Propelling nozzle

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A propelling nozzle is a nozzle that converts a gas turbine or gas generator into a
jet engine. Energy available in the gas turbine exhaust is converted into a high
speed propelling jet by the nozzle. Turbofan engines may have an additional and
separate propelling with negative nozzle which produces a high speed propelling jet
from the energy in the air that has passed through the fan. In addition, the nozzle
helps to determine how the gas generator and fan operate as it acts as a downstream
restrictor.[1]

Propelling nozzles accelerate the available gas to subsonic, transonic, or

supersonic velocities depending on the power setting of the engine, their internal
shape and the pressures at entry to, and exit from, the nozzle. The internal shape
may be convergent or convergent-divergent (C-D). C-D nozzles can accelerate the jet
to supersonic velocities within the divergent section, whereas a convergent nozzle
cannot accelerate the jet beyond sonic speed.[2]

Propelling nozzles may have a fixed geometry, or they may have variable geometry to
give different exit areas to control the operation of the engine when equipped with
an afterburner or a reheat system. When afterburning engines are equipped with a C-
D nozzle the throat area is variable. Nozzles for supersonic flight speeds, at
which high nozzle pressure ratios are generated,[3] also have variable area
divergent sections.[4]

Contents
1 Principles of operation
2 Types and configurations
2.1 Convergent nozzle
2.2 Divergent nozzle
2.3 Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle
3 Types of nozzle
3.1 Fixed-area nozzle
3.2 Variable-area nozzle for afterburning
3.3 Ejector nozzle
3.4 Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle
3.5 Thrust-vectoring nozzle
3.6 Rocket nozzle
3.7 Low-ratio nozzle
3.8 Thrust-reversing nozzle
3.9 Nozzle with noise-reducing features
4 Further topics
4.1 The other purpose of the propelling nozzle
4.2 Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples
4.3 Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples
4.4 What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?
4.5 Nozzle area control during dry operation
4.6 Nozzle area control during wet operation
4.7 What happens if the nozzle doesn't open when the afterburner is selected?
4.8 Other applications
5 See also
6 References
Principles of operation
A nozzle operates according to the Venturi effect to bring the exhaust gasses to
ambient pressure, and thus form them into a coherent jet; if the pressure is high
enough, the flow may choke, and the jet may be supersonic. The role of the nozzle
in back-pressuring the engine is explained below.
The energy to accelerate the stream comes from the temperature and pressure of the
gas. The gas expands adiabatically with low losses and hence high efficiency. The
gas accelerates to a final exit velocity which depends on the pressure and
temperature at entry to the nozzle, the ambient pressure it exhausts to, and the
efficiency of the expansion.[5] The efficiency is a measure of the losses due to
friction, non-axial divergence as well as leakage in C-D nozzles.[6]
Airbreathing engines create forward thrust on the airframe by imparting a net
rearward momentum to the air by producing a jet of exhaust gas which has a speed
that exceeds that of the aircraft. The jet may or may not be fully expanded as
described in section "Reasons for C-D nozzle underexpansion and examples".
On some engines that are equipped with an afterburner the nozzle area is also
varied during non-afterburning or dry thrust conditions. Typically the nozzle is
fully open for starting and at idle. It may then close down as the thrust lever is
advanced reaching its minimum area before or at the Military or maximum dry thrust
setting. Two examples of this control are the General Electric J-79[7] and the
Tumansky RD-33 in the MIG-29.[8] Reasons for varying the nozzle area are explained
in section "Nozzle area control during dry operation".
Types and configurations
Convergent nozzle
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is
above the critical value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in
some of the expansion to atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat
(i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet wake. Although jet momentum still produces
much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the throat static pressure and
atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple
divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct
features to generate supersonic flow. Rocket engines � the extreme case � owe their
distinctive shape to the very high area ratios of their nozzles.

When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the
flow chokes, and thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the
pressure of the surrounding air and cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi
effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of the nozzle by causing much
of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself. Consequently,
rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the
fixed convergent-divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on
turbojet engines must have heavy and expensive variable geometry to cope with the
great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs with speeds from subsonic to
over Mach 3.

For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio
nozzle".

Types of nozzle

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a

Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes
in engine performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with
a fixed nozzle. This is not the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde
below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely
affecting the operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of
a series of moving, overlapping petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section
and is convergent to control the operation of the engine. If the aircraft is to fly
at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a separate
divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent
geometry may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry
convergent-divergent nozzle configuration, as below.

Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or

eyelid, nozzle which gave only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust
entraining (ejecting) a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal
geometry of the secondary, or diverging, nozzle controls the expansion of the
engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the exhaust to a
convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape,
speeding the exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a
tertiary airflow to reduce exit area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector
nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases where the secondary nozzle
flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able to use air
which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector
nozzles are well suited to matching the airflow between the intake system and
engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was a prime requirement for
aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.

A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud

surrounding the afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11]
More complex were the arrangements used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111)
installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors (open at lower speeds) and
free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors and the
final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine
exhaust and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.

On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary
nozzle was mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had
the final nozzle mechanically actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This
gave improved efficiency (better match of primary/secondary exit area with high
Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the
engine exhaust use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't
require the external cooling air needed by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).

The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an
angled extension after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the
axial translation and simultaneous rotation increases the throat area for
afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence with bigger exit area
for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-14).[14]

The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same
mechanism to provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion
as on the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-
1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and
variable geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of
fixed geometry, to minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated
with rocket flight, rocket motor convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater
area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet engines.

Low-ratio nozzle
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan
working line by using a convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less
than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds,
such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable geometry by preventing
it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the
nozzle exit area controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls
the fan working line slightly away from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram
rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the nozzle's area to dictate the
fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to push the
fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's
surge margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and
are known as target thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come
together to redirect the exhaust partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an
influence on the operation of the engine (see below), the deployed thrust reverser
has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent changes in engine
operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which
increase the surface area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early
by-pass engines typically split the jet into multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass
turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which protrude slightly into
the propelling jet.

Further topics
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor
to the compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It
shares this function with the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17]
The areas of both the propelling nozzle and turbine nozzle set the mass flow
through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these areas are fixed in
many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area
variation is necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high
combustion temperatures in the jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during
non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping performance of the compressor at
lower thrust settings.[1]

For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into
a turboshaft, the role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the
power turbine nozzle guide vanes or stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the
afterburner, or primary, nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the
J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary or final nozzle was a fixed geometry
sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner thrust settings the exit
area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-floating
doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or
efficiency, the required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the
divergence is too short giving too small an exit area the exhaust will not expand
to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost thrust potential[20] With
increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area is as big
as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point
the nozzle diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing
drag. Nozzles are thus limited to the installation size and the loss in thrust
incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as lower drag, less weight.

Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]

Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent
flaps or petals have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which
may be of the order of 3,600 �F (1,980 �C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer
divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust loss from incomplete expansion
is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the TF-30
nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower
value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic
flight speeds.[24]

The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's
first C-D nozzle. The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same
engine J57 in the same aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle
(2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on this engine raised the speed from Mach
1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's speed record of 1,207.6
mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on that day. The
true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]

Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of
the C-D nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed
record with the F-106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section
should be added whenever flow is choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the
BMW 003 and the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from
its shape),[26] had a translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004
had a large area for starting to prevent overheating the turbine and a smaller area
for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and thrust. The 004's
Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's
divergent area just behind the exit turbine.

Afterburner-equipped engines may also open the nozzle for starting and at idle. The
idle thrust is reduced which lowers taxi speeds and brake wear. This feature on the
J75 engine in the F-106 was called 'Idle Thrust Control' and reduced idle thrust by
40%.[28] On aircraft carriers, lower idle thrust reduces the hazards from jet
blast.

In some applications, such as the J79 installation in various aircraft, during fast
throttle advances, the nozzle area may be prevented from closing beyond a certain
point to allow a more rapid increase in RPM[29] and hence faster time to maximum
thrust.

In the case of a 2-spool turbojet, such as the Olympus 593 in Concorde, the nozzle
area may be varied to enable simultaneous achievement of maximum low-pressure
compressor speed and maximum turbine entry temperature over the wide range of
engine entry temperatures which occurs with flight speeds up to Mach 2.[30]

On some augmented turbofans the fan operating line is controlled with nozzle area
during both dry and wet operation to trade excess surge margin for more thrust.

Nozzle area control during wet operation

The nozzle area is increased during afterburner operation to limit the upstream
effects on the engine. To run a turbofan to give maximum airflow (thrust), the
nozzle area may be controlled to keep the fan operating line in its optimum
position. For a turbojet to give maximum thrust, the area may be controlled to keep
the turbine exhaust temperature at its limit.[31]

What happens if the nozzle doesn't open when the afterburner is selected?
In early afterburner installations, the pilot had to check the nozzle position
indicator after selecting afterburner. If the nozzle did not open for some reason,
and the pilot did not react by cancelling the afterburner selection, typical
controls of that period[32] (e.g. the J47 in the F-86L), could cause the turbine
blades to overheat and fail.[33]

Other applications
Certain aircraft, like the German Bf-109 and the Macchi C.202/205 were fitted with
"ejector-type exhausts". These exhausts converted some of the waste energy of the
(internal combustion) engines exhaust-flow into a small amount of forward thrust by
accelerating the hot gasses in a rearward direction to a speed greater than that of
the aircraft. All exhaust setups do this to some extent, provided that the exhaust-
ejection vector is opposite/dissimilar to the direction of the aircraft movement.

Ejector exhausts were devised by Rolls-Royce Limited in 1937.[34] On the 1944 de

Havilland Hornet's Rolls-Royce Merlin 130/131 engines the thrust from the multi-
ejector exhausts were equivalent to an extra 450bhp per-engine at full-throttle
height.[35]

See also
De Laval nozzle
Jet engine performance
Rocket engine nozzles
References
"Jet Propulsion" Nicholas Cumpsty, ISBN 0 521 59674 2, p144
"Jet Propulsion for Aerospace Applications" second edition, Hesse and Mumford,
Pitman Publishing Corporation p136
"Nozzle Selection and Design Criteria"AIAA 2004-3923, Fig11
"Nozzle Selection and Design Criteria"AIAA 2004-3923
"Jet Propulsion"Nicholas Cumpsty, ISBN 0 521 59674 2, p243
"Exhaust nozzles for Propulsion Systems with Emphasis on Supersonic Aircraft"
Leonard E. Stitt,NASA Reference Publication 1235,May 1990, para 2.2.9
J79-15/-17 Turbojet Accident Investigation Procedures, Technical Report ASD-TR-75-
19, Aeronautical Systems Division, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base Ohio, Fig60
"Nozzle area v Throttle angle
"Flight Manual MIG-29" Luftwaffenmaterialkommando GAF T.O.1F-MIG-29-1, Figure1-6
"Primary nozzle area v throttle angle"
"Variable Ejector For Iris Nozzles" C. R. Brown U.S. Patent 2,870,600
"Afterburning A Review of Current american Practice" Flight magazine 21 November
1952 p648, Flightglobal Archive website
"J85 Rejuvenation Through Technology Insertion" Brisken, Howell, Ewing,
G.E.Aircraft Engines, Cincinnati, Ohio, OH45215, USA
"Variable-Geometry Exhaust Nozzles and Their Effects on Airplane Performance" R.
C. Ammer and W.F. Punch, SAE680295
"Design for Air Combat"Ray Whitford ISBN 0 7106 0426 2 p207
"F-14A Installed Nozzle Performance" W.C. Schnell, Grumman Aerospace Corporation,
AIAA Paper No. 74-1099
"http://ftp.rta.nato.int/public/PubFullText/RTO/MP/RTO-MP-008/$MP-008-20.pdf
"Design and Testing of a Common Engine and Nacelle for the Fokker 100 and
Gulfstream Airplanes" H.Nawrocki, J.van Hengst,L.de Hzaij, AIAA-89-2486
Whittle, Frank (1981). Gas turbine aero-thermodynamics : with special reference to
aircraft propulsion. Pergamon Press. p. 83. ISBN 9780080267197.
"Gas Turbine Theory" Cohen, Rogers, Saravanamuttoo, ISBN 0 582 44927 8, p242
"Nozzle selection and design criteria" AIAA 2004-3923, Fig.14 "Over-expanded
nozzle"
"Nozzle Selection and Design criteria" AIAA 2004-3923, fig.15
"Design for Air Combat"Ray Whitford ISBN 0 7106 0426 2 Fig 226
SAE 680295 "Variable Geometry Exhaust Nozzles and their Effects on Airplane
Performance"
"F-14A Installed Nozzle Performance"by W.C. Schnell, AIAA Paper No. 74-1099, Fig.5
"Effect of cooling flow on nozzle performance"
"Nozzle Selection and Design criteria" AIAA 2004-3923, p4
"Test Pilot" edited by Harry Schmidt, "Mach 2 Books" Shelton CT 06484
Christopher, John. The Race for Hitler's X-Planes (The Mill, Gloucestershire:
History Press, 2013), p.70.
"Jet Propulsion Progress" Leslie E. neville and Nathaniel F. Silsbee, first
edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. 1948
"Flight Manual F-106A and F-106B aircraft" T.O. 1F-106A-1
"Flight Manual USAF F-4E Series Aircraft" TO 1F-4E-1, 1 February 1979,"Exhaust
Nozzle Control Unit"P1-8
"Jet Propulsion" Nicholas Cumpsty, ISBN 0 521 59674 2
U.S.Patent 3,656,301 "Compensated feedback gas turbine augmentation control
system" Herbert Katz, General Electric Company
"U.S.Patent 3,080,707,"Afterburner fuel and nozzle area control"
 "Testing Death" George J. Marrett, ISBN 978-1-59114-512-7
[1]
http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1946/1946%20-%200165.html
vte
Jet engines and aircraft gas turbines
Categories: NozzlesJet engines
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