CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This chapter discusses some related literature that consists of the

definition of pragmatics, the theory of cooperative principle, the theory of maxim

violation, the theory of movie and the related study.

A. Pragmatics

Pragmatics is one of many subfields of linguistics. It concerns with

the study of meaning within particular context. Leech (1983: 6) states that

pragmatics concerns with meaning as a triadic relation. It means that meaning

in pragmatics is relative to the language user.

In addition, Kreidler (1998: 19) states that the main focus of

pragmatics is a person’s ability to get meanings from specific situations, to

recognize what a speaker is referring to, to relate new information to what has

gone before, to interpret what is being said from background knowledge

about the speaker and the topic, and to infer information that the speaker

takes for granted and does not bother to say. Moreover, Yule (1996: 3) states

that pragmatics clearly concerns with the analysis of what people mean by

their utterance not only recognizing the meaning of words in an utterance, but

recognizes the words or phrases in the utterance mean by themselves. It

studies how meanings of utterances depend not only on general linguistic

knowledge like grammar and lexicon but also depend on the context.
 Since pragmatics concerns with the study of language use, it covers

several topics of discussions. They are deixis, reference and inference,

presupposition and entailment, speech act, politeness, implicature, and

Cooperative Principles. One of the several concerns under pragmatics in

which the connection between language and context can be seen through a

phenomenon is called deixis.

According to Yule (1996: 129), deixis is defined as ‘pointing’ via

language using deictic expressions. There are three kinds of deictic

expressions namely person deixis such as ‘me’ and ‘you’, spatial deixis such

as ‘here’ and ‘there’, and temporal deixis such as ‘now’ and ‘then’. Another

concern under pragmatics is reference and inference. Reference is an act

where a speaker uses linguistic forms to make a listener to identify something

(Yule, 1996: 17). It includes a linguistic form namely referring expressions.

They can be in the form of proper noun such as ‘Shakespeare’ and ‘Victoria

Secret’, noun phrase both definite and indefinite such as ‘the woman’ and ‘a

man’, and also pronouns such as ‘he’ and ‘her’. Meanwhile, inference is

defined as a process which the hearers must go through to get from the literal

meaning of what is said to what the speaker intended to convey (Brown and

Yule, 1983: 256). Besides, there is also presupposition and entailment as the

scope under pragmatics. Yule (1996: 25) defines presupposition as something

the speaker think to be the case prior to make an utterance, while entailment

is defined as something that logically follows from what is asserted in the

utterance.
 In addition, another focus under the umbrella of pragmatics is speech

acts. Yule (1996: 47) states that in expressing themselves, people perform

actions via utterances. They do not only produce utterances that contain

grammatical structures. The action performed is called speech acts. As an

example is when a priest utters ‘I now pronounce you husband and wife.’ In

the utterance, the priest is not only simply saying something yet he does an

action that is marrying two persons. Moreover, in pragmatics, keeping one’s

face by paying attention to politeness is really concerned. Then, politeness

itself is an interaction to show awareness of another person’s face (Yule,

1996: 60). Some aspects that the participants of the conversation have to be

taken note of are face saving act, face threatening act, and face wants.

In addition, speakers sometimes give implicit meaning beyond their

utterances namely implicature in the conversation they are involved. Grice

uses the term implicature to refer to what speakers can imply, suggest, or

mean as distinct from what the speakers literary say (Brown and Yule, 1983:

31). The next topic under the umbrella of pragmatics is Cooperative

Principles and it will be explained further on the next point.

B. Cooperative Principle

The Cooperative Principle is proposed by Grice. Grice expressed

Cooperative Principle to suggest that in conversational interaction people

work on the assumption that a certain set of rules is in operation, unless they

receive indications to the contrary (Thomas, 1995: 62). Cooperative Principle

consist of a limited set of conversational maxims to which Grice maintains

interacts in a conversational exchange should but frequently do not adhere

(Watts, 2003: 57). When speakers violate any of the maxims lead the

addressee or hearer to make what Grice calls implicature. Those maxims will

be explained as follows.

1. Maxim of Quantity

In this maxim we must (a) Make the contribution as informative

as is required for the current purpose of the exchange, (b) Do not make

our contribution more informative than is required (Leech, 1983: 8).

Those rules mean that the number of utterances used to deliver message

must be informative as what is required and does not more or less than it;

so that, the information does not boring or disappointing, for example:

A: “what is your job?”

B: “I am teacher.”

In these utterances, what B says is informative for what A asks.

When A asks about B’s job, B answers, teacher, is enough because the

message is delivered.

2. Maxim of Quality

There are two rules in this maxim, they are: (a) Do not say what

you believe to be false and (b) Do not say that for which you lack

adequate evidence (Leech, 1983: 8). The meaning of these rules is clear

that the delivered message must be truthful and does not lack suitable

evidence, For example:

A: “Where is my coat?”
 B: “It is in the wardrobe.”

In this case, B put the coat in the wardrobe. So that, when A asks

where his coat is, B can answer it truthfully because he can prove it.

3. Maxim of Relation

In this maxim, the rule is being relevant (Leech, 1983: 8). The

meaning of “relevant” is the connection between what the speaker says

and the addressee hears is related each other, for example:

A: “Where is my box of chocolates?”

B: “It is in your room.”

In these utterances, what the hearer answers is connected with

what the speaker asks about place of his box of chocolates.

4. Maxim of Manner

The rules are: (a) Avoid obscurity of expression, (b) Avoid

ambiguity, (c) Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity), and (d) Be orderly

(Leech, 1983, p.8). It means utterance that is conveyed must be clear.

There are two kinds of clarity, clear text and clear message. Cleat text is

constructed by syntax and phonology of the language. Then, the clear

message is when the sense of illocutionary goal conveyed is

understandable, for example:

A: “Where is the car key?”

B: “It is on the table in my bedroom.”

 In these utterances, B’s answer is constructed by clear syntax

and the message that is conveyed does not make ambiguous. So that the

utterance is clear text and message.

The cooperative principle and the politeness principle have a close

relationship because they study about the use of language in

communication using a set of principles or maxims to manage it. Besides,

the politeness principle appears to argue the cooperative principle. The

politeness principle says that not all people are being cooperative in a

conversation to be polite.

C. Maxim Violation

According to Grice (1975) in Khosravizadeh & Sadehvandi (2011:

1), a violation takes place when speakers intentionally refrain to apply certain

maxims in their conversation to cause misunderstanding on their participants’

part or to achieve some other purposes.

Grice (1975: 45) in Tupan & Natalia (2008: 68) gives the criteria of

violation of maxims used as distinguished guidelines. Here are the guidelines:

1. Maxim of Quantity Violation:

a. If the speaker does circumlocution or not to the point

b. If the speaker is uninformative

c. If the speaker talks too short

d. If the speaker talks too much

e. If the speaker repeats certain words

2. Maxim of Quality Violation:

 a. The speaker lies or says something that is believed to be false

b. If the speaker does irony or makes ironic and sarcastic statement

c. If the speaker denies something

d. If the speaker distorts information.

3. Maxim of Relation Violation

a. If the speaker makes the conversation unmatched with the topic

b. If the speaker changes conversation topic abruptly

c. If the speaker avoids talking about something

d. If the speaker hides something or hides a fact

e. If the speaker does the wrong causality

4. Maxim of Manner Violation

a. The speaker uses ambiguous language

b. If the speaker exaggerates thing

c. If the speaker uses slang in front of people who do not understand it

d. If the speaker’s voice is not loud enough.

D. Movie

A Movie or motion picture includes Photographs, diagrams, or

pictures in a series which projected in a screen by a projector for process in

turning in a screen that cause appearance in screen look natural movement

(Sharon and Weldon, 1977: 93).

Movies are one of media to affect people mind in this time. They

affect masses in childhood and youth (Joel Spring, 2005: 351). Good movie is
depend on trust factors are scenario (plot), camera angels, acting, and editing

the movie. The elements of movie are:

1. Scenario is a dialog that will be spoken by the character actor, as

descriptions logic of thinking, background, and character interaction with

other characters.

2. Camera angels as a technical angel camera shots from a certain viewpoint

to expose the scene.

3. Acting, to portray a character in a scenario illustrated required casting

role. There are that should be considered among other traits script, acting,

or posture in accordance with demand scenario and director.

4. Editing. Learn the editing is not just someone who wants to devote

worked as an editor only, but also recommended for any film crew to

understand the process. (Widagdo, 2007).

The literary of elements novel and movie is almost same

(http://www.online-literature.com/wilde/177/). There are such:

1. Character

Character is a participant in the story, and is usually a person,

but may be any personal, identity, or entity whose existence originates

from a fictional work or performance.

There are several types of character such:

a. Point of view character

It is the character from whose perspective (theme) the

audience experiences the story. This is the character that represents

 the point of view the audience will empathies, or at the very least,

sympathies with. Therefore this is the main character.

b. Protagonist

It is about the driver of the action in story and therefore

responsible for achieving the stories Objective Story Goal (the surface

journey). In western storytelling tradition the protagonist is usually the

main character.

c. Antagonist

It is about the character that stands in opposition to the protagonist.

d. Supporting character

It is a character that plays a part in the plot but is not major.

e. Minor character

It is a character in a bit/ cameo part.

2. Plot

Plot or storyline is the rendering of the events and actions of a

story. On micro level, plot consists of action and reaction, also referred to

as stimulus and response. On a macro level, plot has a beginning, middle,

and an ending.

Plot refers to the series of events that give a story its meaning

and effect. In most stories, these events arise out of conflict experienced

by the main character. The conflict may come from something external,

like a dragon or an overbearing mother, or it may stem from an internal

issue, such as jealousy, loss of identity, or overconfidence. As the

 character makes choices and tries to resolve the problem, the story’s

action is shaped and plot is generated. In some stories, the author

structures the entire plot chronologically, with the first event followed by

the second, third and so on, like beads on a string. However, many other

stories are told with flashback techniques in which plot events from

earlier times interrupt the story’s “current” events.

There are the important elements of plot such:

a. Conflict is the basic tension, predicament, or challenge that propels a

story’s plot.

b. Complications are plot events that plunge the protagonist further into

conflict.

c. Rising action is the part of a plot in which the drama intensifies, rising

toward the climax.

d. Climax is the plot’s most dramatic and revealing moment, usually the

turning point of the story.

e. Resolution is the part of the plot after the climax, when the drama

subsides and the conflict is resolved.

3. Setting

Setting the location and time of a story is its overall context

where, when and in what circumstances the action occurs.

There are here kinds of setting such:

a. As place: the physical environment where the story takes places. The

description of the environment often points toward its importance.

 b. Setting as time: includes time in all of its dimensions. To determine

the importance, ask, “What was going on at that time?”

c. Setting as cultural context: setting also involves the social

circumstances of the time and lace. Consider historical events and

social and political of the time.

4. Theme

Theme is the central idea or insight serving as a unifying element.

5. Point of view

Point of view is simply who is telling the story.

There are types of point of view such:

a. First Person Point of View

First person is used when the main character is telling the

story. This is the kind that uses the "I" narrator. As a reader, you can

only experience the story through this person's eyes. So you won't

know anything about the people or events that this character hasn't

personally experienced.

First Person Peripheral: This is when the narrator is a supporting

character in the story, not the main character. It still uses the "I"

narrator but since the narrator is not the protagonist, there are events

and scenes that will happen to the protagonist that the narrator will not

have access to.

b. Second Person Point Of View

 Second person point of view is generally only used in

instructional writing. It is told from the perspective of "you".

c. Third Person Point Of View

Third person point of view is used when your narrator is not a

character in the story. Third person uses the "he/she/it" narrator and it

is the most commonly used point of view in writing.

There are 3 main types of Third Person point of view such:

1) Third Person Limited: Limited means that the point of view is

limited to only one character. This means that the narrator only

knows what that character knows. With third person limited you

can choose to view the action from right inside the character's

head or from further away, where the narrator has more access to

information outside the protagonist's view point.

2) Third Person Multiple: This type is still in the "he/she/it" category,

but now the narrator can follow multiple characters in the story.

The challenge is making sure that the reader knows when you are

switching from one

3) Character to another: Make the switch obvious with chapter or

section breaks.

4) Third Person Omniscient: This point of view still uses the

"he/she/it" narration but now the narrator knows everything. The

narrator isn't limited by what one character knows, sort of like the

narrator is God. The narrator can know things that others don't,
 can make comments about what's happening, and can see inside

the minds of other characters.

6. Style

Style is the manner to the language conventions used to

constructs the story, incorporates non literal expression, and handles

rhythm, timing and tone.

E. Related Study

Related to maxim of manner, there have been many researchers

conducting the study of it. Jihan Achyun Kusuma is one of them who also

focus on maxim of manner as the object of her study. Her graduating paper

was done in 2012 entitled A Socio- Pragmatic Analysis of the Flouting of

Cooperative Principle Maxims Done by the Main Character in Cinderella

Man. The researcher identified the men’s linguistic features, the four types

of maxim, and the reason for the male main character to employ the

maxim. The theories that were used to explain the sociolinguistics aspects

were language and gender by Wardaugh and also Wodak and Blanke. The

theory of Cooperative Principles by Grice was also used to explain the

types of maxim of manner.