Algae fuel

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A conical flask of 'green' jet fuel made from algae

Algae fuel or Algal biofuel is an alternative to fossil fuel that uses algae as its source of
natural deposits.[1] Several companies and government agencies are funding efforts to
reduce capital and operating costs and make algae fuel production commercially viable.[2]
Harvested algae, like fossil fuel, release CO2 when burnt but unlike fossil fuel the CO2 is
taken out of the atmosphere by the growing of algae and other biofuel sources, and the
world food crisis, have ignited interest in algaculture (farming algae) for making
vegetable oil, biodiesel, bioethanol, biogasoline, biomethanol, biobutanol and other
biofuels, using land that is not suitable for agriculture. Among algal fuels' attractive
characteristics: they can be grown with minimal impact on fresh water resources,[3][4] can
be produced using ocean and wastewater, and are biodegradable and relatively harmless
to the environment if spilled.[5][6][7] Algae cost more per unit mass (as of 2010, food grade
algae costs ~$5000/tonne), due to high capital and operating costs,[8] yet are claimed to
yield between 10 and 100 times more fuel per unit area than other second-generation
biofuel crops.[9] The United States Department of Energy estimates that if algae fuel
replaced all the petroleum fuel in the United States, it would require 15,000 square miles
(39,000 km2) which is only 0.42% of the U.S. map,[10] or about half of the land area of
Maine. This is less than 1⁄7 the area of corn harvested in the United States in 2000.[11]
However, these claims remain unrealized commercially. According to the head of the
Algal Biomass Organization algae fuel can reach price parity with oil in 2018 if granted
production tax credits.[12]

Contents
 1 Factors
 2 Fuels
o 2.1 Biodiesel
o 2.2 Biobutanol
o 2.3 Biogasoline
o 2.4 Methane
o 2.5 Ethanol
o 2.6 Vegetable oil fuel
o 2.7 Hydrocracking to traditional transport fuels
o 2.8 Jet fuel
 3 Algae cultivation
o 3.1 Photobioreactors
 o 3.2 Closed-loop system
o 3.3 Open pond
o 3.4 Research options
o 3.5 Genetic engineering initiatives
 4 Ongoing research
o 4.1 National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)
o 4.2 The Marine Research station in Ketch Harbour, Nova Scotia
 5 Nutrients
o 5.1 Carbon dioxide
o 5.2 Nitrogen
o 5.3 Wastewater
 6 Environmental impact
 7 Economic viability
o 7.1 Blue Marble Production
o 7.2 Solazyme
 8 Alternative applications
 9 Advantages
o 9.1 Ease of growth
o 9.2 Impact on food
o 9.3 Minimization of waste
 10 Disadvantages
o 10.1 New technology
o 10.2 Stability
 11 Algae fuel by country
o 11.1 Europe
o 11.2 United States
o 11.3 Other
 12 International policies
o 12.1 Canada
o 12.2 United States
o 12.3 Other
o 12.4 Funding programs
 13 Future advances
o 13.1 Diversified Technologies Inc.
o 13.2 Origin Oils Inc.
 14 See also
 15 References
 16 Further reading

 17 External links

Factors
Dry mass factor is the percentage of dry biomass in relation to the fresh biomass; e.g. if
the dry mass factor is 5%, one would need 20 kg of wet algae (algae in the media) to get
1 kg of dry algae cells.[13]

Lipid content is the percentage of oil in relation to the dry biomass needed to get it, i.e. if
the algae lipid content is 40%, one would need 2.5 kg of dry algae to get 1 kg of oil.[14]

Algae requires nutrients, sunlight & water to grow, algae thrive on saline, brackish and
waste waters. There have been proposals made where wastewater, human waste, animal
waste & plant waste, along with CO2 emissions from industrial processes can all be used
as the nutrients in algaculture. In regards to the monoculture production of algae,
wastewater, human waste, animal waste & plant waste, along with CO2 emissions from
industrial process's, would have to be all transported or pumped to arid area algaculture
farms. After oil is extracted from the algae the algae residue is then used as an animal
feedstock or as a soil fertiliser.

Fuels
The lipid, or oily part of the algae biomass can then be extracted and converted into
biodiesel through a process similar to that used for any other vegetable oil, or converted
in a refinery into "drop-in" replacements for petroleum-based fuels. The algae's
carbohydrate content can be fermented into bioethanol and biobutanol.[15]

Biodiesel

The U.S. Department of Energy's Aquatic Species Program, 1978–1996, focused on

biodiesel from microalgae. The final report suggested that biodiesel could be the only
viable method by which to produce enough fuel to replace current world diesel usage.[16]
If algae-derived biodiesel were to replace the annual global production of 1.1bn tons of
conventional diesel then a land mass of 57.3 million hectares would be required, which
would be highly favorable compared to other biofuels.[17]

As they do not have to produce structural compounds such as cellulose for leaves, stems,
or roots, and because they can be grown floating in a rich nutritional medium, microalgae
can have faster growth rates than terrestrial crops. Also, they can convert a much higher
fraction of their biomass to oil than conventional crops, e.g. 60% versus 2-3% for
soybeans.[18] The per unit area yield of oil from algae is estimated to be from between
1,000 to 6,500 US gallons per acre per year (4,700 to 18,000 m3/km2·a).[19] This is 7 to 30
times greater than the next best crop, Chinese tallow (700 US gal/acre·a or
650 m3/km2·a).[dubious – discuss]

Studies[18] show that some species of algae can produce up to 60% of their dry weight in
the form of oil. Because the cells grow in aqueous suspension, where they have more
efficient access to water, CO2 and dissolved nutrients, microalgae are capable of
producing large amounts of biomass and usable oil in either high rate algal ponds or
photobioreactors. This oil can then be turned into biodiesel which could be sold for use in
automobiles. Regional production of microalgae and processing into biofuels will provide
economic benefits to rural communities.[20]

Biobutanol

Main article: Butanol fuel

Butanol can be made from algae or diatoms using only a solar powered biorefinery. This
fuel has an energy density 10% less than gasoline, and greater than that of either ethanol
or methanol. In most gasoline engines, butanol can be used in place of gasoline with no
modifications. In several tests, butanol consumption is similar to that of gasoline, and
when blended with gasoline, provides better performance and corrosion resistance than
that of ethanol or E85.[21]

The green waste left over from the algae oil extraction can be used to produce butanol.

Biogasoline

Biogasoline is produced from biomass such as algae. Like traditionally produced

gasoline, it contains between 6 (hexane) and 12 (dodecane) carbon atoms per molecule
and can be used in internal-combustion engines.

Methane

Methane[22] a form of natural gas can be produced from algae in various methods, namely
Gasification, Pyrolysis and Anaerobic Digestion. In Gasification and Pyrolysis methods
methane is extracted under high temperature and pressure. Anaerobic Digestion[23] is a
straight forward method involved in decomposition of algae into simple components then
transforming it into fatty acids using microbes like acidific bacteria followed by
removing any solid particles and finally adding methanogenic bacteria to release a gas
mixture containing methane.

Ethanol

The Algenol system which is being commercialized by BioFields in Puerto Libertad,

Sonora, Mexico utilizes seawater and industrial exhaust to produce ethanol.

Vegetable oil fuel

Algal-oils could potentially be used as vegetable oil fuel.

Hydrocracking to traditional transport fuels

Main article: Vegetable oil refining

Algae can be used to produce 'green diesel' (also known as renewable diesel, hydro-
treated vegetable oil[24] or hydrogen-derived renewable diesel)[25] through a hydrocracking
refinery process that breaks molecules down into shorter hydrocarbon chains used in
diesel engines.[24][26] It has the same chemical properties as petroleum-based diesel[24]
meaning that it does not require new engines, pipelines or infrastructure to distribute and
use. It has yet to be produced at a cost that is competitive with petroleum.[25]

Jet fuel

Main article: Aviation biofuel

Rising jet fuel prices are putting severe pressure on airline companies,[27] creating an
incentive for algal jet fuel research. The International Air Transport Association, for
example, supports research, development and deployment of algal fuels. IATA's goal is
for its members to be using 10% alternative fuels by 2017.[28]

Trials have been carried with aviation biofuel by Air New Zealand,[29] Lufthansa, and
Virgin Airlines.[30]

In February 2010, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency announced that the
U.S. military was about to begin large-scale oil production from algal ponds into jet fuel.
After extraction at a cost of $2 per gallon, the oil will be refined at less than $3 a gallon.
A larger-scale refining operation, producing 50 million gallons a year, is expected to go
into production in 2013, with the possibility of lower per gallon costs so that algae-based
fuel would be competitive with fossil fuels. The projects, run by the companies SAIC and
General Atomics, are expected to produce 1,000 gallons of oil per acre per year from
algal ponds.[31]

Algae cultivation
See also: Culture of microalgae in hatcheries

Algae can produce up to 300 times more oil per acre than conventional crops such as
rapeseed, palms, soybeans, or jatropha. As algae have a harvesting cycle of 1–10 days,
their cultivation permits several harvests in a very short time-frame, a strategy differing
from that associated with yearly crops (Chisti 2007).

Algae can grow on land unsuitable for other established crops, for instance: arid land,
land with excessively saline soil, and drought-stricken land. This minimizes the issue of
taking away pieces of land from the cultivation of food crops (Schenk et al. 2008). Algae
can grow 20 to 30 times faster than food crops.[32]

Photobioreactors
Most companies pursuing algae as a source of biofuels pump nutrient-rich water through
plastic or borosilicate glass tubes (called "bioreactors" ) that are exposed to sunlight (and
so-called photobioreactors or PBR).

Running a PBR is more difficult than using an open pond, and more costly, but may
provide a higher level of control and productivity.

Algae farms can also operate on marginal lands, such as in desert areas where the
groundwater is saline, rather than utilizing fresh water.[33] Algae can also grow on the
surface of the ocean.[34]

Because algae strains with lower lipid content may grow as much as 30 times faster than
those with high lipid content,[35] the challenges in efficient biodiesel production from
algae lie in finding an algal strain with a combination of high lipid-content and fast
growth-rate, not too difficult to harvest; and with a cost-effective cultivation system (i.e.,
type of photobioreactor) best suited to that strain. There is also a need to provide
concentrated CO2 to increase the rate of production.[citation needed]

Closed-loop system

The lack of equipment and structures needed to begin growing algae in large quantities
has inhibited widespread mass-production of algae for biofuel production. Maximum use
of existing agriculture processes and hardware is the goal.[36]

Closed systems (not exposed to open air) avoid the problem of contamination by other
organisms blown in by the air. The problem for a closed system is finding a cheap source
of sterile CO2. Several experimenters have found the CO2 from a smokestack works well
for growing algae.[37][38] For reasons of economy, some experts think that algae farming
for biofuels will have to be done as part of cogeneration, where it can make use of waste
heat and help soak up pollution.[33][39]

Open pond

Raceway pond used for the cultivation of microalgae

Open-pond systems for the most part have been given up for the cultivation of algae with
high-oil content.[40] Many[who?] believe that a major flaw of the Aquatic Species Program
was the decision to focus their efforts exclusively on open-ponds; this makes the entire
effort dependent upon the hardiness of the strain chosen, requiring it to be unnecessarily
resilient in order to withstand wide swings in temperature and pH, and competition from
invasive algae and bacteria. Open systems using a monoculture are also vulnerable to
viral infection. The energy that a high-oil strain invests into the production of oil is
energy that is not invested into the production of proteins or carbohydrates, usually
resulting in the species being less hardy, or having a slower growth rate. Algal species
with a lower oil content, not having to divert their energies away from growth, have an
easier time in the harsher conditions of an open system.

Some open sewage-ponds trial production has taken place in Marlborough, New Zealand.
[41]

Research options

Main article: SERI microalgae culture collection

Research into algae for the mass-production of oil focuses mainly on microalgae
(organisms capable of photosynthesis that are less than 0.4 mm in diameter, including the
diatoms and cyanobacteria) as opposed to macroalgae, such as seaweed. The preference
for microalgae has come about due largely to their less complex structure, fast growth
rates, and high oil-content (for some species). However, some research is being done into
using seaweeds for biofuels, probably due to the high availability of this resource.[42][43]

As of 2012 researchers across various locations worldwide have started investigating the
following species for their suitability as a mass oil-producers:[44][45][46]

 Botryococcus braunii
 Chlorella
 Dunaliella tertiolecta
 Gracilaria
 Pleurochrysis carterae (also called CCMP647).[47]
 Sargassum, with 10 times the output volume of Gracilaria.[48]

The amount of oil each strain of algae produces varies widely. Note the following
microalgae and their various oil yields:

 Ankistrodesmus TR-87: 28–40% dw

 Botryococcus braunii: 29–75% dw
 Chlorella sp.: 29%dw
 Chlorella protothecoides(autotrophic/ heterothrophic): 15–55% dw
 Cyclotella DI- 35: 42%dw
 Dunaliella tertiolecta : 36–42%dw
 Hantzschia DI-160: 66%dw
  Nannochloris: 31(6–63)%dw
 Nannochloropsis : 46(31–68)%dw
 Nitzschia TR-114: 28–50%dw
 Phaeodactylum tricornutum: 31%dw
 Scenedesmus TR-84: 45%dw
 Stichococcus: 33(9–59)%dw
 Tetraselmis suecica: 15–32%dw
 Thalassiosira pseudonana: (21–31)%dw
 Crypthecodinium cohnii: 20%dw
 Neochloris oleoabundans: 35–54%dw
 Schiochytrium 50–77%dw[49]

In addition, due to its high growth-rate, Ulva[50] has been investigated as a fuel for use in
the SOFT cycle, (SOFT stands for Solar Oxygen Fuel Turbine), a closed-cycle power-
generation system suitable for use in arid, subtropical regions.[51]

Genetic engineering initiatives

Although research into growth conditions is vital, many people have taken an interest to
genetic engineering of the algae, making strains more lipid rich or rapidly dividing.
Current research in genetic engineering includes either the introduction of enzymes or the
removal of unnecessary enzymes. For example, in 2007 Oswald et al. experimented with
the introduction of a monoterpene synthase from sweet basil into Saccharomyces
cerevisiae, a strain of yeast. [52] This particular monoterpene synthase causes the de novo
synthesis of large amounts geraniol, while also secreting it into the medium. Geraniol is a
primary component in rose oil, palmarosa oil, and citronella oil as well as essential oils,
making it a viable source of triacylglycerides for biodiesel production. [53] This could be a
crucial discovery within the biofuel community, as its natural secretion from the cells can
totally eliminate extraction processes and their associated energy costs.

Another group of researchers determined that enzymes not vital for lipid production
could be eliminated. The enzyme ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase is a vital enzyme in
starch production, with no connection to lipid synthesis. [54] Removal of this enzyme
resulted in the sta6 mutant, which showed a remarkable increase in lipid content. After 18
hours of growth in nitrogen deficient medium the sta6 mutants had on average 17 ng
triacylglycerides/1000 cells, compared to 10ng/1000 cells in WT cells. This increase in
lipid production was said to be attributed to reallocation of intracellular resources, as the
algae did not waste energy on starch production, as it was incapable.

Ongoing research
Companies such as Sapphire Energy and Bio Solar Cells[55] are using genetic engineering
to make algae fuel production more efficient. According to Klein Lankhorst of Bio Solar
Cells, genetic engineering could vastly improve algae fuel efficiency as algae can be
modified to only build short carbon chains instead of long chains of carbohydrates.[56]
Sapphire Energy also uses chemically induced mutations to produce algae suitable for use
as a crop.[57]

Proviron has been working on a new type of reactor (using flat plates) which reduces the
cost of algae cultivation. At AlgaePARC similar research is being conducted using 4
grow systems (1 open pond system and 3 types of closed systems). According to René
Wijffels the current systems do not yet allow algae fuel to be produced competitively.
However using new (closed) systems, and by scaling up the production it would be
possible to reduce costs by 10X, up to a price of 0,4 € per kg of algae.[58]

Some commercial interests into large-scale algal-cultivation systems are looking to tie in
to existing infrastructures, such as cement factories,[39] coal power plants, or sewage
treatment facilities. This approach changes wastes into resources to provide the raw
materials, CO2 and nutrients, for the system.[59]

A feasibility study using marine microalgae in a photobioreactor is being done by The

International Research Consortium on Continental Margins at the Jacobs University
Bremen.[60]

The Department of Environmental Science at Ateneo de Manila University in the

Philippines, is working on producing biofuel from a local species of algae.[61]

NBB's Feedstock Development program is addressing production of algae on the horizon

to expand available material for biodiesel in a sustainable manner.[62]

The European Commission's Algae Cluster Project, funded through the Seventh
Framework Programme, is made up of three algae biofuel projects, each looking to
design and build a different algae biofuel facility covering 10ha of land. The projects are
BIOFAT, All-Gas and InteSusAl.[63]

Since various fuels and chemicals can be produced from algae, it has been suggested to
investigate the feasibility of various production processes(conventional
extraction/separation, hydrothermal liquefaction, gasification and pyrolysis) for
application in an integrated algal biorefinery.[64]

National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)

The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) is the U.S. Department of Energy's
primary national laboratory for renewable energy and energy efficiency research and
development. This program is involved in the production of renewable energies and
energy efficiency. One of it’s most current divisions are consists the biomass program
which is involved in biomass characterization, biochemical and thermochemical
conversion technologies in conjunction with biomass process engineering and analysis.
The program aims at producing energy efficient, cost-effective and environmentally
friendly technologies that support rural economies, reduce the nations dependency in oil
and improve air quality [65].
The Marine Research station in Ketch Harbour, Nova Scotia

The Marine Research station in Ketch Harbour, Nova Scotia, has been involved in
growing algae for 50 years. The National Research Council (NRC) and National
Byproducts Program have provided $5 million to fund this project. The aim of the
program has been to build a 50 000 litre cultivation pilot plant at the Ketch harbor
facility. The station has been involved in assessing how best to grow algae for biofuel and
is involved in investigating the utilization of numerous algae species in regions of North
America. NRC has joined forces with the United States Department of Energy, the
National Renewable Energy Laboratory in Colorado and Sandia National Laboratories in
New Mexico [66].

Nutrients
Main article: Algal nutrient solutions

Nutrients like nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), are important for plant
growth and are essential parts of fertilizer. Silica and iron, as well as several trace
elements, may also be considered important marine nutrients as the lack of one can limit
the growth of, or productivity in, an area.[67]

Carbon dioxide

Bubbling CO2 through algal cultivation systems can greatly increase productivity and
yield (up to a saturation point). Typically, about 1.8 tonnes of CO2 will be utilised per
tonne of algal biomass (dry) produced, though this varies with algae species.[68] The
Glenturret Distillery in Perthshire, UK – home to The Famous Grouse Whisky –
percolate CO2 made during the whisky distillation through a microalgae bioreactor. Each
tonne of microalgae absorbs two tonnes of CO2. Scottish Bioenergy, who run the project,
sell the microalgae as high value, protein-rich food for fisheries. In the future, they will
use the algae residues to produce renewable energy through anaerobic digestion.[69]

Nitrogen

Nitrogen is a valuable substrate that can be utilized in algal growth. Various sources of
nitrogen can be used as a nutrient for algae, with varying capacities. Nitrate was found to
be the preferred source of nitrogen, in regards to amount of biomass grown. Urea is a
readily available source that shows comparable results, making it an economical
substitute for nitrogen source in large scale culturing of algae [70]. Despite the clear
increase in growth in comparison to a nitrogen-less medium, it has been shown that
alterations in nitrogen levels affect lipid content within the algal cells. In one study [71]
nitrogen deprivation for 72 hours caused the total fatty acid content (on a per cell basis)
to increase by 2.4-fold. 65% of the total fatty acids were esterified to triacylglycerides in
oil bodies, when compared to the initial culture, indicating that the algal cells utilized de
novo synthesis of fatty acids. It is vital for the lipid content in algal cells to be of high
enough quantity, while maintaining adequate cell division times, so parameters that can
maximize both are under investigation.

Wastewater

Main article: Wastewater treatment facility

A possible nutrient source is waste water from the treatment of sewage, agricultural, or
flood plain run-off, all currently major pollutants and health risks. However, this waste
water cannot feed algae directly and must first be processed by bacteria, through
anaerobic digestion. If waste water is not processed before it reaches the algae, it will
contaminate the algae in the reactor, and at the very least, kill much of the desired algae
strain. In biogas facilities, organic waste is often converted to a mixture of carbon
dioxide, methane, and organic fertilizer. Organic fertilizer that comes out of the digester
is liquid, and nearly suitable for algae growth, but it must first be cleaned and sterilized.

The utilization of wastewater and ocean water instead of freshwater is strongly advocated
due to the continuing depletion of freshwater resources. However, heavy metals, trace
metals, and other contaminants in wastewater can decrease the ability of cells to produce
lipids biosynthetically and also impact various other workings in the machinery of cells.
The same is true for ocean water, but the contaminants are found in different
concentrations. Thus, agricultural-grade fertilizer is the preferred source of nutrients, but
heavy metals are again a problem, especially for strains of algae that are susceptible to
these metals. In open pond systems the use of strains of algae that can deal with high
concentrations of heavy metals could prevent other organisms from infesting these
systems (Schenk et al. 2008). In some instances it has even been shown that strains of
algae can remove over 90% of nickel and zinc from industrial wastewater in relatively
short periods of time (Chong, Wong et al. 1998).

Environmental impact
In comparison with terrestrial-based biofuel crops such as corn or soybeans, microalgal
production results in a much less significant land footprint due to the higher oil
productivity from the microalgae than all other oil crops [72]. It can also be grown on
marginal lands useless for ordinary crops, and it can use water from salt aquifers that is
not useful for agriculture or drinking [73]. Their production also requires no external
subsidies of insecticides or herbicides, removing any risk of generating associated
pesticide waste streams. Furthermore, compared to fuels like diesel and petroleum, the
combustion of algal biofuel does not produce any sulfur oxides, and produces a reduced
amount of carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and reduced emission of harmful
pollutants [74].

Studies have determined that replacing fossil fuels with renewable energy sources, such
as biofuels, have the capability of reducing CO2 emissions by up to 80% [75]. Since plant
sources of biofuels production simply do not have the production capacity to meet the
current energy requirement, other alternatives such as microalgae have been proposed. An
algae-based system could capture approximately 80% of the CO2 emitted from a power
plant when sunlight is available. Although this CO2 will later be released into the
atmosphere when the fuel is burned, it is important to remember that this CO2 would have
entered the atmosphere regardless [76]. The possibility of reducing total CO2 emissions
therefore lies in the prevention of the release of CO2 from fossil fuels.

Microalgae production also includes the ability to use saline waste or waste CO2 streams
as an energy source. This opens a new strategy to produce biofuel in conjunction with
wastewater treatment in order to get reclaimed water [77]. When used in a microalgal
bioreactor, harvested microalgae will contain significant quantities of organic compounds
as well as heavy metal contaminants absorbed from wastewater streams that would
otherwise be directly discharged into surface and ground-water [78]. Moreover, this
process also allows the recovery of phosphorus from waste, which is an essential but
scarce element in nature – the reserves of which are estimated to have depleted in the last
50 years [79].

Economic viability
In today’s economy, algal biofuels have gained much momentum in regards to their
ability to potentially supplement our energy needs. However, with CO2 rates rising and
projected to rise even further in the coming decades, much research is being conducted to
not only have a renewable energy source but also a sustainable energy commodity, which
will not adversely affect the environment. This trade-off of increasing energy yet
decreasing CO2 burden in our atmosphere is what has yielded the desire for industry to
invest in biofuel. Reasoning behind this endeavour is that algal biofuel will have the
capacity to use CO2 out of the atmosphere to yield hydrocarbons, which can be readily
combusted to yield energy. This concept has been termed the carbon-neutral system,
which is a substantial step forward in contrast to pumping out the 30 Gt(10^9) of CO2
that global industry has been estimated releasing in the year 2010 by the Global CCS
Institute. Although there is clearly a demand for sustainable biofuel production, in the end
the discussion becomes whether or not they are cost efficient. If more energy goes into
the fuel than is expelled after combustion, there really is no gain for the environment.
Various models have been discussed and researched, trying to find manners in which the
cost can be minimized, to a level, which it outcompetes, conventional petroleum.

In a 2007 report [80] a formula was derived estimating the cost of algal oil in order for it to
be a viable substitute to petroleum diesel:

C(algal oil) = 25.9 × 10–3 C(petroleum)

where: C(algal oil) is the price of microalgal oil in dollars per gallon and C(petroleum) is
the price of crude oil in dollars per barrel. This equation assumes that algal oil has
roughly 80% of the caloric energy value of crude petroleum. As of January 29 (2013),
with petroleum priced at $110.52/barrel [81], algal oil should cost no more than
$2.86/gallon in order to be competitive with petroleum diesel. (Note: 1 Fluid barrel =
31.5 US gallons)

With current technology available it is estimated that the cost of producing microalgal
biomass is $2.95/kg for photobioreactors and $3.80/kg for open-ponds. These estimates
assume that carbon dioxide is available at no cost [82] . If the annual biomass production
capacity is increased to 10000 tonnes, the cost of production per kilogram reduces to
roughly $0.47 and $0.60, respectively. Assuming that the biomass contains 30% oil by
weight, the cost of biomass for providing a liter of oil would be approximately $1.40 and
$1.81 for photobioreactors and raceways, respectively. Oil recovered from the lower cost
biomass produced in photobioreactors is estimated to cost $2.80/L, assuming the
recovery process contributes 50% to the cost of the final recovered oil [83]. If existing
algae projects can achieve biodiesel production price targets of less than $1 per gallon,
the United States may realize its goal of replacing up to 20% of transport fuels by 2020
by using environmentally and economically sustainable fuels from algae production [84].

There is always uncertainty about the success of new products and investors have to
consider carefully the proper energy sources in which to invest.[85] A drop in fossil fuel oil
prices might make consumers and therefore investors lose interest in renewable energy.
Algal fuel companies are learning that investors have different expectations about returns
and length of investments. AlgaePro Systems found in its talks with investors that while
one wants at least 5 times the returns on their investment, others would only be willing to
invest in a profitable operation over the long term. Every investor has its own unique
stipulations that are obstacles to further algae fuel development. Additional concerns
consider the potential environmental impact of Algal fuel development, as well as
secondary impacts on wildlife such as bears and fish.[citation needed]

Whereas technical problems, such as harvesting, are being addressed successfully by the
industry, the high up-front investment of algae-to-biofuels facilities is seen by many as a
major obstacle to the success of this technology. Only few studies on the economic
viability are publicly available, and must often rely on the little data (often only
engineering estimates) available in the public domain. Dmitrov[86] examined the
GreenFuels photobioreactor and estimated that algae oil would only be competitive at an
oil price of $800 per barrel. A study by Alabi et al.[87] examined raceways,
photobioreactors and anaerobic fermenters to make biofuels from algae and found that
photobioreactors are too expensive to make biofuels. Raceways might be cost-effective in
warm climates with very low labor costs, and fermenters may become cost-effective
subsequent to significant process improvements. The group found that capital cost, labor
cost and operational costs (fertilizer, electricity, etc.) by themselves are too high for algae
biofuels to be cost-competitive with conventional fuels. Similar results were found by
others,[88][89][90] suggesting that unless new, cheaper ways of harnessing algae for biofuels
production are found, their great technical potential may never become economically
accessible. Recently, Rodrigo E. Teixeira[91] demonstrated a new reaction and proposed a
process for harvesting and extracting raw materials for biofuel and chemical production
that requires a fraction of the energy of current methods, while extracting all cell
constituents.

Even with these difficulties some companies have managed to mass produce algae.
Highlighted below are Blue Marble and Solazyme. These two companies have made
significant progress in either environmentally safe practices or producing enough algae
for the mass production of biofuel.

Blue Marble Production

Blue Marble Production is a Seattle based company that is dedicated to removing alga
from algae-infested water. This in turn cleans up the environment and allows this
company to produce biofuel. Rather than just focusing on the mass production of algae,
this company focuses on what to do with the byproducts. This company recycles almost
100% of its water via reverse osmosis, saving about 26,000 gallons of water every month.
This water is then pumped back into their system. The gas produced as a byproduct of
algae will also be recycled by being placed into a photobioreactor system that holds
multiple strains of algae. Whatever gas remains is then made into pyrolysis oil by
thermochemical processes. Not only does this company seek to produce biofuel, but it
also wishes to use algae for a variety of other purposes such as fertilizer, food flavoring,
anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer drugs.[92]

Solazyme

Solazyme is one of a handful of companies which is supported by oil companies such as

Chevron. Additionally, this company is also backed by Imperium Renewables, Blue Crest
Capital Finance, and The Roda Group. Solazyme has developed a way to use up to 75%
percent of dry algae as oil. This process requires the algae to grow in a dark fermentation
vessel and be fed by carbon substrates within their growth media. The effect is the
production of triglycerides that are almost identical to vegetable oil. Solazyme's
production method is said to produce more oil than those algae cultivated
photosynthetically or made to produce ethanol. Oil refineries can then take this algal oil
and turn it into biodiesel, renewable diesel or jet fuels.

Part of Solazyme's testing, in collaboration with Maersk Line and the US Navy, placed 30
tons of Soladiesel(RD) algae fuel into the 98,000-tonne, 300-meter container ship Maersk
Kalmar. This fuel was used at blends from 7% to 100% in an auxiliary engine on a
month-long trip from Bremerhaven, Germany to Pipavav, India in Dec 2011. In Jul 2012,
The US Navy used 700,000 gallons of HRD76 biodiesel in three ships of the USS Nimitz
"Green Strike Group" during the 2012 RIMPAC exercise in Hawaii. The Nimitz also used
200,000 gallons of HRJ5 jet biofuel. The 50/50 biofuel blends were provided by
Solazyme and Dynamic Fuels.[93]== [94][95]

Alternative applications
Algae used as a source of biofuels is a relatively newly discovered use, but algae has
been used in numerous other applications for many years. The other components in algae,
including carbohydrates, natural dyes and pigments, antioxidants and other bio-active
compounds, can all be used in various processes ranging from the industrial to
pharmaceutical sectors.

Many of the byproducts produced in the processing of microalgae can be used in various
applications. Some of the products not used in the production of biofuel include natural
dyes and pigments, antioxidants, and other high-value bio-active compounds [96]. These
chemicals and excess biomass have found numerous use in other industries. For example,
the dyes and oils have found a place in cosmetics, commonly as a thickening and water-
binding agent. Due to its vitamin rich nature, algae conditions and hydrates the skin while
it nourishes, rejuvenates, and detoxifies. Two common algal species in use are Irish moss
and carrageenan which contain proteins, vitamin A, sugar, starch, vitamin B1, iron,
sodium, phosphorous, magnesium, copper and calcium [97]. These are all useful as sources
for skin care, either as emollients or antioxidants [98].

Discoveries within the pharmaceutical industry include certain antibiotics and antifungals
that have been derived from microalgae. They have also been used in natural health
products, which have been growing in popularity in the past few decades. The
cyanobacteria microalgae Spirulina, provides numerous polyunsaturated fats (Omega 3
and 6), amino acids and vitamins [99], as well as pigments that may be beneficial, such as
beta-carotene and chlorophyll [100].

Advantages
Ease of growth

One of the main advantages that using microalgae as the feedstock when compared to
more traditional crops is that it can be grown much more easily [101]. Algae can be grown
in land that would not be considered suitable for the growth of the regularly used crops
[102]
. In addition to this, wastewater that would normally hinder plant growth has been
shown to be very effective in growing algae [103]. Because of this, algae can be grown
without taking up arable land that would otherwise be used for producing food crops, and
the better resources can be reserved for normal crop production. Microalgae also require
fewer resources to grow and little attention is needed, allowing the growth and cultivation
of algae to be a very passive process [104].

Impact on food

Many traditional feedstocks for biodiesel, such as corn and palm, are also used as feed for
livestock on farms, as well as a valuable source of food for humans. Because of this,
using them as biofuel reduces the amount of food available for both, resulting in an
increased cost for both the food and the fuel produced. Using algae as a source of
biodiesel can alleviate this problem in a number of ways. First, algae is not used as a
primary food source for humans, meaning that it can be used solely for fuel and there
would be little impact in the food industry [105]. Second, many of the waste-product
extracts produced during the processing of algae for biofuel can be used as a sufficient
animal feed. This is an effective way to minimize waste and a much cheaper alternative
to the more traditional corn or grain based feeds [106].

Minimization of waste

Growing algae as a source of biofuel has also been shown to have numerous
environmental benefits, and has presented itself as a much more environmentally friendly
alternative to current biofuels. For one, it is able to utilize run-off, water contaminated
with fertilizers and other nutrients that are a by-product of farming, as its primary source
of water and nutrients [107]. Because of this, it prevents this contaminated water from
mixing with the lakes and rivers that currently supply our drinking water. In addition to
this, the ammonia, nitrates, and phosphates that would normally render the water unsafe
actually serve as excellent nutrients for the algae, meaning that fewer resources are
needed to grow the algae [108]. Many algae species used in biodiesel production are
excellent bio-fixers, meaning they are able to remove carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere to use as a form of energy for themselves. Because of this, they have found
use in industry as a way to treat flue gases and reduce GHG emissions [109].

Disadvantages
New technology

Algae biodiesel is still a fairly new technology. Despite the fact that research began over
30 years ago, it was put on hold during the mid 1990s, mainly due to a lack of funding
and a relatively low petroleum cost [110]. For the next few years algae biofuels saw little
attention, and it was only until the gas peak of the early 2000s that it eventually had a
revitalization in the search for alternative fuel sources [111]. While the technology exists to
harvest and convert algae into a usable source of biodiesel, it still hasn't been
implemented into a large enough scale to support the current energy needs. Further
research will be required to make the production of algae biofuels more efficient, and at
this point it is currently being held back by lobbyists in support of alternative biofuels,
like those produced from corn and grain [112].

Stability

The biodiesel produced from the processing of microalgae differs from other forms of
biodiesel in the content of polyunsaturated fats [113]. Polyunsaturated fats are known for
their ability to retain fluidity at lower temperatures. While this may seem like an
advantage in production during the colder temperatures of the winter, the polyunsaturated
fats result in lower stability during regular seasonal temperatures [114].

Algae fuel by country

See also: List of algal fuel producers

Europe

Universities in the United Kingdom which are working on producing oil from algae
include: University of Sheffield, University of Glasgow, University of Brighton,
University of Cambridge, University College London, Imperial College London,
Cranfield University and Newcastle University. In Spain, it is also relevant the research
carried out by the CSIC´s Instituto de Bioquímica Vegetal y Fotosíntesis (Microalgae
Biotechnology Group, Seville).[115]

cmcl innovations and the University of Cambridge are carrying out a detailed design
study of a C-FAST[116] (Carbon negative Fuels derived from Algal and Solar
Technologies) plant. The main objective is to design a pilot plant which can demonstrate
production of hydrocarbon fuels (including diesel and gasoline) as sustainable carbon-
negative energy carriers and raw materials for the chemical commodity industry. This
project will report in June 2013.

Ukraine plans to produce biofuel using a special type of algae.[117]

United States

Main article: Algae fuel in the United States

The Aquatic Species Program, launched in 1978, was a research program funded by the
United States Department of Energy (DoE) which was tasked with investigating the use
of algae for the production of energy. The program initially focused efforts on the
production of hydrogen, shifting primary research to studying oil production in 1982.
From 1982 until its end in 1996, the majority of the program research was focused on the
production of transportation fuels, notably biodiesel, from algae. In 1995, as part of
overall efforts to lower budget demands, the DoE decided to end the program. Research
stopped in 1996 and staff began compiling their research for publication.

US universities which are working on producing oil from algae include: The University
of Arizona, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,[118] University of California San
Diego,[119] University of Nebraska Lincoln, University of Texas at Austin,[120] University
of Maine, University of Kansas, The College of William and Mary, Northern Illinois
University, University of Texas at San Antonio, Old Dominion University, Utah State
University, New Mexico State University,[121] and Missouri University of Science and
Technology.[122][123]

At the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and the Harbor Branch Oceanographic
Institution the wastewater from domestic and industrial sources contain rich organic
compounds that are being used to accelerate the growth of algae.[15] The Department of
Biological and Agricultural Engineering at University of Georgia is exploring microalgal
biomass production using industrial wastewater.[124] Algaewheel, based in Indianapolis,
Indiana, presented a proposal to build a facility in Cedar Lake, Indiana that uses algae to
treat municipal wastewater, using the sludge byproduct to produce biofuel.[125][126]

Sapphire Energy (San Diego) has produced green crude from algae.

Solazyme (South San Francisco, California) has produced a fuel suitable for powering jet
aircraft from algae.[127]

Other

The Algal Biomass Organization (ABO) is formed by Boeing Commercial Airplanes,

A2BE Carbon Capture Corporation,[128] National Renewable Energy Labs, Scripps
Institution of Oceanography, Benemann Associates,[129] Mont Vista Capital[130] and
Montana State University.

Global air carriers Air New Zealand, Continental, Virgin Atlantic Airways, and biofuel
technology developer UOP, a Honeywell company, will be the first wave of aviation-
related members, together with Boeing, to join Algal Biomass Organization.[131]

The National Algae Association (NAA) is a non-profit organization of algae researchers,

algae production companies and the investment community who share the goal of
commercializing algae oil as an alternative feedstock for the biofuels markets. The NAA
gives its members a forum to efficiently evaluate various algae technologies for potential
early stage company opportunities.

The European Algae Biomass Association (EABA) is the European association

representing both research and industry in the field of algae technologies, currently with
79 members. The association is headquartered in Florence, Italy. The general objective of
the European Algae Biomass Association (EABA) is to promote mutual interchange and
cooperation in the field of biomass production and use, including biofuels uses and all
other utilisations. It aims at creating, developing and maintaining solidarity and links
between its Members and at defending their interests at European and international level.
Its main target is to act as a catalyst for fostering synergies among scientists, industrialists
and decision makers to promote the development of research, technology and industrial
capacities in the field of Algae.

Pond Biofuels Inc.[132] in Canada has grown algae directly off of a cement plant
smokestack emissions, and used waste heat to dry the algae, as well.[39]

Ocean Nutrition Canada in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada has found a new strain of algae
that appears capable of producing oil at a rate 60 times greater than other types of algae
being used for the generation of biofuels.[133]

VG Energy, a subsidiary of Viral Genetics Incorporated,[134] claims to have discovered a

new method of increasing algal lipid production by disrupting the metabolic pathways
that would otherwise divert photosynthetic energy towards carbohydrate production.
Using these techniques, the company states that lipid production could be increased
several-fold, potentially making algal biofuels cost-competitive with existing fossil fuels.

Algae production from the warm water discharge of a nuclear power plant has been
piloted by Patrick C. Kangas at Peach Bottom Atomic Power Station, owned by Exelon
Corporation. This process takes advantage of the relatively high temperature water to
sustain algae growth even during winter months.[135]

International policies
Canada

Numerous policies have been put in place since the 1975 oil crisis in order to promote the
use of Renewable Fuels in the United States, Canada and Europe. In Canada, these
included the implementation of excise taxes exempting propane and natural gas which
was extended to ethanol made from biomass and methanol in 1992. The federal
government also announced their renewable fuels strategy in 2006 which proposed four
components: increasing availability of renewable fuels through regulation, supporting the
expansion of Canadian production of renewable fuels, assisting farmers to seize new
opportunities in this sector and accelerating the commercialization of new technologies.
These mandates were quickly followed by the Canadian provinces:

BC introduced a 5% ethanol and 5% renewable diesel requirement which was effective

by Jan 2010. It also introduced a low carbon fuel requirement for 2012 to 2020.

Alberta introduced a 5% ethanol and 2% renewable diesel requirement implemented

April 2011. The province also introduced a minimum 25% GHG emission reduction
requirement for qualifying renewable fuels.

Saskatchewan implemented a 2% renewable diesel requirement in 2009 [136]

Additionally, in 2006, the Canadian Federal Government announced it's commitment to

using it's purchasing power to encourage the biofuel industry. Section three of the 2006
alternative fuels act stated that when it’s economically feasible to do so-75% per cent of
all federal bodies and crown corporation will be motor vehicles [137]

United States

Policies in the United States have included a decrease in the subsidies provided by the
federal and provincial governments to the oil industry which have usually included $2.84
billion dollars. This is more than what is actually set aside for the biofuel industry. The
measure was discussed at the G20 in Pittsburg where leaders agreed that “inefficient
fossil fuel subsidies encourage wasteful consumption, reduce our energy security, impede
investment in clean sources and undermine efforts to deal with the threat of climate
change". If this commitment is followed through and subsidies are removed, a fairer
market in which algae biofuels can compete will be created. In 2010, the U.S. House of
Representatives passed a legislation seeking to give algae-based biofuels parity with
cellulose biofuels in federal tax credit programs. The algae based renewable fuel
promotion act (HR 4168) was implemented to give biofuel projects access to a $1.01 per
gal production tax credit and 50% bonus depreciation for biofuel plant property. The U.S
Government also introduced the domestic Fuel for Enhancing National Security Act
implemented in 2011. This policy constitutes an amendment to the Federal property and
administrative services act of 1949 and federal defense provisions in order to extend to 15
the number of years that the Department of Defense (DOD) multiyear contract may be
entered into the case of the purchase of advanced biofuel. Federal and DOD programs are
usually limited to a 5 year period [138]

Other

The European Union (EU) has also responded by quadrupling the credits for second-
generation algae biofuels which was established as a amendment to the Biofuels and Fuel
Quality Directives [139]

Funding programs

Numerous Funding programs have been created with aims of promoting the use of
Renewable Energy. In Canada, the ecoAgriculture biofuels capital initiative (ecoABC)
provides $25 million per project to assist farmers in constructing and expanding a
renewable fuel production facility. The program has $186 million set aside for these
projects. The sustainable development (SDTC) program has also applied $500 millions
over 8 years to assist with the construction of next-generation renewable fuels. In
addition, over the last 2 years $10 million has been made available for renewable fuel
research and analysis [140]

In Europe, the Seventh Framework Programme (FP7) is the main instrument for funding
research. Similarly, the NER 300 is an unofficial, independent portal dedicated to
renewable energy and grid integration projects. Another program includes the horizon
2020 program which will start January 1st, and will bring together the framework
program and other EC innovation and research funding into a new integrated funding
system [141]

Future advances
With algal biofuel being a relatively new alternative to conventional petroleum products,
it leaves numerous opportunities for drastic advances in all aspects of the technology. As
of now producing algae biofuel is not a cost-effective replacement for gasoline, but
alterations to current methodologies can change this . The two most common targets for
advancements are the growth medium (Open pond vs. Bioreactor) and methods to
remove the intracellular components of the algae. Below are companies that are currently
innovating algal biofuel technologies.
Diversified Technologies Inc.

Diversified Technologies Inc. has created a patent pending pre-treatment option to reduce
costs of oil extraction from algae. This technology, called Pulsed Electric Field (PEF)
technology, is a low cost, low energy process that applies high voltage electric pulses to a
slurry of algae [142]. The electric pulses enable the algal cell walls to be ruptured easily,
increasing the availability of all cell contents (Lipids, proteins and carbohydrates),
allowing the separation into specific components downstream. This alternative method to
intracellular extraction has shown the capability to be both integrated in-line as well as
scalable into high yield assemblies. The Pulse Electric Field subjects the algae to short,
intense bursts of electromagnetic radiation in a treatment chamber, electroporating the
cell walls. The formation of holes in the cell wall allows the contents within to flow into
the surrounding solution for further separation. PEF technology only requires 1-10
microsecond pulses, enabling a high-throughput approach to algal extraction.

Preliminary calculations have shown that utilization of PEF technology would only
account for $0.10 per gallon of algae derived biofuel produced. In comparison,
conventional drying and solvent based extractions account for $1.75 per gallon. This
inconsistency between costs can be attributed to the fact that algal drying generally
accounts for 75% of the extraction process. [143] Although a relatively new technology,
PEF has been successfully used in both food decomtamination processes as well as waste
water treatments. [144]

Origin Oils Inc.

Origin Oils Inc. has been researching a revolutionary method called the Helix Bioreactor
[145]
, altering the common closed-loop growth system. This system utilizes low energy
lights in a helical pattern, enabling each algal cell to obtain the required amount of light.
[146]
Sunlight can only penetrate a few inches through algal cells, making light a limiting
reagent in open-pond algae farms. Each lighting element in the bioreactor is specially
altered to emit specific wavelengths of light, as a full spectrum of light is not beneficial to
algae growth. In fact, ultraviolet irradiation is actually detrimental as it inhibits
photosynthesis, photoreduction, and the 520 nm light-dark absorbance change of algae.
[147]

This bioreactor also addresses another key issue in algal cell growth; introducing CO2
and nutrients to the algae without disrupting or over-aerating the algae. Origin Oils Inc.
combats this issus through the creation of their Quantum Fracturing technology. This
process takes the CO2 and other nutrients, fractures them at extremely high pressures and
then delvier the micron sized bubbles to the algae. This allows the nutrients to be
deleivered at a much lower pressure, maintaining the integrity of the cells. [148]

See also
Energy portal
  ABE fermentation
 Algenol
 Algaculture
 Biochemical engineering
 Biological hydrogen production
 Butanol fuel
 Carbon neutrality
 Cyanotoxin
 Helioculture
 International Renewable Energy Alliance
 List of algal fuel producers
 Ocean thermal energy conversion
 Phycology
 Phytoplankton
 Thermal depolymerization

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