Dr. Ir. Dedy Kristanto, M.

Sc

RESERVOIR ENGINEERING ASPECTS

IN IOR AND EOR
Seven Key Elements of
Petroleum Reservoir

1. Source Rock
0
2. Reservoir Rock
1000
3. Timing / Burial 10.2 m
2000 Y
History
3000
4. Maturation
4000
5. Migration
5000 HIGH
6. Cap Rock
PRESSURE
6000
7. Trap
7000
10 km
8000

9000

10000

DK - 2 -
Reservoir Components

Reservoir Cap Rock Reservoir Trap

Rock Fluids
DK - 3 -
Geology Structural Products

Fold

Fault

Fracture

DK - 4 -
Structural Reservoir Trap

Anticlinal Axis

A x i s
ncl i nal
S y

DK - 5 -
Structural Reservoir Trap

Normal Faults

DK - 6 -
Structural Reservoir Trap

DK - 7 -
Structural Reservoir Trap

DK - 8 -
Structural Reservoir Trap - Anticline

DK - 9 -
Structural Reservoir Trap - Fault

Fault Leaked
Fault Sealed

Ilustration of HC accumulation on Hanging wall of Normal Fault

DK - 10 -
Stratigraphyc Trap

Pinch out Channel

DK - 11 -
Standard Scientific Units

Parameter Symbol Dimensions cgs SI Darcy Field

Length L L cm metre cm ft
Mass m M gm kg gm lb
Time t T sec Sec sec hr
Velocity u L/T cm/sec metre/sec cm/sec ft/sec
stb/d
(liquid)
Rate q L3 /T cc/sec metre3 /sec cc/Sec
Mscf/d
(gas)
Pressure p (ML/T2 )/L2 dyne/cm2 Newton/metre2 atm psia
(Pascal)
Density ρ M/L3 gm/cc kg/metre3 gm/cc lb/cu.ft
Viscosity µ M/LT gm/cm.sec kg/metre.sec cp cp
(Poise)
Permeability k L2 cm2 metre2 Darcy mD

DK - 12 -
Common Conversion Factors

1 ft = 0.3048 m 1 acre = 4047 m2 = 43560 ft2

1 bbl = 0.159 m3 1 acre-ft = 1233 m3

1 dyne = 10-5 N 1 atm = 101.3 kPa

1 psi = 6.9 kPa 1 cal = 4.817 J

1 Btu = 1055 J 1 HP = 746 W

1 cp = 0.001 Pa s 1 md = 10-15 m2

1 lb = 0.454 kg 1 bar = 100 kPa

DK - 13 -
Properties of the Reservoir Rocks
y Properties of the rock material:
- Porosity
- Pore size distribution
- Permeability
- Formation compressibility
y Static rock-fluid properties (related to interaction of rock & fluids
contained in pores):
- Wettability & contact angle
- Capillary pressure & interfacial tension
- Irreducible & connate water saturation
- Residual oil saturation
y Dynamic rock-fluid properties (related to the interaction of rock
& fluids):
- Relative permeability
- Mobility
- Saturation distribution during immiscible fluid displacement
DK - 14 -
Properties of the Rock Material
Porosity

y Original or primary porosity - forms when rock

forming sediment was originally deposited,
compacted, & cemented together into matrix

y Induced or secondary porosity - developed by

geological process that occurred after deposition

y Total porosity - total void space in rock divided by

bulk volume of rock

y Effective porosity - ratio of interconnected void

space in rock to bulk volume of rock

DK - 15 -
Properties of the Rock Material
Porosity

Void Volume
Porosity = φ =
Bulk Volume

Interconnected Pore Volume

Effective Porosity = φ e =
Bulk Volume

Total Pore Volume

Total Porosity =φ T =
Bulk Volume

Bulk Volume = Rock Volume occupied by solid grains

+ Void volume beween cemented grains

DK - 16 -
Factor Affecting Porosity

y Porosity is affected by
- Sorting (well sorted means grains are all of
roughly uniform size)
- Roundness or angularity
- Compaction
- Contribution of secondary porosity i.e., vugs or
fractures
- Type of packing and cementation.

DK - 17 -
Properties of the Rock Material
Porosity

Pore Space in Packing of Uniform Spheres

y Sandstones
−φ = 1% - 38%
average about
20%
y Limestone &
dolomite reservoirs
−φ average = 10%

DK - 18 -
Porosity Oil Quartz Grain

= 0.08 mm

DK - 19 -
Notes on Porosity

y Porosity is a measure of the storage capacity of

the reservoir rock.
y Only interconnected pore space is of interest. If
pore space is isolated, i.e., there is no network of
pores that channel fluids to wells, fluid can not be
produced.

DK - 20 -
Properties of the Rock Material
Pore Size Distribution

y Describes Microphotograph and Grain Size Distribution Examples

distribution of
pore volumes
by
characteristic
pore size
y Use pore size
distributions
with caution

DK - 21 -
Properties of the Rock Material
Permeability - Darcy’s Equation

y Darcy’s equation for horizontal linear flow of fluid

through a porous media:

Q Where:
q = volumetric rate (cm3/sec)

k • A (p1 − p2 )
k = permeability (darcies)
q= • A = area (cm2)
µ L A p2

m = viscosity (cp)
L
∆p p1 = upstream pressure (atm)
Q
p1
p2 = downstream pressure (atm)
L = length of porous media (cm)
q•µ•L
k=
A(p1 − p2 )

DK - 22 -
Properties of the Rock Material
Permeability - Darcy’s Equation

y A sand of one Darcy permeability will permit a fluid

of one centipoise viscosity to flow through an area
of one cm2 at a flow rate of one cubic centimeter
per second under a pressure gradient of one
atmosphere per centimeter
- Usually a Darcy is much too large a unit for
reservoir rocks normally encountered in the field,
so a millidarcy, or one-thousandth of a Darcy, is
the customary unit
1000 md = 1 D

DK - 23 -
Properties of the Rock Material
Permeability - Darcy’s Equation
y In oilfield units, Darcy’s equation for the horizontal
flow of a liquid can be expressed as:

1.1271x10 −3 ∗ k ∗ A ∗ (p1 − p2 )
q=
µ ∗L

Where:
q = volumetric flow rate of liquid (bbl/day)
k = permeability (md)
A = flow area (ft2)
p1 = upstream pressure (psi)
p2 = downstream pressure (psi)
µ = fluid viscosity (cp)
L = thickness of porous media (ft)
DK - 24 -
Properties of the Rock Material
Absolute and Effective Permeability
y Permeability
- Property of the rock & not of the fluid which flows
through it, provided that the fluid 100% saturates the
pore space of the rock
y Absolute permeability
- Permeability at 100% saturation of a single fluid is
called the of the rock

y Effective permeability
- Permeability of a rock to a particular fluid when that
fluid has a pore saturation less than 100%.
• The sum of the effective permeabilities for different
fluids is always < absolute permeability of the rock
DK - 25 -
Properties of the Rock Material
Permeability - Darcy’s Equation

Example of the Klinkenberg Effect for Gas Flow Through a Porous Media

DK - 26 -
Factor Affecting Permeability

y Porosity
y Saturation
y Fluid flow velocity, Viscosity and
Pressure
y Flow Geometry

ÏÐ
DK - 27 -
Flow Geometry for Parallel Layer

∑
j =1
k j hj
k = n

∑j =1
hj

DK - 28 -
Flow Geometry for Seri Layer

L
k= n Lj
∑K
j =1 j
DK - 29 -
Note for Permeability

y Heterogeneities in permeability can have a

dominant effect on secondary recovery and EOR
operations.
- Thin high-permeability sand streaks can cause
water to bypass oil sand and breakthrough
prematurely at production wells during
waterflooding.

DK - 30 -
Static Rock-Fluid Properties
Wettability
y Wettability - tendency of one fluid to spread on, or
adhere to a solid surface in presence of other
immiscible fluids

Forces in Equilibrium at Oil-water Interface Contact angle < 90°

= water-wet
Contact angle > 90°
= oil-wet
Contact angle = 90°
indicates neutral or
intermediate
wettability

DK - 31 -
Static Rock-Fluid Properties
Wettability
y Of known reservoirs, approximately:
- 25% water-wet
- 25% oil-wet
- 50% intermediate or mixed wettability

Sand Grain Sand Grain

Water
Oil

Water
Oil

Oil Wet Water Wet

y The displacement efficiency of a nonwetting fluid

displacing a wetting fluid is less efficient than a wetting
fluid displacing a nonwetting fluid
DK - 32 -
Static Rock-Fluid Properties
Wettability

y Drainage - when non-wetting phase displaces wetting phase

y Imbibition - when wetting phase displaces non-wetting phase
DK - 33 -
Static Rock-Fluid Properties
Wettability
y Wettability can be deduced from field performance:
- If water produced breakthrough has mineral
composition same as connate water, reservoir is
likely to be water-wet.
- If water produced at breakthrough is injected
water, there are two possibilities:
• Reservoir is preferentially oil-wet.
• Injected water is moving through very thin
porous zones or fractures, and because of this,
has no opportunity to contact significant
quantities of connate water. This possibility can
be eliminated if water breakthrough does not
occur early.
DK - 34 -
Static Rock-Fluid Properties
Capillary Pressure
y Capillary pressure - pressure difference that
exists across interface of two immiscible fluids in a
capillary (porous) system

DK - 35 -
Static Rock-Fluid Properties
Capillary Pressure

y Relationship between water saturation, Sw, at any

point in a porous medium & capillary pressure at
that point defines the capillary-pressure curve

y Two types:
- Drainage curves - show changes in saturation as
a nonwetting phase displaces a wetting phase
- Imbibition curves - show changes in saturation
as a wetting phase displaces a nonwetting phase

DK - 36 -
Static Rock-Fluid Properties
Capillary Pressure
Example of a typical capillary pressure curve and the corresponding y Primary use of
vertical fluid distribution in the reservoir
capillary pressure
curve is to develop
the distribution of
water in a reservoir

y It shows the interval

within which the
saturation gradually
changes from 100%
to connate water
saturation of < 20%

DK - 37 -
Static Rock-Fluid Properties
Capillary Pressure
y Less permeable layers can have larger transition zones & higher
connate water saturations
y Failure to account for capillary pressures can result in
significantly optimistic OOIP estimates
y Capillary pressure curves represent properties of a single discrete
sample, & caution is required when scaling up to the reservoir
y To assure saturation distributions derived from measured
capillary pressure data are characteristic, saturations should be
calibrated with logs
5000 Sw = Swir

Depth
Top of OW
Transition Zone

OWC
5800
0 100%

Water Saturation, Swc

DK - 38 -
Static Rock-Fluid Properties
Irreducible & Connate Water Saturation
y Irreducible water saturation, Swir
- Minimum saturation (where capillary pressure curve
becomes almost vertical)
- Maximum saturation sustainable without having water
flow
y Connate water saturation, Swc
- That saturation existing in reservoir at discovery - it can
be greater than or equal to Swir
- If Swc > Swir then it is a mobile phase
- In most reservoir engineer calculations, irreducible &
connate water saturations are assumed identical
y Affected by wettability of rock - tend to be lower in
oil-wet rocks than in water-wet rocks
DK - 39 -
Dynamic Rock-Fluid Properties
Relative Permeability

y Relative permeability - ratio of the effective

permeability of a given fluid at a fixed saturation to
the permeability at 100% saturation

y Darcy's equation, as originally formulated, was

considered to apply in a porous medium when fully
saturated with only one fluid, in that case it was
water:

keff
kr =
kabs

DK - 40 -
Dynamic Rock-Fluid Properties
Relative Permeability

y To generalize Darcy's equation to apply to flow in

petroleum reservoirs containing two or more
fluids, such as water, oil, & gas, we use the
concept of effective permeability to describe the
simultaneous flow of more than one fluid:

k o A ⎡ dp o dz ⎤ ko
qo = - ⎢ - ρo g kro =
µ o ⎣ ds ds ⎥⎦ k

k g A ⎡ dp g dz ⎤ kg
qg = - ⎢ ds - ρ g g ds ⎥ krg =
µg ⎣ ⎦ k

k A ⎡ dp dz ⎤ kw
qw = - w ⎢ w - ρ w g
ds ⎥⎦
krw =
µ w ⎣ ds k
DK - 41 -
Dynamic Rock-Fluid Properties
Wettability Effect on Relative Permeability
y Typical water-oil relative permeability
characteristics for water-wet & oil-wet reservoirs:

1.0 1.0

Relative Permeability Fraction

Relative Permeability Fraction

0.8 0.8

Oil

Relative Permeability Fraction

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4
Water Oil

0.2 0.2

Water
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Water Sat., % PV Water Sat., % PV

Typical water/oil relative permeability Typical water/oil relative permeability

characteristics - strongly oil-wet rock characteristics - strongly water-wet rock

DK - 42 -
Dynamic Rock-Fluid Properties
Wettability Effect on Relative Permeability

y Craig “rules of thumb”

Water-Wet Oil-Wet

Connate water saturation Usually greater than 20 Generally less than

-25%PV 15%PV
Frequently less than
10%PV

Saturation at which oil and Greater than 50% Less than 50% water
water relative permeabilities water saturation saturation
are equal

Relative permeability to water Generally less than Greater than 50% and
at maximum water saturation 30% approaches 100%
(i.e., floodout)

DK - 43 -
Dynamic Rock-Fluid Properties
Mobility
y In Darcy’s equation, there is a proportionality factor relating
the velocity of a fluid to the pressure gradient

y This proportionality factor, termed the mobility of the fluid, is

the ratio of its relative permeability at a given saturation to its
viscosity

y Thus the water mobility is:

kw
µw
y And the oil mobility is:
ko
µo
y Mobility - a measure of how easy it is for a fluid to pass
through reservoir under specific set of rock & fluid conditions
DK - 44 -
Dynamic Rock-Fluid Properties
Saturation Distribution During
Immiscible Fluid Displacement
y Miscible displacement - when two fluids can mix in
all proportions and not separate into two phases.
- Oil and water do not mix, therefore they are
immiscible.
y Immiscible displacement - when water displaces oil
in a water drive or a water injection project .

y In general, as water displaces oil, there will be a

fairly uniform distribution of the saturations with a
discontinuity of saturations occurring at the
furthest advance of the displacing water.

DK - 45 -
Dynamic Rock-Fluid Properties
Saturation Distribution During
Immiscible Fluid Displacement
Schematic of Saturation Profile (After Slider)

y A typical water drive

reservoir segment -
horizontal slices
through the
segment represent
zones of uniform
saturation
distribution.
y The relation of
saturations with
distance is shown in
the lower part of the
figure.
Slider, H. C., “Practical Petroleum Reservoir Engineering
Methods”, Petroleum Publishing Corp. DK - 46 -
Dynamic Rock-Fluid Properties
Saturation Distribution During
Immiscible Fluid Displacement
y As oil is removed through the producing wells &
water enters from the aquifer (or from injectors) the
saturation distribution will change with time:

Fluid Displacement Characteristics with

Initial Distribution (After Slider)

DK - 47 -
Dynamic Rock-Fluid Properties
Saturation Distribution During
Immiscible Fluid Displacement
y The shape of the initial saturation curve reflects the effect of
a transition zone from 100% water to connate water
saturation
Fluid Displacement Characteristics (After Slider)

Saturation Distribution for Very Low Relief Reservoir DK - 48 -

Reservoir Recovery Efficiency
y The total recovery efficiency is:

Recovery Efficiency = ER = ED x EA x EI
Where:
ED = Unit Displacement Efficiency, fraction
EA = Areal Sweep Efficiency, fraction
EI = Vertical (Invasion) Sweep Efficiency, fraction

y Reservoir Recovery Efficiency (ER) - a measure of

how effective recovery will be or has been at a
point in time, and can be expressed as:

Volume of Oil Recovered

ER =
OOIP in the Reservoir
DK - 49 -
Reservoir Recovery Efficiency
y Reservoir Recovery Efficiency consists of two
sweep efficiency components:
ER = EV x ED
- Displacement Sweep Efficiency (ED) - describes how
effectively the recovery mechanism has moved the oil from
the reservoir volume which it has processed
- Volumetric Sweep Efficiency (EV ) - describes how
completely the recovery mechanism has passed through or
“processed” the reservoir volume, & is defined by a
component in the horizontal plane & a component in the
vertical plane:

" Bulk Volume" Injected Water

E V = E A • EI EV =
" Bulk Volume" Pattern
DK - 50 -
Displacement Efficiency

y Displacement Efficiency ( ED) - fraction of oil that

injected fluid will displace in a unit portion of the
reservoir contacted by injection fluid. It can be
estimated as:

Volume of Oil Displaced by Displacing Fluid

ED =
OOIP in the Region Swept by Displacing Fluid

y Maximum displacement efficiency is defined by:

Soi − Sor (1 − Swc ) − Sor

EDMAX = =
Soi 1 − Swc
DK - 51 -
Displacement Efficiency
y Factors that affect displacement efficiency:
- Relative permeability characteristics
- Oil & water viscosity ratio
Injector Producer

- Capillary pressure
DE
- Gravity difference E A

- Dip angle
- Injection rate EI

- Fractures or vugs
- Oil saturations at start & end of a flood
- Oil formation volume factors at start & end of a
flood

DK - 52 -
Areal Sweep Efficiency
y EA = Areal Sweep Efficiency
- Fraction of the reservoir area the water will
contact
- Sometimes called horizontal sweep efficiency
- Depends on relative flow properties of oil & water
and on waterflood pattern
Using a waterflood example:

Surface Area Covered by Injection Water Front

EA =
Surface Area Covered by the Reservoir (Pattern)

" Bulk Volume" Injected Water Front

EA =
" Bulk Volume" Pattern
DK - 53 -
Areal Sweep Efficiency
y Factors which affect areal sweep efficiency:
- Flood pattern & well spacing
- Mobility ratio
- Heterogeneity
- Directional permeability
- Barriers
Unswept

- Fractures
- Formation dip Swept

- Gravity segregation
- Injection rate
- Sgi distribution
DK - 54 -
Vertical Sweep Efficiency

y EI = Vertical (or Invasion) Sweep Efficiency

- Fraction of formation in vertical plane that is

contacted with injection fluids

- Depends primarily on degree of vertical

stratification

Using a waterflood example:

Vertical Cross − Section Area Covered by Injection Water

EI =
Vertical Cross − Section Area Covered by Water Front

" Bulk Volume" Injected Water

EI =
" Bulk Volume" Injected Water Front
DK - 55 -
Vertical Sweep Efficiency

y Factors which affect vertical sweep efficiency:

- Mobility ratio
- Horizontal permeability variation
- Vertical flow barriers
- Gravity difference
- Capillary pressure
- Cross flow
- Injection rate
- Initial gas saturation
- Completion intervals for production & injection

DK - 56 -
Factors Which Affect Sweep Efficiency
Mobility Ratio
y Mobility ratio, M is defined in terms of effective or
relative permeability & the viscosity of injection water &
oil as:
k rw
µw k rw µ o Displacing
M= =
k ro k ro µ w Displaced
µo
Where: kro = oil relative permeability
krw = water relative permeability
µo = oil viscosity
µw = water viscosity
y Water relative permeability is based on a point in the
reservoir where injection water has contacted the
reservoir
y The oil relative permeability point is in the oil bank DK - 57 -
Factors Which Affect Sweep Efficiency
Mobility Ratio
y Mobility ratio is generally termed favorable or
unfavorable depending on whether its value
is < or > 1.0
- When M = 1.0, oil & water mobilities are equal &
have the same resistance to flow in the reservoir
- When M < 1.0, oil flows more easily than water, &
injection water does a more effective job of
displacing oil
- Conversely, when M > 1.0, water flows better than
oil & is less effective in displacing oil

“It is my experience that a flood’s mobility ratio is the most

important single characteristic of that flood.” F. F. Craig
DK - 58 -
Factors Which Affect Sweep Efficiency
Mobility Ratio - Oil Viscosity
y Note that oil viscosity
becomes much larger as
pressure is lowered
below 243 psia bubble
point pressure
y This is caused by gas
being released from the
oil - gas has a low
viscosity
y The remaining oil has
heavy chemical
components & becomes
more viscous as gas is
released Penwell Field Oil Viscosity PVT
DK - 59 -
Factors Which Affect Sweep Efficiency
Mobility Ratio - Water Viscosity

y As reservoir
temperature
increases,
viscosity of
water
decreases

y Water
viscosity
increases as
water salinity
increases

Water Viscosity Chart DK - 60 -

Factors Which Affect Sweep Efficiency
Mobility Ratio - Vertical Communication
y The effect that vertical communication can be both
good & bad, depending on mobility ratio
- Studies generally show that vertical
communication with favorable mobility ratios
(M < 1) improves sweep efficiency
- Unfavorable mobility ratios (M > 1) tend to
reverse this trend & decrease sweep efficiency

Communication Between Layers DK - 61 -

Factors Which Affect Sweep Efficiency
Reservoir Heterogeneities

y Reservoir heterogeneities which can have impact

on recovery:
- Pay discontinuities/pinchouts
- Faults
- Permeability variations/anisotropy
- Porosity variations
- Horizontal fractures
- Vertical fractures
- Vertical flow barriers (shales, etc.)
- Formation dip

DK - 62 -
Factors Which Affect Sweep Efficiency
Reservoir Heterogeneities

y Methods used to detect & quantify areal reservoir

variations:
- Mapping of core data, log data, & well test data
- Detailed lithological studies
- Pressure transient testing:
• Pulse tests
• Interference tests to detect & quantify directional
permeability trends
• Fault or barrier detection
- Environment of deposition:
• Recognition of depositional environment allows one to
infer probable directional changes in grain size, grain
orientation, permeability etc.
DK - 63 -
Factors Which Affect Sweep Efficiency
Reservoir Heterogeneities
y Methods used to detect & quantify areal reservoir
variations (cont’d):
- Injection & production well behavior
- Performance history matching using mathematical
simulators
- Fracture detection:
• Aerial photo interpretation
• Pressure transient analysis
• Tectonics analysis
• Inflatable impression packers
• Step-rate tests
• Core studies
• Downhole imaging tools DK - 64 -