Plantations: Why?

Factors responsible for development of plantations in Asia and

America:

1. Suez Canal was opened in 1869= this reduce the distance

between Asia and Europe
2. sail based ship were replaced with steam based ship=faster,
more carrying capacity
3. Industrial revolution= demand for rubber as eraser,
waterproofing material+ consumer demand for tea, coffee,
tobacco.
4. imperialism:
a. cheap labour = already available in colonies
b. Capital/finance= provided by Europeans.

there is some difference in the origin of Asian vs. American

plantations:

American plantations Asian plantations

usually owned by rich Setup, Financed and controlled by

families commercial companies based in Europe.

was started with help of with help of locals + indentured laborers

African slave labor. from India, China.

Types of Plantation crops

Three types based on relative maturation time and longevity of
production

type character

 lifecycle >2 years

 take years to mature
1. tree crops
 remain productive for long period
 oil palm, coconut, cocoa, rubber, coffee
  Need less maintenance than tree crops.
2. field crops
 sugarcane, banana

 single planting, harvested within a year

3. annuals
 cotton, jute, tobacco, groundnut

Factor: Gestation

 Plantation of rubber, cocoa, coffee= need large scale

investment, you will not see profit for many years, until the tree
matures.
 Such crops are unsuitable for small scale planter because he
can’t afford to keep land unproductive for more than a year.
 Annual crop are better suited for smallholder, they allow greater
flexibility in planting followed by a harvest the same year. Hence
plantation system has almost retreated from sub-tropics: they
instead grow tobacco/cotton.

Factor: Price shocks

 Even when the commodity prices fall in the world market, the
plantation owner must continue to operate, he cannot is rapidly
switch to another crop.
 On the other hand small scale farmers can grow an alternative
crop to fetch them higher price. E.g. Many UP farmers have
shifted to other crops.

Sugar industry
Factor: Nature of Raw material

Sugar mills are located near sugar growing areas, because of two
factors

 sugarcane = contains sucrose

 Once you cut the sugarcane, the sucrose
1. Perishable
content starts to decline. Hence raw
material must be quickly transported.

2. Weight-loss  sugar accounts for only ~10% of the bulky

sugarcane and therefore it is prohibitively
 expensive to transport sugarcane over
long-distance in its original form.

Sugar Mill and sugar refinery of two separate location principles

Sugar mill Sugar refinery

raw Coarse brown

Input sugarcane sugar (from sugar
mill)
 Sugarcane is crushed
between rollers=sugar
juice.  raw sugar is
Process  Sugar refined
juice+lime=boiling and
crystallization.

1. raw coarse brown

sugar= need further
refining Brown and white
output 2. bagasse => fodder, sugars of various
energy, paper-pulp grades.
industry,
3. molasses=> ethanol

 In countries
like Japan
Must be located near sugar- (which rely
farming areas because on imports),
sugarcane being bulky- the sugar
LocationPrinciple refineries are
perishable. e.g. in Uttar
Pradesh, Maharahstra, setup
South Gujarat. @ports or
near market
centers.

Let’s examine the factors that led to growth Desi-videsi sugar

industries
 Desi-Sugar

Limiting factor=proximity to raw material. So sugar mills are located in

30-50 kms radius of sugar-cultivating areas.

State Location (list non-exhaustive)

 Western Maharashtra’s river valleys

Maharahstra  Sangli, Solapur, Satara
 Ahmednagar, Pune, Nasik

 Western UP and Terai region

Uttar Pradesh  Meerut, Moradabad, Muzaffarnagar
 Sitapur, Gorakhpur, Sharanpur

Tamilnadu  Coimbtore, Tiruchirapalli

 Chitradurg, Shimoga
Karnataka  Bijaipur, Belagaum, Bellary

Andhra  Hyderabad, Nizamabad

Sugar mills: Maharashtra

factor impact

 For sugar, warmer climate=better yield=>

Maharashtra grows thicker variety of sugarcane.
 Proximity to Ocean=the difference between
climate minimum and maximum temp. During crop-maturity
months=very low=>increases sugar yield.
 sugar crushing season is longer

 Black lava soil=fertile + retains water=>good for

soil growth.

 Mills use bagasse as fuel (recall Bagasse

energy cogeneration) = don’t need coal.
transport  Mumbai Port = helps in export.

labour  available

Sugar: Uttar Pradesh

factor impact

 potash-lime in soil=helps in growth.

soil  upper gangetic plain=rich fertile.

water Ganga, Yamuna and their numerous tributaries

energy use bagasse instead of coal for energy.
transport Dense road-network, flat terrain =easy transport.
Seasonal and migratory labour available=cost of
labor
production low.
market large population=> high demand for gur, khandsari, sugar.
govt. sugar pricing=covered in a separate article. click me
Factor: North vs South

1. In South India: No loo, no frost+ moderating effect of

ocean=ideal for sugarcane growth.
2. But the sugarcane cultivate/industry in South India is not as
large as UP-Maharashtra belt, Why?
a. During British-raj, North India used to cultivate indigo as
cash crop but then invention of synthetic dyes=>farmers
switched to sugarcane.
b. In South India, farmers have better cash-crop alternatives
e.g. cotton, tobacco, coconut, groundnut etc. so you don’t
see a large sugarbelt unlike UP.

Ratooning technology

 developed by Research insti. @Coimbatore

 ratoon crop= during harvest, you don’t uproot sugarcane, leave
the root intact => sugarcane grows again from that root.
 Advantage: time, money saved.
  challenge: sugar-yield decreases on every cycle, after 1-2 years,
you need to start fresh.

Cuba the Sugar bowl

factor impact

 Hot climate, the north east trade winds= increase

climate sugar yield.

sugarcane Fertile calcareous soil= Crops are obtained twice a year.

 Large influx of American capital after the Spanish
American war helped sugar industry of Cuba.
 WW1 destroyed the farms in Europe, = Americans
capital had to rely more on Cuban Sugar= prices soared,
Americans invested more money in Cuban mills
and bought more area under sugar cultivation.

 Cuba faces the USA (the greatest sugar market in

the world)
market  not very far off from the north west European
countries

labor Initially started using slave labor.

 Until Fidel Castro took over in 1959, the main
export market was USA, but afterwards most of the
sugar was exported to USSR and other communist
countries.
 Castro confiscated the American owned plantation
govt. and Estates, and redistributed land among workers
policy = smaller landholdings= economy of scale
declined=>unit production cost got higher.
 So, later he organized cooperative and
Sugar collectives. (like we saw in earlier in Rice:
China)

Now passing references

  sugar is grown in Louisiana and Hawaii
USA  but industry is highly mechanized because lack of
labour

Mauritius, sugarcane Grown with help of indentured labour from

Fiji India.

Sugar beet
 German-climate unsuitable for sugar-cultivation.
 They had to rely on imports=sugar-shortage during wartime.
 Therefore, Germans developed a method to extract Sugar from
sugar beet, and encouraged the cultivation of sugar beet for the
strategic reasons of self reliance during war-time.
 Later industry spread in Belgium and France as well.
 In European countries, cool autumn retains the sugar content in
root= higher yields.
 Sugar juice makes up to 20% of the root= significant weightloss.
Therefore, just like sugarcane, sugar beet must be processed
quickly at nearby factories
 But sugarbeet Factories cannot be fed consistently and only
operate during the harvest season= increases cost of running.

Tea

Factors impact

 Tea leaves => tea involves considerable weight

loss. Hence tea processing is done in the
raw estate/plantation itself.
material  further blending/repacking could be done break of
the bulk location (e.g. port cities like London)

 frost=injures the leaves=>tea not grown beyond

Northern China / Honshu
Climate  very long winter=retards plant growth, decreases
yield

doesn’t like stagnant water=> has to be grown on

Topography highland or hill slopese.g. hills of Darjiling, Jalpaiguri or
Nilgiri
  Weeding, manure, pruning and plucking= tedious
job: need skill+ patience=>cheap female labour
force is essential. (recall the same factor
for sericulture development in India, China)
 Since tea has to be grown in hill slopes,
Labor mechanization =not possible (like in case
of wheat in Canada/corn in US)
 Even while drying, rolling, fermentation, grading
and packaging of tea, skilled manpower needed.
 Therefore, tea plantation is done near areas with
high population density.

Black vs Green

black tea green tea

 leave sun dried=>steam

 leaves heated immediately
rolled
with steam, not allowed to
=>fermented=>roasted.
ferment
 result=considerable
 Result=tannin content is
weighloss hence processing
higher, gives a peculiar taste
done @the estate itself
and ‘kick’.
before exporting.

People in far east and Japan like

green tea more. They consume it
 Indians and Europeans like without adding sugar/milk
black tea (obviously because this region
doesn’t a have well developed
dairy industry.)
Factor: break of the bulk (London)

 Break of the bulk=place where mode of transportation changes

e.g. waterway to railways.

The rise of London Tea Biz

 In the era of Colonization, British controlled Indian and Sri-

Lankan tea estates and had ‘sphere of influence’ in China.
  Therefore, lot of tea went to London port and from London the
large consignments were broken, various blends were mixed
and tea was re-exported to other European countries + USA
(which was a ‘colony’ of Britain at that time) + local consumption.

The fall of London Tea Biz

 In world history, we saw that Americans revolted against the tea-

tax imposed by Britain= Boston Tea Party, and then American
war of independence= Thus tea export to USA declined, product
became expensive, Americans shifted to Coffee drinking.
 Later Both Indian and Sri-Lanka gained independence,
Communist rule in China=now tea was exported directly to the
recipient country in Europe, rather than via ‘middleman’ London.

Tea: Darjeeling

Factors effect

 Britain had accumulated truckload of wealth from

its Asian-African colonies + industrial revolution.
 By 1830s, monopoly over Chinese tea-trade was
lost with the entry of other European players
exercising sphere of influence over China.
Capital  The indigo cropping in Bihar was not giving good
returns.
 Suez Canal opened=distance reduced.
 All ^these factors led to British “FDI” going in the
Indian tea-plantation activity.

Climate morning fog, low temperature=high grade leaf

 Tista, Rangreej, Mahananda, Balason+ many
streams.
water  Gradual melting of Himalayan snow=feeds water
to rivers/streams even in dry season.
 +south-west monsoon provided sufficient water

soil has good quantity of phosphorous+potash=>gives

soil
special flavor to Darjeeling Tea.
Topography Grown in hills=no stagnant water.
 Large estates have residential, school, hospital
Labour facilities=>permanent labor force working for
generations.
 Yes, local + foreign demand.
market  Proximity to Kolkata port=good for export.

Tea: China
Mostly grown on Yangtze-Kiang and Sikiang valleys

Factors effect

Climate summer monsoon keeps the temp good for tea

Topography hills

 grown and used since ancient times= people are

skilled @growing tea.
 Famers grow tea on the nearby hills as
Labour secondary crop for additional income, otherwise
primary crop is rice.
 Compared to Indian Estates, Chinese tea Farms
are smaller, usually less than 1 acre.

 Yes local + foreign demand. Yangtze-Kiang leads

to Shanghai port. And Location advantages of
market Shanghai port already discussed in Textile article.
 Although most Europeans prefer Indian black tea
because it is stronger than Chinese variety.

Some passing reference to other countries and factors

country factors

 mountain slopes
Japan  red volcanic soil containing a lot of iron

Sri Lanka  Cheap labour, good climate, hills

  British tried coffee, but a blight in 1870s wiped out
coffee plantation => shifted to tea.

Indonesia Ocean breeze and cheap supply of female labour

Coffee

factor impact

 Coffee needs to be protected from direct

sunlight, especially when plant is young.
 in Yemen / Ethiopia annual rainfall is less than
Temperature 20 inches but still coffee grows well because
thick sea mist=provides moisture and protects
from excessive heat.

 Coffee likes abundant moisture but hates

waterlogging=>hilly slopes receiving orographic
rainfall are best suited for coffee.
Topography  Hill slops facing the sea=even better, because
they benefit from the mist and sea
breezes=cooler. (and coffee hates direct
sunlight/heat)

 Berry has to be picked by hand, sorting the ripe

berries from leaves, twigs etc. also needs
patience and skill.
Labor  Since coffee has to be grown in hillslopes, large
scale mechanization =not possible (unlike wheat
in Canada or Corn/Cotton in US)

 Coffee loses flavour quickly after being roasted.

Therefore, only preliminary processing done in
Market exporting country, and roasting done in the
importing country.

Factor: American Revolution

 Initially the Europeans that had settled in USA, consumed tea

imported from Britain.
  But then King George imposed heavy tax on tea exported to
USA => Boston tea party revolt + American war of
independence=> tea supply halted= Americans switched to
Coffee and thus USA became major market for Brazil and
Columbian coffee cultivators.

Let’s check some important coffee growing regions and factor

responsible.
Brazil: Sao Paulo

Coffee grown in the North-Eastern region of Brazil. Brazilian Coffee

plantations are called “fazendas” (because in Portuguese,
Fazenda=farm)

Factor Impact

 volcanic soil known as terra roxa (red soil)= rich

in minerals, potash and humus
Soil  soil remains productive for many years of coffee
cultivation without requiring additional fertilizers.
  in Brazil tall leguminous plants are used to
provide shade + enrich the soil with nitrogen
fixing bacteria
Temp  Brazilian current=mist=keeps temperature
moderate.
 moderate temp= not much shade needed + lower
occurrence of diseases

 Special railways passing through hills and

Transport tunnels to connect plantations to port cities of Rio
De Janeiro etc.

 they move from one estate to another

 Their wages are low, but they are allowed to
Labor grow maize, vegetables, rear poultry for personal
use in the fazendas.

Universal demand, except where tea is the main

Market
beverage.
 in 1870s, a blight disease destroyed Sri Lankan
Coffee plantation, hence Brazil took the
opportunity to fillup the vaccum in world market.
 They cleared the virgin forest and started coffee
Competition plantations. When soil started losing fertility
they’d simply destroy more forest and move
interior to make another plantation => low unit
production cost because no fertilizer used.

Coffee: Kerala
Kerala=> Western Ghats + Nilgiri Hills region = suited for both
Tea+coffee.

Factor impact

 red soil=best suited

Soil  Hill areas of Kozhikode, Palakkad, Malappuram,
Kottayam=no stagnant water
  Coffee grown on Northern and Eastern slopes of the
ghat (Because coffee hates direct sunlight)
Temp  Moderating effect of Lakshadweep sea= temp stays
~25 throughout the year.

Transport Kochi port

Market Kochi port to (mostly) Italy+local demand in South India

Rubber Plantations

factor impact

 Natural Rubber is obtained from latex of rubber

trees.
 Latex=white milky liquid, collected by making cut on
Raw rubber tree bark.
Material  Latex=contains 30-40% rubber, rest material lost
during processing => preliminary processing is done
near Raw material site.

 hates cold + likes abundant moisture=both condition

climate met near tropics

 Tapper need to make cuts deep enough to chop the

latex tube but without damaging cambium=need
skill.
 Latex is collected by affixing artificial cups on the
labour tree bark.
 but latex will coagulate in cup, if kept for long=>
tapper needs to collect latex regularly
 Hence rubber collection=need lot of laborers.

Processing of Natural Rubber

  Latex from tree=>diluted with water & strained to remove dirt.
 Diluted latex + acid =rubber coagulates and forms slabs on top.
 these slabs removed ,pressed in mill to squeeze out liquid
 slabs=dried=become thin sheets= easy to pack & export

Factor: technology
Rise of Natural rubber demand

 1830s: Charles Goodyear of the USA invented vulcanization

process= increased the industrial applications of Natural rubber.
 1890s: automobile industry= pneumatic cars=needed rubber.

Fall of Natural rubber demand

 In the 1920s, USA began to develop synthetic rubber. Although

natural rubber was still preferred because new technology was
costly.
 But WW2= Japan occupied Southeast Asia=natural rubber
export to USA was cutoff.
 In response, US government developed a huge synthetic rubber
industry in a very short time and after WW2, sold it to private
companies.

Rubber: Malaysia

Factor impact
 hot moist equatorial climate=suitable for Rubber
Climate
trees.

Labour immigrants from China + Tamils from India

 Rubber research Institute in Kuala Lumpur

Technology  new selective breeding methods
 new tapping methods to cut the labour cost

Replanting:

 A new rubber tree yields 3-4 times more latex

than an old tree.
 Hence replanting of rubber tree=increases the
yield.
 Malaysian government, provided active support
for replanting.
Government
Policy Quality control

 Government regulates the export quality by

“standard Malaysian rubber (SMR)” system e.g.
SMR5 grade rubbber, SMR50 grade rubber.
 Thus, Malaysian rubber comments respect and
good prices in international market for its
uniform quality.

Rubber: Kerala
In Kerala, Rubber grown on hill slops of W.Ghats in Travancore,
Kozikode, Malabar, Kottayam distrcits.

factor impact

 Rubber hates cold + likes abundant moisture

climate  Kerala being coastal state + hills=both condition met.
 tapping done in morning to avoid afternoon rains.

soil laterite soil=good growth.

 Available and skiled. One tapper can go through almost
labour
250-300 trees per day.

Kerala= lot of coconuts=their shell is used as “cup” to collect latex.

Other than that, not much wisdom is given in books regarding
‘location factor’.
Factors: Why decline in S.America
Rubber is originally from Brazil, their government had banned export
of rubber plant to maintain monopoly However, an Englishman
smuggled the seeds out of Brazil, spread Rubber plantation in Sri
Lanka and other S.E.Asian countries. But today S.American countries
don’t figure in top Rubber producers, why?

1. South American Countries= prolonged struggles for

independence, coups, countercoups =instability=no attention to
infra/research necessary for Rubber.
2. Their governments did not understand the importance
of replanting like Malaysians =yields kept decline after every
year.
3. Rubber estates confiscated with change of regimes, land
redistributed among peasants= small scale rubber production
=cannot maintain ‘uniform quality’ for exported rubber + no more
‘economies of scale’= unit cost of production increased.

Cocoa
 Originally from Central and South America, associated with
Aztec civilization.
 Spanish brought it to Europe, but only after Europeans learned
the art of chocolate making, cocoa demand increased.
 Then Europeans introduced cocoa in West African countries.

Ghana, Cocoa Triangle

In Ghana, the triangular area between Takoradi, Kumasi and Accra
towns has max. Concentration of cocoa cultivation= famous as
“Cocoa Triangle”.

soil, climate cocoa tree need warm wet climate, forest

protection.Ghana being in the equatorial belt. So
 all conditions met.

need lot of cheap laborers because

1. cocoa fruits have to be manually cut with a

machete.
2. Since cocoa trees grown in jungle areas=
labour have to manually carry it near the
mainroad/railway line.

Ghana has abundant supply of cocoa-labourers

known as Tumbadors.

Port of Takoradi and Tema.Mainly grown for

transport/market export to US and dairy countries of Europe (Swiz,
Den, Neth).
Factor: Processing
(just for information)

 cocoa fruitpod=> pulp removed= you get 20-30 seeds from each
pod
 Seeds covered in banana leaves and allowed to ferment for a
week=> sun dried.
 Tropical damp climate = cocoa beans quickly lose flavor after
roasting. Therefore, further processing done in the importing
country (e.g. USA)
 they roast the bean=>grind=> you get two products
1. Powder: mix with sugar, milk & make chocolate.
2. Cocoa-butter: used in cosmetics, cream-lipstick,
pharmaceuticals etc.

So why does Ghana export cocoa-beans, why not finished

products?

1. Unlike USA, Ghana doesn’t have abundant supply of other

ingredients of chocolate/confectionary items viz. milk and sugar.
Even if Ghana imported milk/sugar from elsewhere to make
chocolates, the final market is in US/Europe=> transport cost
makes the industry @disadvantage.
 2. Ghana doesn’t have drug/cosmetic industry that can efficiently
utilize by-product: cocoa-butter. (because drug/cosmetic industry
require ‘skilled’ labour)

Ecuador used to be a major cocoa exporter but trees were plagued by

fungal disease=> farmer switched to banana, coffee and sugar cane.
Bananas
Just passing reference

 fruit ripens very quickly.

 without refrigerated boats, impossible to ship product from
tropics to US/EU market.
 banana producing regions nearest to major markets have trade
advantage. e.g. Caribbean islands

In the next article, we’ll see the location factors for Iron-steel-heavy
industries.

Mock Questions
5 marks/50 words

Explain the reason(s) for each of the following:

1. Sugarcane is more economical to produce cane sugar beet.

2. more cane sugar enters the world trader then beet sugar
3. The invention of chocolate making was the greatest single factor
in rapid expansion of cocoa cultivation
4. chocolate making factories are located in importing countries
rather than in cocoa-producing countries

12 marks /120 words

1. Explain the geographical factors responsible for large-scale

commercial cultivation of any one of the following pairs:
a. Tea and Coffee
b. sugarcane and sugar beet
2. consider the basis of regional specialization in tropical
beverages with special reference to any one major beverage
crop.
3. for any selected area, examine the relationship between
development of coffee or tea because of following factors
 a. climate
b. relief and drainage
c. labour Supply
d. government policy

25 marks/ 250 words

1. Tropical and Sub-tropical regions are the chief suppliers of

beverages to the temperate markets. Comment
2. Plantation agriculture is essentially limited to the tropical and
subtropical areas. What are the factors responsible for this
particular concentration?
3. Analyze the factor responsible for underdevelopment of
Plantation economy near tropical regions.
4. Examine the factors influencing commercial production of rubber
in Malaysia or Tobacco in USA.