Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Entrance effects on the Sherwood number are investigated in a narrow rectangular channel, both with
Received 22 December 2011 ribbed walls and filled with different mesh-type spacers, and for Reynolds numbers, based on the
Received in revised form channel height, varying between 5 and 500. Mass transfer coefficients were measured by the limiting
17 April 2012
current technique, using the ferri–ferro cyanide redox couple with 0.5 M potassium carbonate in a test
Accepted 18 April 2012
cell with a narrow rectangular channel (15 mm 2 mm 170 mm) and 8 consecutive segmented nickel
Available online 28 April 2012
electrodes (11.2 mm long and 10 mm wide) fitted in the bottom wall. Five mesh-type spacers made of
Keywords: two layers of parallel filaments (1 mm diameter) and having different flow attack angles were tested.
Mesh-type spacers The ribbed walls tested had transverse square ribs (1 mm 1 mm) uniformly spaced, with inter-ribs
Mass transfer
distances of 3.8, 7.6 and 11.35 mm. Average Sherwood number for each electrode was measured for
Entrance effects
both cases of the upstream electrodes being active (under limiting current conditions) or inactive
Membranes
Electrochemistry (without current). Results show that for stable laminar flow regime strong entrance effects can prevail
Spiral–wound modules over the entire channel whenever transverse or oblique filaments are not in contact with the electrodes.
Diamond-shape spacers presented no mass-transfer entrance effects even at a lowest Reynolds number
of 5. In the transitional flow regime, i.e., at Re above the critical value, the Sherwood number decreases
sharply in the first periodic channel segments with posterior stabilization for all the spacer configura-
tions tested. This work gives guidelines for using periodic boundary conditions in the CFD simulation of
flow and mass-transfer inside spacer-filled narrow rectangular channels with relevance for membrane
modules design.
& 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction the conditions that make such hypothesis appropriate are not yet
clearly established.
Design improvements to obtain more efficient spiral-wound The periodic flow hypothesis has been widely used to predict
modules for different membrane separation processes, such as the velocity distribution in channels with ribbed walls or spacer-
reverse osmosis, ultrafiltration or even membrane-based blood filled channels, and experimental evidence confirms that such
oxygenators, requires detailed knowledge of flow structures and hypothesis is reasonable after a few periodic cells (Chung and
solute concentration distribution inside feed channels. Computa- Tucker, 2004; Li and Tung, 2008a; Almeida et al., 2010). Accord-
tional Fluid Dynamics (CFD) has been an important tool to acquire ing to Chung and Tucker, 2004, the flow in a ribbed wall
this information for membrane modules with different feed rectangular channel becomes periodic in the first 5 channel
spacer types (Geraldes et al., 2004; Li et al., 2004; Schwinge segments for a Reynolds number as high as 1000 (the Reynolds
et al., 2004; Fimbres-Weihs and Wiley, 2010). To reduce the CFD definition used herein is displayed on the list of symbols). For
computational cost to acceptable levels, the computational mesh-type spacer-filled narrow rectangular channels, which
domain is usually confined to a single periodic cell of the channel have a higher number of periodic unit cells, it was also found
with feed spacers, assuming that downstream a few periodic cells that the flow is periodic over a wide fraction of the entire
the flow and concentration distribution becomes periodic and channel length for Reynolds numbers up to 500 (Li and Tung,
fully developed, i.e. invariant in the main flow direction. However, 2008a). In narrow rectangular channels filled with transverse
cylindrical filaments attached to one wall, visualization experi-
ments have proved that for steady laminar flow (Reynolds
n numbers up to 150), velocity profile becomes developed after
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ351 218417511.
E-mail address: vitor.geraldes@ist.utl.pt (V. Geraldes). the second periodic cell (Almeida et al. 2010).
0009-2509/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2012.04.023
C. Rodrigues et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 78 (2012) 38–45 39
In opposition to hydrodynamics, for the case of mass-transfer, (Li et al., 2004; Koutsou et al., 2009) and optimal operating
literature does not clearly establish the conditions required to conditions to reduce experimental error were reviewed recently
have a developed Sherwood number (Sh), i.e. independent of the by Szánto et al. (2008) and Taama et al. (1996). The basic details
coordinate in the main flow direction. For solute transport in of limiting current technique can be found in the previous papers.
liquids, in particular, the Schmidt number is always very high The tests were performed in a test cell with a flat narrow
and, therefore, the concentration boundary layer average thick- rectangular channel, which is used as a physical model of the
ness can be very small. Unless flow instabilities or the flow spiral-wound module feed channels. The natural curvature of
structure induced by the spacer quickly prevents the growth of these channels was not taken into account in the physical model
the concentration boundary layer, the Sherwood number may because previous studies have shown that a slight increase of the
decrease within a substantial length of the channel. In the worst channel curvature does not change significantly the main flow
case scenario, the Sherwood number only stabilizes when the structure (Li and Tung, 2008b; Li et al., 2009).
concentration boundary layer reaches the center of the channel.
Such behavior may invalidate the hypothesis of a periodic con- 2.1. Materials
centration distribution that has been assumed frequently in CFD
predictions of mass-transfer in membrane modules. The test solution used was prepared with deionized water
In spiral-wound modules, two flow regimes are of special (average conductivityo0.5 mS), potassium carbonate (p.a. ACS
interest in industrial applications: the creeping flow regime and ISO 99%, Merck, Germany), potassium hexacyano-ferrate(II) tri-
the transitional flow regime. The transitional flow regime prevails hydrate (98.5–102.0%, p.a. ACS ISO, Sigma-Aldrich, Germany) and
in pressure-driven membrane processes, where the Reynolds potassium ferricyanide(III) ( 499%, p.a. ACS ISO, Sigma-Aldrich,
number is usually above the transition value and never exceeds Germany). The electrolyte solution used consisted in 0.005 M
1000 in practical applications (Schock and Miquel, 1987). CFD potassium ferricyanide, 0.01 M potassium ferrocyanide and 0.5 M
computations of the flow structure in a channel with spacers potassium carbonate as supporting electrolyte. Potassium carbo-
made of transverse filaments show that above the critical Rey- nate was used as a supporting electrolyte because Szánto et al.,
nolds number (Rec) the flow becomes unstable with vortex 2008, found that stable limiting current plateaus are obtained
shedding behind the filaments (Schwinge et al. 2003; Alexiadis with pure nickel electrodes. Working electrodes used in the test
et al. 2007). Another study using direct numerical simulation of cell were made of nickel ( 499.99%, Goodfellow, England) and its
the flow inside channels with non-woven diamond-shape spacers active surface was polished with Diamond paste (Meta dI II,
reveals that the transition Reynolds number is in the range of 70– Buhler, Lake Bluf, USA) down to 1 mm. Electrodes were glued to
90 (Koutsou et al., 2007). In the transitional regime, a periodic the supporting part of the test cell with Poly Max glue from UHU
disruption of the concentration boundary layer may occur, and Gmbh & Co, Buhl, Germany.
the average Sherwood number is expected to become constant
after a given entrance length. This entrance length must be
2.2. Test cell and experimental setup
quantified to better assess how significant are the entrance effects
in membrane modules. In turn, creeping flow is dominant, for
The test cell had two detachable parts as depicted in Fig. 1. The
instance, in spiral-wound membrane blood oxygenators. In these
top part of the cell was made of Plexiglass and has 8 nickel
modules, the channels height can be on the order of hundreds of
electrodes. Each electrode is connected to an independent electric
microns (Usher et al., 2006) and the flow velocity must be small
wire. The electrodes, which are glued in a cavity on the acrylic
enough to keep shear stresses below threshold value for blood
damage. Under these conditions, the Reynolds number is typically
below 10 with the flow dominated by viscous effects. Therefore,
in this particular case significant entrance effects are expected,
which must be taken into account in the module design.
To the best of our knowledge, mass transfer entrance effects
for creping flow in spacer filled channels were never investigated.
For the transitional flow regime, results in the literature refer only
to mesh-type spacers with transverse cylindrical filaments, either
in contact with the electrodes or in contact with the opposite
wall, for a single Reynolds number of 200 and for inter-filament
distance to channel height ratios of 2.2 and 4.0 (Li et al., 2004). In
these conditions, the mass-transfer coefficient becomes invariant
after about three to five repeated flow cells. However, there is no
evidence that this behavior can be extended to other spacer
geometries in transitional flow regime.
The present work examines and quantifies the entrance effects
on the Sh number for narrow rectangular channels (2 mm
height 15 mm width) filled with different mesh-type spacers
or with ribbed walls, for a wide range of Reynolds number varying
between 5 and 500, by use of the limiting current technique.
surface, act as cathodes, and are 11.2 mm long, 10 mm wide and the limiting current experiments through the flow rate measure-
3 mm thick. The lateral walls of the nickel electrodes were coated ments, using a calibrated cylinder and a chronometer.
with a transparent varnish thin layer to ensure electric isolation Potential-current curves were obtained for each nickel electrode
between electrodes. Furthermore, each electrode was comple- by using a potentiostat (Zanher PP201, Kronach, Germany), which is
mentary isolated from the adjacent ones by 0.1 mm layer of glue. connected and controlled by a computer through a specific software
The bottom part of the cell, which acts as anode, is made of (Power potentiostat PP201, Zehner Elecktrik). An auxiliary stabilized
stainless steel 316 and has a depression of 170 mm length and power supply (Metrix Ax 501 Paris, France) is used to impose an
15 mm width. In this depression different bars can be fitted in independent limiting current on upstream electrodes. All pipe
order to obtain either a hydrodynamically smooth wall or connections between the different components of the setup are
different ribbed walls. A hydrodynamic smooth surface bar is made of opaque polymeric material to avoid direct sun light contact.
used to create an open rectangular channel with a height, h, of
2 mm, where the different mesh-type spacers are placed. Three 2.3. Procedure
other bars have transverse square ribs (1 mm 1 mm) uniformly
spaced, with inter-ribs distances, l, (measured from the center of a To control test solution durability and its degradation during
rib to the center of the next one) of 3.8, 7.6 and 11.35 mm. This all the measurements, fluid sample absorbance at 420 nm was
corresponds to dimensionless inter-ribs distances, l/h, of 1.9, measured before and after each test in a UV–visible spectro-
3.8 and 5.7. The first rib in all bars is placed at 58 mm from the photometer (UV 1700 Pharma Spec, Shimadzu). A new testing
channel inlet to allow for the laminar flow to fully develop, solution was made every two days to guarantee an absorbance
ensuring a parabolic and undisturbed velocity profile right reduction lower than 5% (Szánto et al., 2008). Preliminary limiting
upstream the first rib for every Re investigated (Geraldes et al. current tests revealed that the limiting current is constant,
1998). In the top wall, the electrodes are placed at the same independent of the anode choice, the cell metallic part or the
distance of the channel entrance as the first rib (58 mm), so that stainless steel tank. All the experiments were performed with the
the first electrode is aligned with the first rib center of each anode being the cell metallic part since the measurements are
spacer. easier to perform. With this configuration, ferricyanide regenera-
Mesh-type spacers used are sketched and characterized in tion occurs in the stainless steel test cell walls and the mixing-cup
Table 1. These spacers have two layers of 1 mm diameter cylind- concentration of ferricyanide is thus kept constant in the whole
rical filaments and are 16.8 cm long, 15 mm wide and 2 mm thick. channel. It should be noticed that for the most adverse case tested
The working solution is placed in a vessel (volume of ca. 2 L) ferricyanide consumption rate in all the electrodes was less than
made of stainless steel 316. This vessel has a jacket connected to a 5% of the corresponding inlet mass flow rate.
thermostated bath in order to maintain the solution temperature In the limiting current technique, it is usual practice to remove
at 25 1C70.1 1C. Fluid solution is pumped to the test cell by a oxygen dissolved in the ferro/ferricyanide solution by sparging
small centrifugal pump (Iwaki magnet pump, model MD-10, with nitrogen during several minutes. While this procedure
Iwaki Co, Ltd, Tokyo, Japan), which ensures a pulsation-free flow. increases the desired current plateau width in the electrode
A stainless steel needle valve is placed between the pump and the polarization curve, it also increases the chance of having undesired
reservoir to regulate the flow rate. This valve is calibrated before nitrogen bubbles in the narrow rectangular channel, especially
Table 1
Geometry and dimensions of the mesh-type spacers tested.
l1 l2
C. Rodrigues et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 78 (2012) 38–45 41
2.5 channel (Pickett and Stanmore, 1972). The polarization curve was
obtained by imposing the same electrical potential to a set of
Open Channel contiguous nickel electrodes, starting from the first one. As
2 st
1 electrode displayed in Fig. 3, there is a very good agreement between the
Re = 200 experimental and theoretical values in the open channel in
without laminar flow conditions.
1.5
Current (mA)
nitrogen sparging
plateau
200 200
180 180
160 160
Re
140 Re 140
Sh
100
Sh
100
200
80 200
80
100
60 60 100
50
40 50
40
20 20
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
x/h x/h
200
180
160
Re
140
500
120
Sh
100
80
200
60
100
40 50
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
x/h
Fig. 4. Mass transfer (Sh) entrance effects for the channel with a ribbed wall with different inter-rib distances: (a) l/h ¼1.9, (b) l/ h ¼3.8 and c) l/ h ¼ 5.7. ’: inactive
upstream electrodes; þ : active upstream electrodes.
critical Reynolds number, even when there are no transverse ribs 250
Re
or filaments in contact with the electrodes. For sub-critical
500
Reynolds numbers, however, the entrance effects prevail over 200
the entire channel.
150
3.2. Entrance effect in channels with mesh-type spacers 200
100
Sh
250 250
Re
200 200
500 Re
150 500
150
200 100
100 200
Sh
Sh
100 100
50 50
50 50
5
30
20
25
20 15
5
15 10
10
5 5
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
x/h x/h
Fig. 6. Mass transfer (Sh) entrance effects for the channel filled with the mesh-type spacers (a) SE and (b) SW. ’: inactive upstream electrodes; þ : active upstream
electrodes.
250 250
Re Re
500
200 200
500
150 150
200
200
100 100
Sh
Sh
100
100
50 50 50
50
30 30
25 25 5
5
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
x/h x/h
Fig. 7. Mass transfer (Sh) entrance effects for the channel filled with the mesh-type spacers (a) LE and (b) LW. ’: inactive upstream electrodes; þ : active upstream
electrodes.
increasing the shear stress on a major portion of the wall surface, decreases with l/h and is about 180 for l/h¼3. Hence, a substantial
contributing thus to increase the mass transfer rates. reduction of Rec is expected to occur when l/h changes from 3 to 2.
For the mesh-type spacers SE and SW, Figs. 6a and b display Small irregularities in the surface of the filaments and the
the Sherwood number for the different electrodes. When trans- intrinsic 3D nature of the unstable flow may also contribute to
verse filaments are in contact with the electrodes (SE—Fig. 6(a)) reduce the value of Rec.
and the upstream electrodes are active, the Sh number stabilizes The entrance effects observed with the mesh-type spacer LE
immediately after the first electrode for Re Z50. For Reynolds and LW (Fig. 7) are similar to the ones observed with the spacer
equal to 5, Sh decreases continuously until the 4th electrode and SE and SW. The oblique filaments of the spacer LE in contact with
then stabilizes. This provides evidence that at low Reynolds the electrodes effectively disrupt the concentration boundary
numbers, the presence of transverse filaments in contact with layer, except for Re¼5, where a small decrease is observed for
the electrodes does not ensure a complete concentration bound- Sh between the first and the second electrodes. When the oblique
ary layer break-up. When the transverse filaments are not in filaments are not in contact with the electrodes (spacer LW), the
direct contact with the electrodes (SW— Fig. 6(b)), for ReZ50, the Sh number becomes developed after the second electrode for
Sherwood number stabilizes after the second electrode, while for ReZ50. For Re ¼5, the Sh number decreases along the channel in
Re¼5, it always decreases along the channel. This indicates that, the same behavior as that for the spacer SW.
at low Reynolds numbers, the concentration boundary layer
grows continuously along the channel, while at higher Reynolds 3.3. Sh vs Re in developed mass transfer conditions
numbers it decreases in the first few electrodes and then
stabilizes. As shown in the previous section and for some conditions,
From the previous results, it seems that the critical Reynolds fully developed mass transfer conditions can prevail in the last
number for the spacer SW/SE is at least 50, because Sh stabilizes electrodes inside the spacer filled or ribbed channel, with
after the second electrode even when there are no transverse upstream active electrodes. In these particular conditions, the
filaments in contact with the electrodes. The theoretical flow Sherwood number decreases for the first electrodes and then
transition analysis of Alexiadis et al. (2007) for a 2D channel with stabilizes. The Sh average value at the last three electrodes is
circular spacers indicates that the critical Reynolds number displayed in Fig. 8 for all the experimental conditions with
44 C. Rodrigues et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 78 (2012) 38–45
250
Rib.wall l/h = 1.9
in contact with the electrodes, significant entrance effects were
Rib.wall l/h = 3.8
observed only for the lowest tested Reynolds number of 5. In this
Rib.wall l/h = 5.7
case, the filaments in contact with the electrodes are very
200 Spacer D
effective in disrupting the concentration boundary layer.
Spacer LE
In all the conditions tested, there is evidence that in the
Spacer LW
transitional flow regime, above the critical Reynolds number,
Spacer SE
mass-transfer entrance effect are negligible either for the
150 spacer-filled channels or ribbed-wall channels tested. Hence, this
Spacer SW
(Koutsou et al., 2009) always for flow and mass-transfer CFD computations in spacer-
100 filled channels in the cases where transitional flow regime
prevails. For laminar flow, the periodic boundary condition must
be used with care because strong mass-transfer entrance effects
may be found, depending on the spacer geometry.
50
Nomenclature
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 A electrode active area (m2)
Re Cb solute molar concentration in bulk solution (m3)
Fig. 8. Sherwood number vs. Reynolds number for developed mass transfer
DAB mass-diffusion coefficient (m2 s-1)
conditions and upstream active electrodes. The Sherwood number displayed is F Faraday constant (C mol-1)
the average of the values corresponding to the last three electrodes. Literature h channel height (m)
data (Koutsou et al., 2009) is used for comparison purposes. Ilim limiting current (A)
kc average mass-transfer coefficient (m s-1)
developed mass transfer conditions and active upstream l distance between consecutive ribs or filaments (m)
electrodes. n number of electrons
The spacer LE, which has oblique filaments in contact with the Re Reynolds number, Re ¼U0h/n
electrodes, has the highest Sherwood number and induces devel- Rec Critical Reynolds number
oped mass transfer conditions from Re ¼5 to 500. The diamond- Sh Sherwood number, Sh¼kch/DAB
shape spacer D has a Sherwood number that is between the U0 superficial velocity in the rectangular channel (m s-1)
values of the spacers LE and LW, with the advantage of main- x distance from the middle point of an electrode to the
taining the same distribution of mass -transfer rate on both active beginning of the first electrode (m)
walls of a spiral-wound module feed channel. The channel with
ribbed walls displays developed mass transfer conditions only Greek letters
above the critical Reynolds number.
For comparison purposes, literature data for a diamond-shape a spacer flow attack angle (1)
spacer similar to the spacer D (Koutsou et al. 2009) is also b spacer internal angle (1)
displayed in Fig. 8. Both spacers yield almost the same values of n kinematic viscosity (m2 s-1)
the Sherwood number, despite the difference in the ratio l/h
between the two spacers.
Acknowledgments
4. Conclusions
The author Vı́tor Geraldes is grateful to Fundac- a~ o para a
Entrance effects on the Sherwood number were investigated in Ciência e a Tecnologia for the financial support through the
a narrow rectangular channel, both with a ribbed wall and filled project PTDC/EQU-EQU/65920/2006 and the author Carina Rodri-
with mesh-type spacers, for Reynolds numbers in the range 5– gues is grateful for the Ph.D. grant SFRH/BD/61406/2009.
500, using the limiting current technique to several electrodes
placed in series. References
With inactive upstream electrodes, for the case of the narrow
rectangular channel with a ribbed wall, the entrance effects on Sh Alexiadis, A., Wiley, D.E., Fletcher, D.F., Bao, J., 2007. Laminar Flow Transitions in a
are restricted to a small region in the channel entrance where the 2D Channel with Circular Spacers. Industrial & engineering chemistry research
flow is developing. When the upstream electrodes are active and 46, 5387–5396.
Almeida, A., Geraldes, V., Semia~ o, V., 2010. Microflow hydrodynamics in slits:
the flow is laminar, a solute concentration layer adjacent to the effects of the walls relative roughness and spacer inter-filaments distance.
electrodes’ surface builds-up along the channel, imposing Chem. Eng. Sci. 65, 3660–3670.
entrance effects on the Sherwood number. Above the critical Chung, Y.M., Tucker, P.G., 2004. Assessment of periodic flow assumption for
unsteady heat transfer in grooved channels. Trans. ASME 126, 1044–1047.
Reynolds number, a developed mass-transfer condition is reached Geraldes, V.M., Semia~ o, V.A., de Pinho, M.N., 1998. Nanofiltration mass transfer at
after the first three electrodes. the entrance region of a slit laminar flow. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 37, 4792–4800.
The channel filled with the diamond-shape spacer (D) has no Geraldes, V., Semia~ o, V., de Pinho, M.N., 2004. Concentration polarisation and flow
structure within nanofiltration spiral-wound modules with ladder-type
entrance effects on the Sherwood number either with inactive or
spacers. Comput. Struct. 82, 1561–1568.
active upstream electrodes for all the range of Reynolds numbers Fimbres-Weihs, G.A., Wiley, D.E., 2010. Review of 3D CFD modeling of flow and
tested. Hence, this type of spacer is capable of maintaining fully mass transfer in narrow spacer-filled channels in membrane modules. Chem.
developed mass-transfer conditions in the whole rectangular Eng. Process.: Process Intensification 49 (7), 759–781.
Koutsou, C.P., Yiantsios, S.G., Karabelas, A.J., 2007. Direct numerical simulation of
channel for Reynolds numbers as low as 5, in laminar flow. For flow in spacer-filled channels: effect of spacer geometrical characteristics.
mesh-type spacers with transverse (SE) or oblique filaments (LE) J. Membr. Sci. 291 (1-2), 53–69.
C. Rodrigues et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 78 (2012) 38–45 45
Koutsou, C.P., Yiantsios, S.G., Karabelas, A.J., 2009. A numerical and experimental Schock, G., Miquel, A., 1987. Mass transfer and pressure loss in spiral-wound
study of mass transfer in spacer-filled channels: effects of spacer geometrical modules. Desalination 64, 339–352.
characteristics and Schmidt number. J. Membr. Sci. 326 (1), 234–251. Schwinge, J., Wiley, D.E., Fletcher, D.F., 2003. Simulation of unsteady flow and
Li, F., Meindersma, W., de Haan, A.B., Reith, T., 2004. Experimental validation of vortex shedding for narrow spacer-filled channels. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 42,
CFD mass transfer simulations in flat channels with non-woven net spacers. 4962–4977.
J. Membr. Sci. 232, 19–30. Schwinge, J., Neal, P.R., Wiley, D.E., Fletcher, D.F., Fane, A.G., 2004. Spiral wound
Li, Y.-L., Tung, K.-L., 2008a. CFD simulation of fluid flow through spacer-filled modules and spacers: eeview and analysis. J. Membr. Sci. 242, 129–153.
membrane module: selecting suitable cell types for periodic boundary condi- Selman, J.R., Tobias, C.W., 1978. Mass transfer measurements by the limiting
tions. Desalination 233, 351–358. current technique. In: Drew, T.B. (Ed.), Adv. Chem. Eng., 10. Academic Press,
Li, Y.-L., Tung, K.-L., 2008b. The effect of curvature of spacer-filled channel on fluid NY, USA, pp. 211–318.
flow in spiral-wound membrane modules. J. Membr. Sci. 319 (1-2), 286–297. Shakaib, M., Hasani, S.M.F., Mahmood, M., 2009. CFD modeling for flow and mass
Li, Y.-L., Tung, K.-L., Lu, M.Y., Huang, S.H., 2009. Mitigating the curvature effect of transfer in spacer-obstructed membrane feed channels. J. Membr. Sci. 326 (2),
the spacer-filled channel in a spiral-wound membrane module. J. Membr. Sci. 270–284.
329 (1-2), 106–118. Szánto, D.A., Cleghorn, S., Ponce-de-León, C., Walsh, F.C., 2008. The limiting current
Lin, C.S., Denton, E.B., Gaskill, H.S., Putnam, G.L., 1951. Diffusion-controlled for reduction of ferricyanide ion at nickel: the importance of experimental
electrode reaction. J. Indust. Eng. Chem. 43 (9), 2136–2143. conditions. AIChE J. 54, 802–810.
Pickett, D.J., Stanmore, B.R., 1972. Ionic mass transfer in parallel plate electro- Taama, W.M., Plimley, R.E., Scott, K., 1996. Influence of supporting electrolyte on
chemical cells. J. Appl. Electrochem. 2, 151–156. ferricyanide reduction at a rotating disc electrode. Electrochim. Acta 41,
Reiss, L.P., Hanratty, T.J., 1962. Measurement of instantaneous rates of mass 549–551.
transfer to a small sink on a wall. AIChE J. 8, 245–247. Tzanetakis, N., Scott, K., Taama, W.M., Jachuck, R.J.J., 2004. Mass transfer char-
Santos, J.L.C., Geraldes, V., Velizarov, S., Crespo, J.G., 2007. Investigation of flow acteristics of corrugated surfaces. Appl. Therm. Eng. 24, 1865–1875.
patterns and mass transfer in membrane module channels filled with flow- Usher, K.M., Foster, G.R., Kolvek, E.M., Harvey, A.C., Taylor, M.E., Lovell, T.W., Hart,
aligned spacers using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). J. Membr. Sci. 305 C.P., Girzone, W.E., 2006. Apparatus and method for removing gasses from a
(1-2), 103–117. liquid. US Patent 7097690.