El Huachicol

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{\phpg\posx2474\pvpg\posy1818\absw4951\absh209 \f21 \fs23 \cf0 \f21 \fs23 \cf0
APLICACIONES FORENSES DEL ADN \par
}
{\phpg\posx3638\pvpg\posy2745\absw2361\absh667 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 \fi105 \f21 \fs19
\cf0 Lourdes Prieto Solla
\par}{\phpg\posx3638\pvpg\posy2745\absw2361\absh667 \sl-200 \par\f21 \fs19 \cf0
{\fs12 Comisar�a}{\fs12 General}{\fs12 de}{\fs12 Polic�a}{\fs12
Cient�fica }
\par}{\phpg\posx3638\pvpg\posy2745\absw2361\absh667 \sl-160 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 \fi567
{\fs12 Laboratorio}{\fs12 de}{\fs12 ADN }\par
}
I{\fs14 NTRODUCCI�N }
\fi320 Actualmente la pericia gen�tica realizada sobre restos biol�gicos es
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5155\absw6982\absh6677 \sl-240 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 una

actividad rutinaria en el entorno forense. El an�lisis de muestras
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5155\absw6982\absh6677 \sl-240 \f21 \fs19 \cf0
involucradas en ciertos delitos puede ayudar a esclarecer c�mo ocu-
rrieron los hechos o quienes intervinieron en los mismos. Asimismo, la
aplicaci�n de t�cnicas moleculares en la identificaci�n de cad�veres ha
permitido resolver aquellos casos que no pod�an solventarse mediante
t�cnicas cl�sicas de identificaci�n (huella dactilar, ficha dental, etc).
\fi320 Este tipo de pericias se caracteriza por su objetividad, ya que se basan
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5155\absw6982\absh6677 \sl-240 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 en
fundamentos cient�ficos plenamente demostrados y validados. Los
resultados que se obtienen en el an�lisis de evidencias en un laborato-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5155\absw6982\absh6677 \sl-240 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 rio,
por tanto, han de coincidir plenamente con los obtenidos en otros
diferentes, si todos son cient�ficamente rigurosos y cumplen con las con-
diciones de calidad. En este sentido es de gran importancia asegurarse de
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5155\absw6982\absh6677 \sl-240 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 que la
pericia se realiza en un laboratorio debidamente acreditado.
\fi320 Si bien actualmente la identificaci�n gen�tica es una de las
pruebas
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5155\absw6982\absh6677 \sl-240 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 m�s
importantes al servicio de la Justicia, hemos de reconocer que una
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5155\absw6982\absh6677 \sl-240 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 de las
principales limitaciones que tiene es el factor tiempo. A diferencia
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5155\absw6982\absh6677 \sl-240 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 de
otras pruebas de car�cter identificador de gran relevancia en �pocas
anteriores (como la huella dactilar), el an�lisis de ADN no ofrece resul-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5155\absw6982\absh6677 \sl-240 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 tados

con la rapidez deseada, pues los protocolos exigen unos tiempos
m�nimos en el tratamiento de las muestras. Sin embargo, hemos asistido a
gran evoluci�n de la gen�tica molecular en las �ltimas d�cadas y por
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5155\absw6982\absh6677 \sl-240 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 ello
no debemos descartar que alg�n d�a quiz� la �prueba del ADN� sea
pr�cticamente inmediata. As� lo deseamos todos los que nos dedicamos
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5155\absw6982\absh6677 \sl-240 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 a tan
interesante especialidad.
\fi3238 1872 \par
}
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\cf0 APLICACIONES FORENSES DEL ADN \par
}
B{\fs14 REVE}{\fs14 INTRODUCCI�N}{\fs14 AL}{\fs14 CONCEPTO},{\fs14 TIPOS}
{\fs14 Y}{\fs14 VARIABILIDAD}{\fs14 DE} ADN
\fi320 Para entender c�mo se realizan los an�lisis moleculares con fines
identificadores y c�mo se interpretan los resultados introduciremos bre-
vemente y de la manera m�s sencilla posible el concepto de ADN (�cido
desoxirribonucleico), los tipos de ADN que podemos estudiar y c�mo
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7110\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 var�a
entre los individuos.
La mol�cula de ADN se localiza dentro de la mayor�a de las c�lulas
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7110\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 que
forman los diferentes tejidos de un individuo. Se trata de una mol�-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7110\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 cula
muy larga compuesta por unos 3000 millones de unidades llamadas
nucle�tidos. La forma m�s sencilla de pensar en una mol�cula de ADN
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7110\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 es
imaginar una larga cadena formada por 3000 millones de eslabo-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7110\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 nes
(nucle�tidos). Dentro de cada c�lula, la mayor parte del ADN se
encuentra en un compartimento denominado n�cleo, separado del resto
(citoplasma) por una membrana llamada nuclear. La cadena de ADN se
encuentra empaquetada, formando unas estructuras denominadas cro-
mosomas (figura 1). En los humanos existen 23 pares de cromosomas,
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7110\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 22 de
ellos denominados autosomas y el par restante corresponde a los
cromosomas sexuales. En las mujeres este par est� formado por dos
cromosomas similares denominados X (par XX) y en los varones est�
compuesto por un cromosoma X y un cromosoma Y (par XY). El ADN
cromos�mico (tanto autos�mico como sexual) se llama ADN nuclear
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7110\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 (ADNn)
y existen �nicamente 2 copias del mismo en cada c�lula (simpli-
ficando, una procedente del padre y otra procedente de la madre).
En gen�tica forense se estudian fragmentos de ADN que est�n situa-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7110\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 dos
tanto en los autosomas como en los cromosomas sexuales (XY).
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7110\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 Dado
que el cromosoma Y s�lo existe en varones, es importante cono-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7110\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 cer
c�mo se hereda; todos los individuos varones emparentados por
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7110\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 l�nea
paterna comparten el cromosoma Y (casi en su totalidad) pues se
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7110\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 hereda
directamente de padres a hijos sin mezclarse con ning�n material
procedente de la madre (figura 2A). Por tanto, no es posible identificar
individuos mediante el estudio de su cromosoma Y, s�lo es posible iden-
tificar linajes paternos.
Adem�s del ADN nuclear existe otro tipo de ADN denominado ADN
mitocondrial (ADNmt) mucho m�s corto (unos 16500 eslabones) localiza-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7110\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 do
dentro de unos org�nulos celulares llamados mitocondrias presentes
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7110\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 en el
citoplasma. Existen numerosas mitocondrias en cada c�lula y varias
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7110\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 copias
de ADNmt en cada mitocondria, es decir, existe mayor cantidad
copias de ADNmt que de ADNn por c�lula. Este hecho hace que en
muestras forenses muy cr�ticas (con escasa cantidad de ADN o con ADN
mal estado) tenga m�s �xito el an�lisis de ADNmt que el estudio de
\fi3238 1873 \par
}
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51400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514005145140051451400514514
005145140051451401fffd9
\cf0 LOURDES PRIETO SOLLA \par
}
ADNn. Sin embargo, el ADNmt presenta un peculiaridad, se hereda �nica
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7038\absh5134 \sl-240 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 e
�ntegramente de la madre, es decir, todos los individuos relacionados
familiarmente por v�a materna presentan id�ntico ADNmt (figura 2B). Por
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7038\absh5134 \sl-240 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 tanto
no permite la identificaci�n de individuos, sino de l�neas familiares
maternas.
Los eslabones que forman la cadena de ADN pueden ser de cuatro
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7038\absh5134 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 tipos,
por ejemplo podemos imaginar que son de cuatro colores dife-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7038\absh5134 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 rentes
(hay cuatro tipos de nucle�tidos llamados Adenina o A, Timina o
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7038\absh5134 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 T,
Citosina o C y Guanina o G). El orden o secuencia de estos tipos de
eslabones a lo largo de toda la cadena es pr�cticamente igual en todos
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7038\absh5134 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 los
humanos pero existen algunas zonas de la cadena que difieren de
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7038\absh5134 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 unos
individuos a otros. Estas zonas llamadas polim�rficas son las que
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7038\absh5134 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 nos
interesan en gen�tica forense para poder diferenciar unas muestras
otras. Por tanto, no es interesante analizar la mol�cula de ADN com-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7038\absh5134 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 pleta,
principalmente por dos razones: (i) tardar�amos mucho tiempo y
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7038\absh5134 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 (ii)
la mayor parte de la mol�cula es com�n en todos los humanos y no
podr�amos distinguirlos.
A cada fragmento variable de ADN que estudiamos en identificaci�n
gen�tica lo denominamos marcador, sistema o locus (loci, en plural) y
alelos son las variantes (�posibilidades�) que tiene cada uno (figura 3).
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7038\absh5134 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 Cada
marcador tiene un nombre propio que suele hacer referencia a su
localizaci�n dentro de la mol�cula de ADN; por otro lado, la mayor�a de
alelos de cada marcador se representan con n�meros (tabla 1). \par
}
MARCADOR
HUMTH01
CSF1PO
D8S1179 \par
}
ALELOS DETECTADOS EN LA POBLACI�N ESPA�OLA
\fi1375 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 9.3, 10 y 11
\fi1156 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 y 15
8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 y 18 \par
}
{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy9238\absw6949\absh3002 \f21 \fs15 \cf0 \fi597 \f21
\fs15 \cf0 T{\fs11 ABLA} 1. Ejemplos de marcadores utilizados en gen�tica
forense y sus alelos
\fi2599 en poblaci�n espa�ola.
\fi319 {\fs19 Cada}{\fs19 individuo}{\fs19 hereda}{\fs19 un}{\fs19 alelo}
{\fs19 de}{\fs19 su}{\fs19 madre}{\fs19 y}{\fs19 otro}{\fs19 de}{\fs19
su}{\fs19 padre.}{\fs19 Si }
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy9238\absw6949\absh3002 \sl-239 \f21 \fs15 \cf0 {\fs19
los}{\fs19 alelos}{\fs19 heredados}{\fs19 en}{\fs19 un}{\fs19 marcador}{\fs19
concreto}{\fs19 coinciden}{\fs19 diremos}{\fs19 que}{\fs19 el }
individuo}{\fs19 es}{\fs19 homocigoto}{\fs19 y}{\fs19 si}{\fs19 difieren}
{\fs19 se}{\fs19 tratar�}{\fs19 de}{\fs19 un}{\fs19 heterocigoto}{\fs19
(figu- }
ra}{\fs19 4).}{\fs19 As�,}{\fs19 un}{\fs19 individuo}{\fs19 que}{\fs19
herede}{\fs19 de}{\fs19 ambos}{\fs19 progenitores}{\fs19 el}{\fs19 alelo}
{\fs19 7}{\fs19 en }
el}{\fs19 marcador}{\fs19 TH01}{\fs19 ser�}{\fs19 homocigoto}{\fs19 7-7}
{\fs19 y}{\fs19 otro}{\fs19 que}{\fs19 herede}{\fs19 el}{\fs19 alelo}
{\fs19 7}{\fs19 de }
su}{\fs19 madre}{\fs19 y}{\fs19 el}{\fs19 9}{\fs19 de}{\fs19 su}{\fs19
padre,}{\fs19 ser�}{\fs19 heterocigoto}{\fs19 7-9. }
{\fs19 Como}{\fs19 puede}{\fs19 suponerse}{\fs19 hay}{\fs19 que}{\fs19
analizar}{\fs19 varios}{\fs19 marcadores}{\fs19 en}{\fs19 una }
muestra}{\fs19 para}{\fs19 poder}{\fs19 identificarla}{\fs19 pues}{\fs19 dos}
{\fs19 muestras}{\fs19 distintas}{\fs19 pueden}{\fs19 coin- }
cidir}{\fs19 por}{\fs19 simple}{\fs19 azar}{\fs19 en}{\fs19 los}{\fs19
alelos}{\fs19 de}{\fs19 un}{\fs19 marcador.}{\fs19 A}{\fs19 mayor}{\fs19 de}
{\fs19 n�mero }
\fi3238 {\fs19 1874 }\par
}
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07ffd9
}
{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw6944\absh615 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 de
marcadores analizados, mayores posibilidades de distinguir dos mues-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw6944\absh615 \sl-240 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 tras
sin error. El perfil gen�tico de un individuo o de una evidencia es la
sucesi�n de los alelos que presenta en cada marcador (tabla 2). \par
}
MUESTRA TH01 TPOX CSF1PO D3S1358 VWA \par
}
{\phpg\posx1645\pvpg\posy3206\absw1624\absh133 \f21 \fs14 \cf0 \f21 \fs14 \cf0 1
6-9.3 8-11 10-10 \par
}
FGA \par
}
D8S1179 D21S11 D18S51 D5S818 D13S317 D7S820 SEXO \par
}
{\phpg\posx3436\pvpg\posy3206\absw4750\absh133 \f21 \fs14 \cf0 \f21 \fs14 \cf0 16-
16 16-17 20-21 10-13 30-30 14-15 12-12 10-11 10-10 XY \par
}
\fs15 \cf0 Tabla 2. Perfil gen�tico de una muestra biol�gica
\fi319 {\fs19 Actualmente}{\fs19 se}{\fs19 estudia}{\fs19 un}{\fs19 n�mero}
{\fs19 suficiente}{\fs19 de}{\fs19 marcadores}{\fs19 para }
distinguir}{\fs19 unas}{\fs19 muestras}{\fs19 de}{\fs19 otras.}{\fs19 La}
{\fs19 mayor�a}{\fs19 de}{\fs19 laboratorios}{\fs19 forenses }
utilizan}{\fs19 los}{\fs19 mismos}{\fs19 marcadores}{\fs19 con}{\fs19 el}
{\fs19 fin}{\fs19 de}{\fs19 intercambiar}{\fs19 datos}{\fs19 sin}{\fs19 tener
}
que}{\fs19 reanalizar}{\fs19 las}{\fs19 muestras. }\par
}
C{\fs14 ONCEPTO}{\fs14 DE}{\fs14 MUESTRAS}{\fs14 DUBITADAS}{\fs14 E}{\fs14
INDUBITADAS }
\fi319 Para que una pericia gen�tico biol�gica sea concluyente es impres-
cindible desarrollar el an�lisis en dos tipos de muestras:
a) Muestras dubitadas o evidencias: son restos biol�gicos de pro-
cedencia desconocida, es decir, no sabemos a qui�n pertenecen
(por ejemplo las muestras recogidas en la escena del delito o de
un cad�ver sin identificar).
b) Muestras indubitadas o de referencia: son restos biol�gicos de
procedencia conocida, es decir, sabemos a qui�n pertenecen
(por ejemplo la sangre tomada de un cad�ver identificado, o las
muestras tomadas a familiares de un desaparecido).
La anal�tica de ADN se ha denominado en m�ltiples ocasiones �huella
gen�tica�; este t�rmino no debe llevarnos a confusi�n pues, si bien es
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5576\absw7017\absh6298 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 verdad
que cada individuo presenta un ADN diferente (como en el caso
las huellas dactilares), no existe una base de datos formada por las
caracter�sticas gen�ticas de cada individuo que vive en Espa�a (a diferen-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5576\absw7017\absh6298 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 cia de
la huella dactilar, de la cual existe un registro del �ndice derecho
todas las persona con DNI). Por este motivo, s�lo podremos identi-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5576\absw7017\absh6298 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 ficar
las evidencias biol�gicas si disponemos de muestras de referencia
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5576\absw7017\absh6298 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 para
su comparaci�n.
Los tipos de muestras dubitadas m�s frecuentemente analizadas por
t�cnicas gen�tico moleculares son (figura 5): sangre (habitualmente en
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5576\absw7017\absh6298 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 forma
de mancha), semen (lavados vaginales o manchas sobre prendas
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5576\absw7017\absh6298 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 de la
v�ctima), saliva (colillas de cigarrillo, chicles, sobres y sellos), pelos,
\fi3238 1875 \par
}
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1010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101ffc000110802a801
e203012200021101031101ffc4001f00000105010101010101000000000000000001020304050607080
90a0bffc400b5100002010303020403050504040000017d010203000411051221314106135161072271
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0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28
a28a00ffd9
}
u�as, tejidos blandos, restos �seos y dentarios (estos �ltimos relaciona-
fundamentalmente con la identificaci�n de cad�veres).
El tipo de muestras indubitadas m�s habituales son sangre y saliva
(frotis bucal). No es necesario que las muestras de referencia sean del
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw6986\absh2761 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 mismo
tipo que las evidencias, es decir, podremos comparar distintos
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw6986\absh2761 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 tipos
de restos biol�gicos entre s� ya que el ADN es igual (salvo excep-
ciones) en todos tejidos de un mismo individuo.
Podemos diferenciar tres etapas principales en el an�lisis de una
muestra forense (figura 6): (i) pruebas preliminares para determinar la
naturaleza y el organismo de procedencia de la muestra; (ii) an�lisis del
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw6986\absh2761 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 ADN
presente en la muestra con fines identificadores y (iii) an�lisis e
interpretaci�n de los resultados obtenidos. \par
}
P{\fs14 RUEBAS}{\fs14 PRELIMINARES}{\fs14 EN}{\fs14 LAS}{\fs14 PERICIAS}
{\fs14 GEN�TICO}-{\fs14 BIOL�GICAS }
\fi320 Antes de realizar un estudio de ADN con el fin de individualizar
las
evidencias existen pasos previos en la anal�tica que nos permiten dis-
criminar el tipo de resto biol�gico ante el que nos encontramos. Ello se
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5547\absw7013\absh6324 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 logra
a trav�s de las pruebas preliminares, que si bien son m�s sencillas
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5547\absw7013\absh6324 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 que el
propio an�lisis del ADN presente en una muestra, no por ello son
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5547\absw7013\absh6324 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 menos
importantes. El peso de la evidencia var�a seg�n se trate de un
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5547\absw7013\absh6324 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 tipo
de resto biol�gico u otro, es decir, no es lo mismo hallar una man-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5547\absw7013\absh6324 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 cha de
sangre (que puede implicar lucha) que un filtro de cigarrillo (que
simplemente puede indicar la presencia de un individuo en la escena del
delito, pero no necesariamente su participaci�n activa en �l). Sin embar-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5547\absw7013\absh6324 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 go, en
cada caso las circunstancias son diferentes y muestras biol�gicas
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5547\absw7013\absh6324 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 que
quiz� no tengan relevancia en un hecho delictivo la pueden tener
otro distinto.
Existen fundamentalmente tres tipos de pruebas preliminares (figu-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5547\absw7013\absh6324 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 ra 6):

a) Orientativas: se trata de t�cnicas que nos revelan la posible
naturaleza de la mancha pero no nos la aseguran, es decir, sir-
ven s�lo para descartar, pero no para concluir. Por ejemplo, la
llamada reacci�n de Adler es una sencilla prueba colorim�trica
que si resulta positiva nos orienta a pensar que estamos ante una
mancha de sangre, pero sin poder asegurarlo pues existen otras
sustancias (jugos vegetales, �xido, lej�a) que tambi�n dan positiva
esta reacci�n. Si la prueba resulta negativa podremos asegurar
que el resto que estamos analizando no es sangre. Estas pruebas
\fi3238 1876 \par
}
ffd8ffe000104a46494600010100000100010000ffdb004300010101010101010101010101010101010
10101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
010101010101ffdb0043010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010
1010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101ffc000110802a801
e203012200021101031101ffc4001f00000105010101010101000000000000000001020304050607080
90a0bffc400b5100002010303020403050504040000017d010203000411051221314106135161072271
14328191a1082342b1c11552d1f02433627282090a161718191a25262728292a3435363738393a43444
5464748494a535455565758595a636465666768696a737475767778797a838485868788898a92939495
0102030405060708090a0bffc400b511000201020404030407050404000102770001020311040521310
61241510761711322328108144291a1b1c109233352f0156272d10a162434e125f11718191a26272829
2a35363738393a434445464748494a535455565758595a636465666768696a737475767778797a82838
0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28
a28a00ffd9
}
\fs19 \cf0 son sencillas de realizar, son de bajo coste, muy r�pidas, y
nos
ayudan a seleccionar las manchas a analizar.
b) De certeza: nos permiten determinar el tipo de resto biol�gi-
co analizado con seguridad. La detecci�n de hemoglobina en
la muestra para determinaci�n de sangre o la visualizaci�n al
microscopio de espermatozoides para la determinaci�n de semen
son algunos ejemplos (figura 7).
c) Espec�ficas: nos permiten determinar el tipo de organismo al que
pertenece el resto biol�gico. Una vez que hemos determinado el
tipo de muestra que hemos de analizar, interesa saber si se trata
de una muestra humana o no. Existen principalmente dos tipos de
pruebas espec�ficas: unas basadas reacciones ant�geno-anticuerpo
y otras basadas en el estudio de ciertas regiones del ADN, si bien,
en cierto tipo de muestras (pelos, restos �seos) puede realizarse
un estudio de las caracter�sticas morfol�gicas para determinar el
tipo de organismo. En el caso de que nos encontremos ante una
muestra de origen animal, normalmente los an�lisis terminar�n en
este punto a no ser que el objetivo sea precisamente determinar
la especie (por ejemplo, en caso de delitos ecol�gicos y de caza
furtiva). En el caso de muestras de origen humano se proceder�
a realizar la segunda etapa del estudio destinada a individualizar
la muestra mediante t�cnicas de ADN.
Conviene se�alar que en determinadas ocasiones no es posible deter-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw6962\absh5994 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 minar
el tipo de resto biol�gico hallado por la escasa cantidad de mues-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw6962\absh5994 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 tra
disponible. En estos casos se suele proceder directamente a realizar
estudios de ADN para intentar individualizar la muestra. \par
}
I{\fs14 NDIVIDUALIZACI�N}{\fs14 DE}{\fs14 LAS}{\fs14 MUESTRAS}{\fs14
BIOL�GICAS }
\fi320 Actualmente, para determinar a qu� individuo pertenece una muestra
biol�gica se recurre al estudio de parte de su ADN. La mol�cula de ADN
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy9179\absw7036\absh3055 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 se
localiza dentro de las c�lulas que forman los diferentes tejidos de un
individuo y para poder analizarla, previamente hay que aislarla separ�n-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy9179\absw7036\absh3055 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 dola
del resto de componentes celulares. A pesar de que en una primera
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy9179\absw7036\absh3055 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 fase
aislaremos la mol�cula completa, posteriormente s�lo estudiaremos
ciertas regiones de ella, concretamente las zonas m�s polim�rficas (�mar-
cadores�, �sistemas� o �loci� polim�rficos).
La anal�tica de ADN se realiza en cuatro fases (figura 6):
\fi3238 1877 \par
}
ffd8ffe000104a46494600010100000100010000ffdb004300010101010101010101010101010101010
10101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
010101010101ffdb0043010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010
1010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101ffc000110802a801
e203012200021101031101ffc4001f00000105010101010101000000000000000001020304050607080
90a0bffc400b5100002010303020403050504040000017d010203000411051221314106135161072271
14328191a1082342b1c11552d1f02433627282090a161718191a25262728292a3435363738393a43444
5464748494a535455565758595a636465666768696a737475767778797a838485868788898a92939495
0102030405060708090a0bffc400b511000201020404030407050404000102770001020311040521310
61241510761711322328108144291a1b1c109233352f0156272d10a162434e125f11718191a26272829
2a35363738393a434445464748494a535455565758595a636465666768696a737475767778797a82838
0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28
a28a00ffd9
}
{\phpg\posx1680\pvpg\posy1810\absw6733\absh6491 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 a)
Extracci�n de ADN: consiste en separar la mol�cula de ADN del
resto de componentes celulares. Se trata de un paso fundamental
en el an�lisis gen�tico de muestras forenses, pues el �xito del
estudio puede verse afectado en gran medida si no se realiza un
buen aislamiento de la mol�cula. Existen gran cantidad de sus-
tancias que pueden interferir en este proceso, bien de los propios
reactivos utilizados durante la extracci�n o bien de los soportes
en los que se encuentran situados las manchas biol�gicas. La
duraci�n y rendimiento de este proceso tambi�n depende en
gran medida del tipo de resto biol�gico que se est� analizando.
As�, a partir de las muestras de sangre o de saliva el proceso de
extracci�n es m�s r�pido que a partir de un resto �seo o dentario
donde el ADN es menos accesible.
\par}{\phpg\posx1680\pvpg\posy1810\absw6733\absh6491 \sl-336 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 b)
Cuantificaci�n de ADN: una vez que hemos finalizado la extrac-
ci�n se realiza la cuantificaci�n para saber qu� cantidad de ADN
hemos logrado aislar y en qu� estado se encuentra (completo o
roto).
\par}{\phpg\posx1680\pvpg\posy1810\absw6733\absh6491 \sl-336 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 c)
Amplificaci�n de ADN: consiste en copiar muchas veces el frag-
mento concreto de ADN que queremos estudiar para obtener
una cantidad adecuada que nos permita su detecci�n. Este pro-
ceso se denomina PCR (polymerase chain reaction) y gracias a
�l podemos analizar peque�as cantidades de muestra biol�gica.
Normalmente se amplifican varios fragmentos de ADN en para-
lelo para evitar agotar la muestra y para conseguir una mayor
rapidez en el an�lisis (multiplex PCR).
\par}{\phpg\posx1680\pvpg\posy1810\absw6733\absh6491 \sl-336 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 d)
Detecci�n del producto amplificado o tipaje: esta es la fase final
del an�lisis molecular y es la que nos permite caracterizar y cla-
sificar los fragmentos de ADN estudiados en cada muestra para
diferenciar unas de otras. \par
}
A{\fs14 N�LISIS}{\fs14 DE}{\fs14 LOS}{\fs14 RESULTADOS }
\fi319 Una vez que se ha finalizado el estudio molecular propiamente dicho
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy9675\absw6916\absh2609 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 se
procede al an�lisis de los resultados obtenidos. Podemos encontrarnos
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy9675\absw6916\absh2609 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 con
dos situaciones (figura 6):
1. Que dispongamos de muestras indubitadas de referencia para
cotejar con las evidencias.
2. Que no tengamos acceso a muestras de referencia para com-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy9675\absw6916\absh2609 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 parar.

\fi3238 1878 \par
}
ffd8ffe000104a46494600010100000100010000ffdb004300010101010101010101010101010101010
10101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
010101010101ffdb0043010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010
1010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101ffc000110802a801
e203012200021101031101ffc4001f00000105010101010101000000000000000001020304050607080
90a0bffc400b5100002010303020403050504040000017d010203000411051221314106135161072271
14328191a1082342b1c11552d1f02433627282090a161718191a25262728292a3435363738393a43444
5464748494a535455565758595a636465666768696a737475767778797a838485868788898a92939495
0102030405060708090a0bffc400b511000201020404030407050404000102770001020311040521310
61241510761711322328108144291a1b1c109233352f0156272d10a162434e125f11718191a26272829
2a35363738393a434445464748494a535455565758595a636465666768696a737475767778797a82838
0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28
a28a00ffd9
}
\fs19 \cf0 En el caso de que nos encontremos ante la primera situaci�n, el resul-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7009\absh9687 \sl-240 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 tado
de la comparaci�n entre muestras dubitadas e indubitadas puede
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7009\absh9687 \sl-240 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 ser de
dos tipos:
\fi319 1.1 Coincidencia o compatibilidad: el perfil gen�tico evidenciado
ambos tipos de muestras es coincidente (criminal�stica) o compati-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7009\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 ble
(paternidades) . En este caso se ha de valorar estad�sticamente si la
coincidencia es debida al azar o a que realmente la evidencia biol�gica
pertenece al individuo de referencia. Es evidente que este an�lisis depen-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7009\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 de �a
priori� del n�mero de marcadores analizados en las muestras y una
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7009\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 vez
realizado el an�lisis, de lo frecuente o no que sean los alelos de
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7009\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 cada
marcador (por ejemplo, en el hipot�tico caso de que estudi�ramos
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7009\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 el
grupo sangu�neo, el grupo 0 es muy frecuente en nuestra poblaci�n
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7009\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 por
lo que este resultado se ha de valorar con menor �fuerza� que si
obtenemos un grupo AB, mucho menos frecuente). Por esta raz�n, los
laboratorios analizan de rutina en cada muestra una bater�a de marcado-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7009\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 res
con elevado poder de discriminaci�n.
\fi319 1.2 No coincidencia o incompatibilidad: el perfil gen�tico eviden-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7009\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 ciado

en las muestras dubitadas no coincide con el de la muestra indubi-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7009\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 tada;
o bien, en casos de paternidad, el supuesto padre no comparte ale-
con el hijo (incompatibilidad). En estos casos no es necesario realizar
valoraci�n estad�stica pues la exclusi�n se informa con seguridad.
\fi319 En los casos donde no disponemos de muestras de referencia para
comparar con las evidencias podemos introducir los perfiles gen�ticos
obtenidos en una base de datos de perfiles an�nimos. Esto nos permitir�
relacionar distintos delitos entre s�, facilitando as� la investigaci�n policial
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7009\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 y
judicial en hechos reincidentes como violaciones y robos. Actualmente
algunos laboratorios poseen sus propias bases de datos de evidencias,
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7009\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 pero
ser�a deseable que se unificaran criterios as� como la informaci�n
contenida en cada una de ellas con el fin de intercambiar datos de forma
rutinaria. Por otro lado, en otros pa�ses ya existe una legislaci�n
sobre
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7009\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 la
introducci�n de perfiles gen�ticos de car�cter indubitado relaciona-
con pr�cticamente todos o cierto tipo de delitos (seg�n el pa�s); en
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7009\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 Espa�a
ser�a necesario que existiera un marco legal con el fin de evitar
p�rdida de informaci�n que proporcionar�an dichos perfiles.
\fi319 Adem�s de las bases de datos de perfiles gen�ticos an�nimos obteni-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7009\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 dos a
partir de las evidencias, existen bases de datos de perfiles proce-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7009\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 dentes
de cad�veres sin identificar y de familiares de desaparecidos que
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7009\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 dieron
su consentimiento para el an�lisis de su ADN. Con estas bases
datos los laboratorios pretenden facilitar la dif�cil tarea de identificar
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7009\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 cuando

no existen otros medios que el an�lisis gen�tico.
\fi3238 1879 \par
}
ffd8ffe000104a46494600010100000100010000ffdb004300010101010101010101010101010101010
10101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
010101010101ffdb0043010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010
1010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101ffc000110802a801
e203012200021101031101ffc4001f00000105010101010101000000000000000001020304050607080
90a0bffc400b5100002010303020403050504040000017d010203000411051221314106135161072271
14328191a1082342b1c11552d1f02433627282090a161718191a25262728292a3435363738393a43444
5464748494a535455565758595a636465666768696a737475767778797a838485868788898a92939495
0102030405060708090a0bffc400b511000201020404030407050404000102770001020311040521310
61241510761711322328108144291a1b1c109233352f0156272d10a162434e125f11718191a26272829
2a35363738393a434445464748494a535455565758595a636465666768696a737475767778797a82838
0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28
a28a00ffd9
}
P{\fs14 ROBLEM�TICA}{\fs14 DE}{\fs14 LAS}{\fs14 MUESTRAS}{\fs14
BIOL�GICAS }
\fi320 Ya hemos visto que, actualmente, para determinar a qu� individuo
pertenece una muestra biol�gica, se recurre al estudio de sus polimorfis-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw6977\absh9687 \sl-241 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 mos de
ADN y ya hemos descrito todas las fases anal�ticas que se han de
realizar (extracci�n, cuantificaci�n, amplificaci�n y tipaje), pero creemos
conveniente apuntar la problem�tica del d�a a d�a del laboratorio en las
diferentes etapas del an�lisis de estos polimorfismos.
\fi320 Las muestras indubitadas que pertenecen a individuos vivos no sue-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw6977\absh9687 \sl-241 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 len
dar problemas en el an�lisis gen�tico si fueron recogidas y enviadas
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw6977\absh9687 \sl-241 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 al
laboratorio en condiciones �ptimas. Sin embargo, las evidencias con
car�cter dubitado pueden sufrir una serie de modificaciones que depen-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw6977\absh9687 \sl-241 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 der�n
no s�lo del tiempo transcurrido hasta el momento de su estudio,
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw6977\absh9687 \sl-241 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 sino
de las condiciones ambientales a las cuales se vieron sometidas, de
cantidad de muestra, del soporte en el cual se encuentran, del lugar
procedencia y del tipo de muestra biol�gica.
\fi320 De todos los tipos de muestras biol�gicas que se analizan diariamente
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw6977\absh9687 \sl-241 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 en el
laboratorio forense, quiz� sean las de sangre las m�s agradecidas.
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw6977\absh9687 \sl-241 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 Sin
embargo algunas veces tambi�n dan problemas. La sangre podemos
hallarla bien en estado l�quido o en forma de mancha. La sangre l�quida
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw6977\absh9687 \sl-241 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 bien
conservada no ofrece ning�n tipo de problema, pero no es raro que
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw6977\absh9687 \sl-241 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 al
laboratorio llegue sangre putrefacta bien porque se ha estropeado
durante el transporte o bien porque pertenece a un cad�ver en el cual
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw6977\absh9687 \sl-241 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 se ha
iniciado la descomposici�n. Para evitar el primer problema es con-
veniente realizar una mancha sobre una gasa antes de proceder al trans-
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw6977\absh9687 \sl-241 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 porte
de la muestra y para el segundo no queda m�s remedio que tratar
buscar otra muestra para el an�lisis, bien sea un tejido blando, u�as, o
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw6977\absh9687 \sl-241 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 un
resto �seo, dependiendo del estado de conservaci�n del cuerpo. Por
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw6977\absh9687 \sl-241 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 el
contrario, la sangre en forma de mancha se conserva m�s f�cilmente
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw6977\absh9687 \sl-241 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 y
puede analizarse tras varios a�os si las condiciones de secado fueron
adecuadas. Quiz� las manchas sobre cueros, maderas tratadas, restos
vegetales y tierras sean de las m�s cr�ticas pues estos materiales
tienen
diferentes grados de absorci�n y en ellos se encuentran presentes gran
cantidad de inhibidores de la PCR como los taninos, que impiden que la
reacci�n funcione.
\fi319 Las muestras de saliva no suelen presentar problemas en la anal�tica
ADN. Suelen llegar al laboratorio en forma de mancha, sobre filtros de
cigarrillo, sellos, chicles o prendas (por ejemplo la zona coincidente con
boca en un pasamonta�as utilizado en un atraco) o bien en soportes
\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw6977\absh9687 \sl-241 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 m�s
engorrosos como vasos, botellas o huesos de fruta.
\fi3238 1880 \par
}
}

El Huachicol

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El Huachicol

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{\rtf \ansi\ansicpg1252\deff0\viewkind1\margt750\margb620

{\fonttbl{\f11\fswiss\fcharset0 Arial Narrow;}{\f10\fswiss\fcharset0 Arial;}

\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5155\absw6982\absh6677 \sl-240 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 una

\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5155\absw6982\absh6677 \sl-240 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 tados

\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy5547\absw7013\absh6324 \sl-352 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 \fi320

\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy9675\absw6916\absh2609 \sl-283 \par\f21 \fs19 \cf0

\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7009\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 ciado

\par}{\phpg\posx1360\pvpg\posy1810\absw7009\absh9687 \sl-239 \f21 \fs19 \cf0 cuando

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