COMPUTER NETWORK:

A Computer Network can be defined as a collection of interconnected computers in such a way that
they Share Resources. A computer network is a set of connected computers. Computers on a network are
called nodes. The connection between computers can be done via cabling, most commonly the Ethernet cable,
or wirelessly through radio waves.

Connected computers can share resources, like access to the Internet, printers, file servers, and others.
A network is a multipurpose connection, which allows a single computer to do more.

{A computer system only referred to a group of the computers and hardware components
interconnected by communicating channels that allow sharing of resources and information.}

Computer Networks share Common Devices, Functions, and Features including Servers, Clients,
Transmission Media, Shared Data, Shared Printers and other Hardware and Software resources, Network
Interface Card (NIC), Local Operating System (LOS), and the Network Operating System (NOS).

Technically, if at least one Process in one Computer can send or receive data to/from at least one
process residing on a Remote Computer, then two machines are said to be a network

COMPUTER NETWORK COMPONENTS

Computer network components include the key parts that are required to install a network. In
computer network technology, there are numerous types of networks that vary from simple to complex level.

These hardware components involve cable, Hub, Switch, NIC (network interface card), modem and
router. Some of the components can be removed without effect subject to the type of network. For instance,
in a wireless network, cables and hubs are not necessary.

The essential computer network components necessary for a simple computer network, usually called
LAN (local area network), are to share resources on that network. Sharing of equipment like printers, scanners,
fax machines, copiers, storage drives, network connection and other resources is the key rationale of computer
network.

NETWORK INTERFACE CARD (NIC)

 Network adapter or Network Interface Card (NIC) is a device which allows a computer to communicate
with other computer/network. By means of a unique hardware addresses (MAC address) programmed on the
card chip, the data-link protocol uses these addresses to detect other systems on the network so that it can
transfer data to the correct destination via the wired or wireless network.

A network interface card provides the computer with a dedicated, full-time connection to a network. Personal
computers and workstations on a local area network (LAN) typically contain a network interface card specifically
designed for the LAN transmission technology

There are two forms of network cards: wired and wireless. The wired NIC employs cables and connectors as a
medium to transfer data, while in the wireless card, the connection is made using antenna that uses radio wave
technology. All current laptop computers are integrated with wireless NIC in addition to the wired adapter.
There is also a portable USB based adapter that can be plugged into the USB port of the computer.

Network Card Speed

Network Interface card, one of the key computer network components, comes with different speeds of 10Mbps,
100Mbps and 1000Mbps, etc. Current standard network cards are made with Gigabit (1000Mbps) connection
speed which supports slower speeds such as 10Mbps and 100Mbps as well. However, the actual transmission
speed is determined by the LAN speed.

Every device on the network has to have a network interface of some design. The network interface is
sometimes referred to as a NIC (network interface card) and may be integrated into the computer's
motherboard or may be a separate card. The NIC is the component that takes information from the computer
and sends it out onto the network wire, or into the air in the case of a wireless network.
HUB

Hub is a network component that divides a network connection like a central dissemination centre for
multiple devices. When a computer request information from a network or a particular computer, it transmits
the request to the hub through a cable.

Hub is a device that splits a network connection into multiple computers. It is like a distribution center. When
a computer requests information from a network or a specific computer, it sends the request to the hub
through a cable. The hub will receive the request and transmit it to the entire network. Each computer in the
network should then figure out whether the broadcast data is for them or not.

The hub receives the request and broadcasts it to the entire network. Each device in the network would then
work out if the broadcast data is for them or just drop it if it is not.

In the case of a basic hub, the signal from one computer is sent to all other computers on the hub, and each
NIC decides whether to pass the information to the computer or just drop it if it is not the intended recipient.
This consumes more bandwidth on the network and limits the amount of communication.

Currently Hubs are almost obsolete and superseded by more advanced network communication equipment
such as Switches and Routers.
SWITCH

Switch is a telecommunication device grouped as one of computer network components. Switch is

like a Hub but built in with advanced features. It uses physical device addresses in each incoming messages so
that it can deliver the message to the right destination or port.

Like a hub, switch doesn't broadcast the received message to entire network, rather before sending it checks
to which system or port should the message be sent. In other words, switch connects the source and
destination directly which increases the speed of the network. Both switch and hub have common features:
Multiple RJ-45 ports, power supply and connection lights.

Switch is like a smart Hub made in with advanced features like the ability to form tables that keep updated
about all the computer or device and on which switch port it is on. Using the physical device addresses in each
incoming messages, it delivers the message to the correct destination or port. Nevertheless both switch and
hub have similar features: Several RJ-45 ports, power supply and connection lights.

Switches are really smart hubs in that they are able to build tables that keep up with which computer is on
which switch port. With this intelligence, a switch does not transmit all information to all other computers on
the switch, just to the destination computer. Switching technology helps to reduce congestion on a network
and should be used for networks of 10 or more computers.
ROUTER

A Router is the network component that is employed to connect a LAN to an internet connection.
Routers are similarly employed to link one local area network (LAN) to another, often across long distances
through commercial carriers.

Routers are actually smart switches in that they are conscious of other networks. They can dynamically update
their routing information, discovering when a route to a network is down and finding if another route is
accessible.

Routers are really smart switches in that they are aware of other networks, while hubs and switches are only
aware of the network they facilitate. Routers are used to connect one local area network (LAN) to another,
many times across long distances via commercial data carriers. Another way routers are smart is they can
dynamically update their routing information, detecting when one route to a network is down, and checking
to see if another route is available.

Generally, routers include a switch which means that it can be used as a switch as well. The router portion links
the network to the Internet and the switch portion allows the computers to communicate with each other and
to the internet.
SERVER

Servers are computers that hold shared files, programs, and the network operating system. Servers
provide access to network resources to all the users of the network. A network server or server is a computer
that offers its services and/or its resources to clients, workstations, and other servers over a computer network.

A server commonly has multiple processors, large hard drives, and large amounts of RAM. A server provides
centralized management of resources, security, and expanded access to networked resources in a network.

There are many different kinds of servers, and one server can provide several functions. For example, there are
file servers, print servers, mail servers, communication servers, database servers, fax servers and web servers,
to name a few.

Servers are digital banks for mass storage of data. Networks use servers to hold the data users may wish to
access and also to offer storage space. For instance, on the Internet, email providers utilise their servers to
store the messages users send while web hosts use servers to hold all of the data that a web page displays to
visitors.

CLIENT
A client is a piece of computer hardware or software that accesses a service made available by a server.
A network client or client is a device on a computer network that requests services or resources from a server.

Clients can be printers, workstations, servers, or any other device connected to the computers on a network.

Client computers can be described as "fat" or "thin," depending on where the execution and business logic of
a software application is performed. A fat client has the ability to control data. Execution is performed mainly
on the client, while the server is responsible for sending data to the client and back again. A thin client, on the
other hand, is restricted to what is known as the presentation layer of the software application, which accepts
data from the server and edits it, while most of the execution is performed on the server.

The most common network clients are workstations.

MODEM

A modem (modulator–demodulator) is a network hardware device that modulates one or more carrier
wave signals to encode digital information for transmission and demodulates signals to decode the transmitted
information. It is a hardware component that allows a computer or other device, such as a router or switch, to
connect to the Internet.

The goal is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded to reproduce the original digital
data. It converts or "modulates" an analog signal from a telephone or cable wire to a digital signal that a
computer can recognize. Similarly, it converts outgoing digital data from a computer or other device to an
analog signal.

Dial-Up Modems
Traditional modems used on dial-up networks convert data between the analog form used on
telephone lines and the digital form used on computers.

An external dial-up modem plugs into a computer at one end and a telephone line on the other end. In the
past, some computer makers integrated internal dial-up modems into their computer designs.

Modern dial-up network modems transmit data at a maximum rate of 56,000 bits per second. However,
inherent limitations of public telephone networks often limit modem data rates to 33.6 Kbps or lower in
practice.

When connecting to a network via a dial-up modem, the devices customarily relay through a speaker the
distinctive sounds created by sending digital data over the voice line. Because the connection process and data
patterns are similar each time, hearing the sound pattern helps a user verify whether the connection process
is working.

Broadband Modems
A broadband modem like those used for DSL or cable internet access uses advanced signaling
techniques to achieve dramatically higher network speeds than traditional dial-up modems. Broadband
modems are often referred to as high-speed modems. Cellular modems are a type of digital modem that
establishes internet connectivity between a mobile device and a cell phone network.

External broadband modems plug into a home broadband router or other home gateway device on one end
and the external internet interface such as a cable line on the other. The router or gateway directs the signal
to all the devices in the business or home as needed. Some broadband routers include an integrated modem
as a single hardware unit.

Many broadband internet providers supply suitable modem hardware to their customers at no charge or for a
monthly fee. However, standard modems can be purchased through retail outlets.

Cellular modem is employed when the cellular data mobile network (3G and above) is used to access the
internet, usually provided by cellular mobile operators.

Fiber Broadband Modem is used to achieve even higher speed connection, in the Gigabits range to the
internet via optical fiber network.
REPEATER

A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it. Repeaters are used to extend
transmissions so that the signal can cover longer distances or be received on the other side of an obstruction.

A repeater is implemented in computer networks to expand the coverage area of the network, re-propagate
a weak or broken signal and or service remote nodes. Repeaters amplify the received/input signal to a higher
frequency domain so that it is reusable, scalable and available.

Repeaters were introduced in wired data communication networks due to the limitation of a signal in
propagating over a longer distance and now are a common installation in wireless networks for expanding cell
size.

Repeaters are also known as signal boosters. Every operational computer or data communications network has
a specific boundary in which it can service the connected and authorized hosts/nodes. It is a planned network
scope, but sometimes the network needs to extend its routing domain further to accommodate a new/existing
host, or to improve the service level in a specific topological domain. In such scenarios, a network uses the
service of a repeater, which amplifies the received signal to an ideal or near-ideal strength so that
destination/receiving nodes can receive the data.

The installation of repeaters is critical in those domains, where attenuation and signal loss is very crucial.
Repeaters are generally considered to be nonlogical devices because they propagate every signal regardless
of its size, type, etc. Repeaters support both analog and digital signals and can repeat electrical and light -
based signals.

Some types of repeaters broadcast an identical signal, but alter its method of transmission, for example, on
another frequency or baud rate.

There are several different types of repeaters; a telephone repeater is an amplifier in a telephone line, an optical
repeater is an optoelectronic circuit that amplifies the light beam in an optical fiber cable; and a radio repeater
is a radio receiver and transmitter that retransmits a radio signal.
GATEWAYS

A network gateway joins two networks so the devices on one network can communicate with the
devices on another network. A gateway can be implemented completely in software, hardware, or in a
combination of both. Because a network gateway, by definition, appears at the edge of a network, related
capabilities like firewalls and proxy servers tend to be integrated with it.

A gateway is a node (router) in a computer network, a key stopping point for data on its way to or from other
networks. In a workplace, the gateway is the computer that routes traffic from a workstation to the outside
network that is serving up the Web pages. For basic Internet connections at home, the gateway is the Internet
Service Provider that gives you access to the entire Internet.

A gateway may contain devices such as protocol translators, impedance matching devices, rate converters,
fault isolators, or signal translators as necessary to provide system interoperability. It also requires the
establishment of mutually acceptable administrative procedures between both networks.

A protocol translation/mapping gateway interconnects networks with different network protocol technologies
by performing the required protocol conversions.

Gateways, also called protocol converters, can operate at any network layer. The activities of a gateway are
more complex than that of the router or switch as it communicates using more than one protocol.
BRIDGES

Bridges are networking devices that connect networks. Sometimes it is necessary to divide networks
into subnets to reduce the amount of traffic on each larger subnet or for security reasons. Once divided, the
bridge connects the two subnets and manages the traffic flow between them. Today, network switches have
largely replaced bridges.

A bridge functions by blocking or forwarding data, based on the destination MAC address written into each
frame of data. If the bridge believes the destination address is on a network other than that from which the
data was received, it can forward the data to the other networks to which it is connected. If the address is not
on the other side of the bridge, the data is blocked from passing.

Bridges “learn” the MAC addresses of devices on connected networks by “listening” to network traffic and
recording the network from which the traffic originates.

The advantages of bridges are simple and significant. By preventing unnecessary traffic from crossing onto
other network segments, a bridge can dramatically reduce the amount of network traffic on a segment.

Bridges also make it possible to isolate a busy network from a not-so-busy one, thereby preventing pollution
from busy nodes.
OPERATING SYSTEM

Local Operating System:

A local operating system allows personal computers to access files, print to a local printer, and have
and use one or more disk and CD drives that are located on the computer. Examples are MS-DOS, Unix, Linux,
Windows 2000, Windows 98, Windows XP etc.

Network Operating System:

The network operating system is a program that runs on computers and servers, and allows the
computers to communicate over the network.

A network operating system is an operating system designed for the sole purpose of supporting workstations,
database sharing, application sharing and file and printer access sharing among multiple computers in a
network. Certain standalone operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows NT and Digital’s OpenVMS, come
with multipurpose capabilities and can also act as network operating systems. Some of the most well-known
network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft Windows Server 2008, Linux
and Mac OS X.

Peer-to-peer network operating systems include legacy OSes such as AppleShare and Windows for
Workgroups. These operating systems offered unique networking capabilities that were not available in early
versions of Mac OS and Windows. They enabled computers to recognize each other and share files over a
cable connecting the machines. Over time, these networking features were integrated into standard operating
systems, making P2P NOSes obsolete.

Client-server network operating systems include Novell NetWare and Windows Server. These NOSes provide
services from one computer to all connected machines. Novell NetWare requires specific client software to be
installed on all client machines, while Windows Server works with standard Windows computers. In both cases,
clients connect to the server and can access files and applications based on their access privileges. The central
server manages all the connected machines and can provide updates as needed to the client systems. This
makes it easy to keep all the computers on the network up-to-date.
SOFTWARE / PROTOCOLS

Software is the intelligence that instructs all the network components to operate together. The most
prevalent network software employs what is known as the TCP/IP protocol suite or stack. The suite is structured
from actual layers of software, each having its own function.

A protocol is a set of rules and guidelines for communicating data. Rules are defined for each step and process
during communication between two or more computers.

A network protocol defines rules and conventions for communication between network devices. Network
protocols include mechanisms for devices to identify and make connections with each other, as well as
formatting rules that specify how data is packaged into messages sent and received. Some protocols also
support message acknowledgment and data compression designed for reliable and/or high-performance
network communication. Networks have to follow these rules to successfully transmit data.

The Internet Protocol family contains a set of related (and among the most widely used network protocols.
Beside Internet Protocol (IP) itself, higher-level protocols like TCP, UDP, HTTP, and FTP all integrate with IP to
provide additional capabilities. Similarly, lower-level Internet Protocols like ARP and ICMP also co-exist with IP.
In general, higher level protocols in the IP family interact more closely with applications like Web browsers
while lower-level protocols interact with network adapters and other computer hardware.

Using the seven-layer OSI reference model — Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation
and Application — as the starting point, the Internet model has four layers — Link, Internet, Transport and
Application — combining several of the seven OSI layers into the other layers. All heterogeneous computer
systems can communicate with each other using the same set of rules provided by the suite, irrespective of
variation in hardware or operating systems.

Modern operating systems contain built-in software services that implement support for some network
protocols. Applications like Web browsers contain software libraries that support the high level protocols
necessary for that application to function. For some lower level TCP/IP and routing protocols, support is
implemented in directly hardware (silicon chipsets) for improved performance.
NETWORK PERIPHERALS

Network media is the actual path which the signals travel to and from different components. These paths can
either be physical wires, wired media, or radio signals, wireless media. The networking devices will not work
well unless they are connected to each other which is done via different media. Cable is one transmission
media which can transmit communication signals. The wired network topology uses special type of cable to
link computers on a network.

There are several transmission media types, some of which are listed below.

Twisted pair wire

Network Cable connector

The most universal cable media is commonly named Ethernet cabling and it is categorised as Category 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 5E, 6 and 7. The categories 5E, 6 and 7 are meant for high-speed that can transmit 1Gbps or more.

Coaxial cable

Coaxial cable is similar to TV installation cable and it is more costly than twisted-pair cable, however provides
high data transmission speed.

Fiber-optic cable

Optical fiber is a high-speed cable which transmits data via light beams (uses laser or LED light instead of
electrical pulses) in glass bound fibers. Even though it offers higher data speed compared to the other cables,
fibre optics is very costly making the purchase and installation at the governmental or large enterprise level.

Wireless

Wireless Network Components

Wireless has become prevalent in homes and small offices owing to the ease and low cost of setting up a
network. The “media” in this case is the air, through which the wireless NICs transmit radio signals carrying
data. The most widespread wireless protocol is acknowledged as WIFI.