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3. Calculate the amount of resistance (R) in a circuit, given values of voltage (E) and
current (I):
5. Calculate the electric power in the given circuit and discuss the effect of
increasing the battery voltage.
The formula for determining the power in an electric circuit: by multiplying the
voltage in "volts" by the current in "amps" we arrive at an answer in "watts." Let's apply
this to the given circuit.
In the above circuit, we know we have a battery voltage of 18 volts and a
lamp resistance of 3 Ω. Using Ohm's Law to determine current, we get:
Now that we know the current, we can take that value and multiply it by
the voltage to determine power:
When R1 = 60 ; R2 = 100 – 60 = 40
When R1 = 40 ; R2 = 100 - 40 = 60
9. Find the Req between two points A & B.
1/Req = 2+.85+4
Req = 7.2
On the side of the conductor where the lines of flux oppose each other, the
magnetic field will be made weaker. On the side of the conductor where the lines of flux
are not opposing each other, the magnetic field will be made stronger. Because of the
strong field on one side of the conductor and a weak field or, the other side, the conductor
will be pushed into the weaker field.
The armature is connected to the commutator which rides along the brushes which
are connected to a DC power source. The current from the DC power source flows from
the positive lead, through the brush labeled A1 through one commutator section, through
the armature coil, through the other commutator section, through the brush labeled A2
and back to the negative lead.This current will generate lines of flux around the armature
and affect the lines of flux in the air gap. On the side of thecoil where the lines of flux
oppose each other, the magnetic field will be made weaker. On the side of the coil where
the lines of flux are riot opposing each other, the magnetic field is made stronger.
Because of the strong field on one side of the coil and the weak field on the other side,
the coil will be pushed into the weaker field and, because the armature coil is free to
rotate, it will rotate.
The torque available at the motor shaft (turning effort) is determined by the
magnetic force (flux) acting on the armature coil and the distance from the renter of
rotation that force is. The flux is determined by the current flowing through the armature
coil and strength of the field magnets.
In three phase induction motor, the magnetic field generated by the stator rotates
in the ac case. Three electrical phases are introduced through terminals, each phase
energizing an individual field pole. When each phase reaches its maximum current, the
magnetic field at that pole reaches a maximum value. As the current decreases, so does
the magnetic field. Since each phase reaches its maximum at a different time within a
cycle of the current, that field pole whose magnetic field is largest is constantly changing
between the three poles, with the effect that the magnetic field seen by the rotor is
rotating. The speed of rotation of the magnetic field, known as the synchronous speed,
depends on the frequency of the power supply and the number of poles produced by the
stator winding. For a standard 60 Hz supply, as used in the United States, the maximum
synchronous speed is 3,600 rpm.
In the three phase induction motor, the windings on the rotor are not connected to
a power supply, but are essentially short circuits. The most common type of rotor
winding, the squirrel cage winding, bears a strong resemblance to the running wheel used
in cages for pet gerbils. When the motor is initially switched on and the rotor is
stationary, the rotor conductors experience a changing magnetic field sweeping by at the
synchronous speed.
From Faraday's law, this situation results in the induction of currents round the
rotor windings; the magnitude of this current depends on the impedance of the rotor
windings. Since the conditions for motor action are now fulfilled, that is, current carrying
conductors are found in a magnetic field, the rotor experiences a torque and starts to turn.
The rotor can never rotate at the synchronous speed because there would be no relative
motion between the magnetic field and the rotor windings and no current could be
induced. The induction motor has a high starting torque.
Single phase induction motor has only one stator winding (main winding) and
operates with a single-phase power supply. In all single-phase induction motors, the rotor
is the squirrel cage type. The single-phase induction motor is not self-starting. When the
motor is connected to a single-phase power supply, the main winding carries an
alternating current. This current produces a pulsating magnetic field. Due to induction,
the rotor is energized. As the main magnetic field is pulsating, the torque necessary for
the motor rotation is not generated. This will cause the rotor to vibrate, but not to rotate.
Hence, the single phase induction motor is required to have a starting mechanism that can
provide the starting kick for the motor to rotate.
The starting mechanism of the single-phase induction motor is mainly an
additional stator winding (start/ auxiliary winding) as shown in Figure. The start winding
can have a series capacitor and/or a centrifugal switch. When the supply voltage is
applied, current in the main winding lags the supply voltage due to the main winding
impedance. At the same time, current in the start winding leads/lags the supply voltage
depending on the starting mechanism impedance. Interaction between magnetic fields
generated by the main winding and the starting mechanism generates a resultant magnetic
field rotating in one direction. The motor starts rotating in the direction of the resultant
magnetic field. Once the motor reaches about 75% of its rated speed, a centrifugal switch
disconnects the start winding. From this point on, the single-phase motor can maintain
sufficient torque to operate on its own.
The most common type is a kilowatt hour meter. When used in electricity
retailing, the utilities record the values measured by these meters to generate an invoice
for the electricity. They may also record other variables including the time when the
electricity was used.
Modern electricity meters operate by continuously measuring the instantaneous
voltage (volts) and current (amperes) and finding the product of these to give
instantaneous electrical power (watts) which is then integrated against time to give
energy used (joules, kilowatt-hours etc). The meters fall into two basic categories,
electromechanical and electronic.
The metallic disc is acted upon by two coils. One coil is connected in such a way
that it produces a magnetic flux in proportion to the voltage and the other produces a
magnetic flux in proportion to the current. The field of the voltage coil is delayed by 90
degrees using a lag coil. This produces eddy currents in the disc and the effect is such that
a force is exerted on the disc in proportion to the product of the instantaneous current and
voltage. A permanent magnet exerts an opposing force proportional to the speed of
rotation of the disc - this act as a brake which causes the disc to stop spinning when
power stops being drawn rather than allowing it to spin faster and faster. This causes the
disc to rotate at a speed proportional to the power being used.
The aluminium disc is supported by a spindle which has a worm gear which
drives the register. The register is a series of dials which record the amount of energy
used. The dials may be of the cyclometer type, an odometer-like display that is easy to
read where for each dial a single digit is shown through a window in the face of the
meter, or of the pointer type where a pointer indicates each digit. It should be noted that
with the dial pointer type, adjacent pointers generally rotate in opposite directions due to
the gearing mechanism.
10 MARKS
1. DETERMINE THE EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE BETWEEN
TERMINALS A & B
SOLUTION
50*12.5 / 50+12.5 = 10
STEP – I
STEP – II
B
20*30/20+30 = 12
STEP – III
A 35 8
60
60*20/60+20 = 15
STEP – I V
STEP – V
RAB = 50
2. Find the mesh currents in the following network
Solution:
The solution of -1 amp for I2 means that our initially assumed direction of current was
incorrect. In actuality, I2 is flowing in a counter-clockwise direction at a value of
(positive) 1 amp:
In both type of these instruments, the current under measurement is passed through a coil
of wire. This current carrying coil set up the necessary field depending on the magnitude
of the current to be measured. The coil may be of a few turns of very heavy conductor or
of many turns of fine wire. The instrument to be used as an ammeter is provided with a
coil of few turns of thick wire in order to have low resistance and carry large current and
that to be used as a voltameter is provided with a coil of large number of turns of wire in
order to have high resistance and draw as small current as possible.
dw = Td dθ
Since change in energy dE = workdone, dw
Td dθ = ½ I2dL
Td = ½ I2dL/dθ
Answer.
Energy consumed in one hour = VI cos φ / 1000
= 210 x 20 x 0.8 / 1000
= 3.360 kwh.
The number of revolution the meter should make it is correct = 3.360 x
registration const in revolution per kwh
= 3.360 x 100
= 336
Number of revolution actually made = 350
% error = (350-336) x 100 / 350
% error = 0.1466 %
THEORY:- Let us be the supply voltage, i the load current and R the load
resistance of the moving coil circuit.
Current through fixed coil, if = i
Current through moving coil, im = V/R
deflecting torque, Td ∝ if im ∝ V/R
For a DC circuit the deflecting torque is thus proportional to the power and for
any circuit with fluctuating torque. The instantaneous to the instantaneous
power.
Answer.
1. TORQUE HEIGHT RATIO:- Dynamometer type instruments have equal small
torque height ratio.
10. Why shunt is usually used voltmeter and ammeter? A moving coil
instrument has a resistance of 5 Ω and gives full deflection of 100mv.
Show how the instrument may be used to measure:-
Answer.
Shunt is usually used in voltmeter and ammeter to extend the range of
voltmeter and ammeters.
Rm = 5Ω
Vm = 100mv
Im = Vm/Rm = 100mv/5Ω = 20mA
1. For measuring voltage upto 50V.
Series resistance is used with the instrument whose resistance is
R = V/Im - Rm = 50/(20 x 10-3) - 5
R = 2.5 x 10-3 - 5 = R = 2495 Ω
2. Such resistance of resistance Rf is used to be connected
Rf = Rm/[I/Im - 1]
= 5/[10/20 x 10-3 -1] = 5 x 2/998
Rf = 0.01002004 Ω
Answer. The earliest and simplest form of attraction moving iron instruments
uses a solenoid and moving oval shaped soft iron pinoted eccentrically. To
this iron a pointer is attached so that it may deflect along with the moving iron
over a graduate scale. The iron is made of sheet metal specially shaped to give
a scale as nearby uniform as possible. The moving iron is drawn into field of
solenoid when current flows through it. The movement of the iron always
from weaker magnetic field outside the coil into the stronger field inside the
coil regardless the direction of flow of current. When the current to be
measured is passed through the solenoid, a magnetic field is set up inside the
solenoid, which in turn magnetises the iron. Thus the iron is attached into the
coil causing the spindle and the pointer to rotate.
So much instruments normally have spring control and pneumatic damping
forces.
12. 3-φ 4 pole induction motor is supplied from 3φ 50Hz ac supply. Find
(1) synchronous speed
(2) rotor speed when slip is 4%
(3) the rotor frequency when runs at 600r.p.m.
Sulution
1) Ns =120f/p
=120*50/4
= 1500 r.p.m.
2) speed when slip is 4% or .04
N=Ns (1-s)
=1500(1-0.04)
= 1440 r.p.m.
3) slip when motor runs at 600 r.p.m.
S’=(Ns –N)/Ns
=(1500-600)/1500
= 0.6
13. Explain the method of temperature control in open loop and closed loop
systems.
14. Explain about open loop and closed loop control system.
Figure 1 shows an open loop system. A computed force is applied to the system
which is expected to respond based on the specifications. If the system fails to respond
correctly (because your estimates were off) or an unanticipated disturbance acted on it,
then there is no way to correct the course. On the other hand, figure 2 shows a feed-back
system. The response C(s) is measured using the sensor H(s) and the resultant is
compared with the input R(s). The resultant difference (error) is acted upon by the
controller which works on the actuator. The actuator then applies the required force on
the system.
The closed loop thus contains the sensor dynamics, the controller dynamics, the
actuator dynamics in addition to the system we are interested in. It should be noted that
all measurements have to be done or converted if necessary into one unit so that
comparison with the target signal is possible. Usually, measurements result in currents
and voltages. Hence, this conversion from a mechanical input to an electrical output is
also included in the sensor, controller and actuator dynamics.
In designing the full control system the dynamics of all the components need to be
accounted for. If the controller is very slow compared to the system, it will not send the
right input at the right time. In this class, we will assume perfect sensor and actuator
dynamics, i.e., what goes into the sensor (it is commonly denoted by H(s)) and the
actuator comes out unmodified instantaneously. So we replace them with unity transfer
functions.
A D.C. machine consists mainly of two part the stationary part called stator and
the rotating part called stator.
The stator consists of main poles used to produce magnetic flux ,commutating
poles or interpoles in between the main poles to avoid sparking at the commutator but in
the case of small machines sometimes the interpoles are avoided and finally the frame or
yoke which forms the supporting structure of the machine.
The rotor consist of an armature a cylindrical metallic body or core with slots in it
to place armature windings or bars, a commutator and brush gears
The magnetic flux path in a motor or generator is show below and it is called the
magnetic structure of generator or motor.
Cross sectional view of a DC Machine
Frame
Frame is the stationary part of a machine on which the main poles and
commutator poles are bolted and it forms the supporting structure by connecting the
frame to the bed plate. The ring shaped body portion of the frame which makes the
magnetic path for the magnetic fluxes from the main poles and interpoles is called Yoke.
Yoke
In early days Yoke was made up of cast iron but now it is replaced by cast steel.
This is because cast iron is saturated by a flux density of 0.8 Wb/sq.m where as saturation
with cast iron steel is about 1.5 Wb/sq.m.So for the same magnetic flux density the cross
section area needed for cast steel is less than cast iron hence the weight of the machine
too. If we use cast iron there may be chances of blow holes in it while casting. so now
rolled steels are developed and these have consistent magnetic and mechanical properties.