figure, a cyclotron consists of the following main parts:

1. It consists of two small, hollow, metallic half-cylinders D1D1 and D2D2 called dees,dees as they are in
the shape of D1D2.
2. They are mounted inside a vacuum chamber between the poles of a powerful electromagnet.
3. The dees are connected to the source of high frequency alternating voltage of few hundred kilovolts.
4. The beam of charged particles to be accelerated is injected into the dees near their centre, in a plane
perpendicular to the magnetic field.
5. The charged particles are pulled out of the dees by a deflecting plate (which is negatively charged) through
a window WW.
6. The whole device is in high vacuum (pressure ∼10−6∼10−6 mm of Hg) so that the air molecules may not
collide with the charged particles.

THEORY :
Let a particle of charge qq and mass mm enter a region of magnetic field B→B→ with a
velocity v→v→ normal to the field B→B→. The particle follows a circular path, the necessary centripetal
force begin provided by the magnetic field. Therefore,

Magnetic force on charge qq = Centripetal force on charge qq

or
qvBsin90o=mv2rqvBsin⁡90o=mv2r or r=mvqBr=mvqB
Period of revolution of the charged particle is given by

T=2πrv=2πv.mvqB=2πmqBT=2πrv=2πv.mvqB=2πmqB
Hence frequency of revolution of the particle will be

fc=1T=qB2πmfc=1T=qB2πm
Clearly,this frequency is independent of both the velocity of the particle and the radius of the orbit and is
called cyclotron frequency or magnetic resonance frequency.This is the key fact which is made use of in the
operation of a cyclotron.

WORKING :
Suppose a positive ion,say a proton,enters the gap between the two dees and finds dee D1 to be negative.It
gets accelerated towards dee D1D1.As it enters the dee D1D1,it does not experience any electric field due
to shielding effect of the metallic dee. The perpendicular magnetic field throws it into a circular path.At the
instant the proton comes out of dee D1D1,,it finds dee D1D1 positive and dee D2D2. It moves faster
through D2D2 describing a larger semicircle than before. Thus if the frequency of the applied voltage is kept
exactly the same as the frequency of revolution of the proton,then every time the proton reaches the gap
between the two dees, the electric field is reversed and proton receives a push and finally it acquires very high
energy. This is called the cyclotron’s resonance condition. The proton follows a spiral path. The accelerated
proton is ejected through a window by a deflecting voltage and hits the target.

MAXIMUM K.E OF THE ACCELERATED IONS :

The ions will attain maximum velocity near the periphery of the dees. If v0v0 is the maximum velocity
acquired by the ions and r0r0 is the radius of the dees, then

mv20r0=qv0Bmv02r0=qv0B or v0=qBr0mv0=qBr0m

The maximum kinetic energy of the ions will be

K0=12mv20=12m[qBr0m]2K0=12mv02=12m[qBr0m]2
or
K0=q2B2r202mK0=q2B2r022m.
LIMITATIONS OF CYCLOTRON:
1.According to the Einstein’s special theory of relativity,the mass of a particle increases with the increase in
its velocity as
m=m01−v2/c2√m=m01−v2/c2
Where momo is the rest mass of the particle. At high velocities,the cyclotron
frequency (fc=qB/2πm)(fc=qB/2πm) will decrease due to increase in mass. This will throw the particles
out of resonance with the oscillating field. That is,as the ions reach the gap between the dees, the polarity of
the dees is not reversed at that instant. Consequently the ions are not accelerated further.
The above drawback is overcome either by increasing magnetic field as in a synchrotron or by decreasing the
frequency of the alternating electric field as in a synchro-cyclotron.

2. Electrons cannot be accelerated in a cyclotron.A large increase in their energy increases their velocity to a
very large extent.This throws the electrons out of step with the oscillating field.

3.Neutron,being electrically neutral,cannot be accelerated in a cyclotron.

USES OF CYCLOTRON:
1.The high energy particles produced in a cylinder are used to bombard nuclei and study the resulting
nuclear reactions and hence investigate nuclear structure.

2.The high energy particles are used to produce other high energy particles,such as Neutrons by
collisions.These fast neutrons used in atomic reactions.

3.It is used to implant ions into solids and modify their properties or even synthesis new materials.

4.It is used to produce radioactive isotopes which are used in hospitals for diagnosis and treatment.