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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

Structural steel members are extensively used in structures such as

bridges, roof trusses, transmission line towers, multistoried buildings etc.,
because of its high strength to weight ratio, resulting in the reduction of dead
weight.

The two main groups of structural steel members are hot–rolled

steel members and cold–formed steel members.

In recent years, cold-formed steel sections have gained considerable

prominence over hot-rolled sections. Two main reasons attributed to the
above fact are, their economy achieved for relatively light load under
moderate spans and their sectional configurations, which provides a choice
for the architects and designers.

1.2 COLD–FORMED STEEL

The concept of cold-formed structural steel products originated in

the western world. The main process of cold-formed steel structural elements
involves forming steel sections in a cold state from steel sheets of uniform
thickness. The thickness of steel members ranges from 0.4mm to 6.4mm. The
cold forming operation increases the yield point and the ultimate strength of
the steel sections. Their large strength to weight ratio, versatility, non-
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combustibility with appropriate measures and ease of production has attracted

architects, engineers, builders and manufacturers of building products with
the promise, that it can help them provide improved function and greater
aesthetic appearance for many applications at low cost. The wide range of
available cold-formed steel products has expanded their use to primary
beams, floor units, roof trusses, wall panels and building frames.

Cold-formed steel members can be produced in a wide variety of

sectional profiles such as angles, channels, hat sections, zed sections and
sigma sections. Angles are the most common structural shape found in almost
any structure due to their simplicity and ease of fabrication and erection.
Single angles are usually used as web members in steel joists and trusses,
members of latticed transmission towers or communication structures and
also as bracing members to provide lateral support to the main members.
Plain sections are finding applications as secondary members; the sections
are usually strengthened with flange end stiffeners or web stiffeners in
primary structural applications. With stiffeners, the members benefit from a
larger cross-sectional effective area and are therefore expected to resist local
and overall buckling better. Figure 1.1 show the different types of cold-
formed shapes used in structural applications.

a) Single open sections

b) Open built-up sections c) Closed built-up sections

Figure 1.1 Typical forms of sections for cold–formed steel members

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1.3 STRUCTURAL AND OTHER APPLICATIONS

 Cold-formed steel shapes can be used for entire buildings and

for complete roof, floor and wall systems.

 It can also be used as individual framing members such as

studs, joists and truss members.

 It is used in agricultural machinery, storage racks, house hold

appliances and electrical equipments etc.

 It is widely used in many industries such as automotive

trucks, trailer and railway cars.

 The light gauge steel members are specially used in aircrafts.

 It is also used in various types of buildings from large hangars

to small Quonset huts.

 Corrugated and profiled sheets are widely used in steel

concrete composite floor proof construction.

 It is used for variety of building products such as doors and

windows.

 In highway construction, used for guard rails, median and

glare barriers, permanent deck forms, signs and other
components. It is also used as components of crashworthy
structures in super highways and race tracks.

 It is used in transmission line and other kinds of tower

structures.

1.4 NEED FOR THE PRESENT INVESTIGATION

The use of cold-formed steel tension members in a variety of

structures has increased nowadays. Most design provisions for tension
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members are based on the work done by Munse and Chesson (1963) and the
subsequent work pertains to attempts in simplifying the design procedures.
However the work of Munse and Chesson and the subsequent work on shear
lag effect in tension members, made use of hot-rolled steel sections.
Therefore, these results may not be applicable to cold-formed steel members
in tension. Thus, there is a need to conduct research on the behaviour of cold-
formed steel angles in tension.

This thesis provides a detailed investigation of the shear lag effect

on single and double angles when subjected to eccentric tension. The non-
uniform stress distribution across the cross-section of the angle is important in
deciding the load carrying capacity of the specimen.

Most of the countries formulated their own codes of practice

because of increase in use of cold-formed steel sections. The ultimate strength
predicted by these codes have large variation with the experimental values.
The limitation involved in these codes is found to be due to the shear lag
factor. Finite element analysis provides an alternative solution to study the
non-uniform stress distribution near the connection to predict the ultimate
load of the specimen. Empirical equations based on the geometries of the
specimens can be developed to predict the tensile load carrying capacity of
the specimens.

1.5 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH

In order to investigate the behaviour of bolted cold-formed tension

members, one hundred and twenty experiments are conducted on single angle
members connected to gusset plate and double angle members connected to
opposite side of gusset plate and to the same side of gusset plate of various
thickness. The objectives of this investigation are as follows:
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1) To study the behaviour of bolted connection in cold-formed

steel single angle members under tension.

 Thirty six single equal and unequal angle specimens

without lips of various thickness are tested under tension.

 Thirty six single equal and unequal angle specimens with

lips of various thickness are tested under tensile load.

2) To study the behaviour of bolted connection in cold-formed

steel double angle members under tension.

 Twenty four numbers of double angle members of various

thickness connected to opposite side of gusset plate are
tested under tensile load.

 Twenty four numbers of double angle members of various

thickness connected to the same side of gusset plate of
various thickness are also tested under tension.

3) To compare the experimental results with the results predicted

by current design provisions for cold-formed steel members

 Comparisons of experimental results are made with the

results predicted by design specifications of International
codes of practice such as British Code of Practice for
Design of Cold-formed Sections:BS: 5950 (Part V)–1998,
the American Cold-formed Steel Design Manual :AISI
Manual -2001, Australian/NewZealand Standard for Cold-
formed Steel Structures : AS/NZS : 4600-2005.

4) To verify the experimental results with the numerical results.

 A Finite element analysis using ANSYS is carried

out
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5) To develop empirical equations useful for practical design.

 Equations using statistical analysis are obtained and

proposed. The predicted results are compared with
experimental results.

1.6 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS

The thesis has been arranged in seven chapters.

Chapter 1 Introduction, this chapter gives the general introduction

to cold-formed sections, their characteristics and behaviour, need for the
present investigation, objectives and scope of the research.

Chapter 2 Literature Review, this chapter reviews the research

carried out during the last decade on the experimental and numerical
investigations on hot–rolled and cold-formed steel angle members subjected
to eccentric tension.

Chapter 3 Codal Recommendations, this chapter reviews and

compares the provisions of various codes of practice.

Chapter 4 Experimental Investigation, this chapter gives the details

of the experimental programme of this research work. It includes the type of
materials used for the preparation of specimens and their properties, specimen
details, test set up and detailed methodology of experimental programme.

Chapter 5 Numerical Investigation, this chapter presents the

numerical investigation carried out on single and double angles using the
finite element package ANSYS.
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Chapter 6 Results and Discussion, the results obtained from both

the experimental, theoretical and numerical investigations are presented in
this chapter.

Chapter 7 Summary and Conclusions, a summary of the work done

in the experiments and the conclusions drawn from the present investigation
are presented in this chapter. A scope for further research work is also
included.

The list of references is given at the end of the thesis.