78 Chapters or ifthe government controle prices, Perfect competition, complete cllason, absolute contol These diferent ares produce ental result, From unr. Imly of outcomes one cannot infer that the atbutes andthe interactions of the Dats of 8 system have remained constant. Srctre may determine Outomee ‘Side rom changes at the level of he units and aside rom the daappearnce of ome of them and he emergence of others. iferent “case may Produce the Same effects the same “eases” may have diferent consequences. Ules one Knows how areal is organized, one an har el the causes rom the lets “The fect ofan organization may predominate over the tributes ad the Interactions ofthe elements within A sytem tha independent of intl cone ion is sad to esplayequtfinality 1 doe, “the seta thn oon best ‘planation andthe study ofits present orgaizason the appropiate meth ‘ology" Watzlawik ef a, 1967, p12 cp 32) trctre fences wih fut determining, then one stack how and to wat ett te sacar of @ Fea accounts or outcomes and how and to what extent the units accou for ‘utcomes. Structare hast be studied int own ight do un, To ca fo Be folowing a systems approach o tobe constructing a system they eagles one {oshow how sytem and unit levels can be distin define, Flr to atk and preserve the diction between structure, the coe hand, ad unis and roe ‘ess on the other, makes imposible to entangle casero iferent srs nda dsingish between caus and ef, Bring Ine distinction beeween the diferent levels ofa system has, lee, been the major npedient to the development of theories about International alter The ext shaper shows how te define poealstractres ina way tha aks the cnsrution of 2s tem theory posible 5 Political Structures ‘We learned in Chapters 2 3, and that iternational-paltial outcomes cannot be explained reductively, We Found in Chae 3 tat even avowed systemic appreuches mingle and conure systema level ith nit level cause Refeting on theories that fol the generalsytems modal we conceded at once tha iner- rational pits does at fit the model closely enough to make the model uefl fd that nly trough some sot of systems theory can international polls be Underatood. To bea seem, sucha theory har o shove ho international plies in be conceived of as domain distin! from te econem, roca, and other International domains Ut one may conceive of. To mark interasonl-poliel systems off fom other iteational systems, and to distinguish sytemsleve from unitleel forces requis showing how polite structures are generated hd how they affect, andar flected by, the mite of the system, How cane oncive of international plies date ayes? What i that intervenes teeween interacting nits the ress thatthe ats and Iterations produce “Toanswer these questions, this chapter iat examines the concep of oc sre lute and then defines structure a3 concept appropriate for national nd forint: ational pelts. A apt is compored ofa structure and of interacting ois, The tractus the ‘system-wide component hat makes it possible to think ofthe sytem asa whole ‘The problem, unsolved by the sjslens theorists considered in Chaper 3 10 contrive a definiton of sacar fee ofthe attbues and the iterations of ‘ts, Delntions of structure mas leave aie, or sbtract rom the carats [cs of unis, thar behavior, and tei interactions. Why must those obviously Important matters be omitted They most be omitted so tat we can dtngush between variables tthe level ofthe unt and variable athe level ofthe system.0 Chapin s ‘The problem sto develo theoretically useful concepts to replace the vague and Yarying systemic notions that ae cestomanly employed—notions auch 3 ‘crvronment, station conte, and mew. Souctre a wel concept {Sve ear an fied meaning to such vague and varying ters. ‘We know what we have to omit from any definition of races the defin- tion i to be well theoretically Abstracting fom the atrbues of nite means leaving srde question about the Kinds of pollical leer, social and economic Inettions, and lolol commitments states may have. Abstracting From ‘eltons means leaving side question abou the ella, econome, pola ‘nd itary interactions of states. To say what sto be lout dos no indicate (nha sto be putin. The nepalvepolnt Is important neverteese because the Uatruction to omit situs often violated apd the instruction to omit ne tlre almost always goer sncberved. But abuts and iterations are ‘mate, what at? The question answered by considering the double mean Ingo the term elton” AvS, F Nadel pont out, ordinary language sacar {cistnton tha is portant in theory. “Relason” is ued to mea both the Interaction of unite andthe postion they eccpy viedoris each ater 1957, bp. E-1), To define a structure eequres Ignoring howe nite relate with one hother (how they Interact) and concentrating on how they stand in eaten fo fane another thow they are aranged or positioned Interactions, at have Iited, take place a the level ofthe uate, How unite standin ration to one ‘other the way they are ranged or pontioned, ata property of the Uns The arrangement of units isa property af the syste. By loving side the personality of actors thle Behavoe and te ite actions, ne arives a» purely positional pcre o soc. Thee propesions Follow fom ths. Fist, stuctres may endure while personality, behavior, and {nterectons vary widely Stature sharply dtiaguised fom actions and Interaction, Second, srwctursl efition apple to realme of widely ferent ‘bianco lng ashe aeangement of parts sna Nadel, p. 104-109), ‘Thin. becue ties, there developed for one rel may wahsomemedl> ‘ation be applicable to ote el a we "A sniure i defined by the acrangement ofits pats. Only changes of arrangement ae srctral changes. A system Is composed ofa structure an of interacting arts, Both he structure andthe pars are concep, rated to, but not ‘ential with, ral agente and agencies. Structure snot something we , The tntvopolgist Meyer Fortr pt thi wel "When we decbe srt” head, ‘re are inthe realm of gramunar and ynta, no of he spoken word. We dicen strate inthe tonerete realy’ of Soil events ony by vie of having ist ‘Dealahedstracture by abstraction fom ‘concrete realty’ "Fortes 199, p36). Since structure ran bsracon, cannot be defined by enumerating material Characteristic ofthe ye. It must tad be defined bythe rangement of the ‘ystems parte an by the principe that arrangement This san uncommon way to think of political sytem, although structural notion are amar enough to anthropologist o economists, and even to pal ‘laces who dal not with polltcal systems in pneal but with such of ter pars a plea partis and bureaucracies. In dein structres,amhroplo- [ts do ot ask about the habits andthe vane of the chs and he Ids conomiss do nat ask about the erganiation andthe efficiency of partiar ‘rms and the exchanges among tena poll cents o ot ask about he fences andthe intrest ofthe indials occupying varios ofc, They IEave alge the uae, the motver, and the interacons ofthe actor, not tree thone mates are uninteresting orumporant, bu becase they wart to Know how the quale she motives, andthe Interactions of tal units are ‘Sfeced by tribal structure, how decane offi are infoeced by her ma tet and how people's behavior melded by the offs they hol “The concep of tract isbased on the fac that us diferent ostaposed and ‘combined behave diferent andin iterating produce diferent utcomes fst Sant oso how internal pia uct an be defined Tn 3 book on eter- ‘atonal pola theory, domestic oll nactre ast be examined inorder {o draw 8 dstnction between expectations about behavior and outcomes in the Internal and external resins, Moreover considering domestic pollcl suctre ‘now wil make th elurveinemational pica structure eset catch ater on ‘Seucture define the aerangemen, or he ordering. of he parts of a sjter Sucre snot colton of pital iniations bat ate the arrangement of ‘hem. How isthe arrangement defied? The constitution of state describes some part ofthe arrangement, but poll stuctresas they develop are not dental ‘rth Formal coneittlons. In defining wrctres, theft guenion fo answer ‘hie What the principe by which the parts are arranged? ‘Domestic plc hierarchy ordered, The unit—insttutions and age cies—stand vis b-vis each olber in lations of super and subordination, The ‘tdring principe of sytem ves theft, and baie bt of formation about tow the parts of resi are related to each other. n a ply the herrchy of ‘fess by no means compleeyareulated, or are all ambigulies about rl- lone of super. and subordination removed, Nevrtlese, pli actor are formally ‘difeentited according tothe dees of ther authority, and Ur ‘tinct fonctions are pected By “speci” donot mean that the aw of the land lly describes the date that diferent agence perform, but only that broad ‘Serecmen prev onthe tat that various parte of a goverment arte unde {Ske and onthe extent ofthe power they ltimatly wil. Thos Congres 5up- ‘les the elitr fore, the President commands them. Congress makes the