Producción Del Ácido Sulfúrico

Production of Sulfuric Acid
INTRODUCTION:-
The production of sulfuric acid has come to be accepted throughout the world as a
reliable barometer of industrial activity. Its universal use has made it indispensable, in the
widest sense of the world, in chemical and process industries.
Sulfuric acid is a strong acid i.e. is in aqueous solution it’s largely changed to hydrogen
ions and sulfate ions. Each molecule gives 2 hydrogen ions and thus sulfuric acid is
dibasic acid.
Sulfuric acid is a multipurpose product and finds its application as a dehydrating agent,
catalyst, active reagent in chemical processes, solvent and absorbent etc. It is used in
process industries from very dilute concentrations, for pH control of saline solutions to
strong fuming acids used in the dye, explosives and pharmaceutical industries, in grades
of less exacting specifications for use in steel, heavy chemical and super phosphate
industries. Sulfuric acid is not a one use product like a returnable steel drum, after initial
use in some phases of explosives, petroleum and dye industries, the sulfuric acid is
recovered in a firm often unsuitable for use in the same process but, of strength and
grades entirely suitable for use in other process industries.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS:-
The origin of the first sulfuric acid is unknown but it was mentioned as far back as the
tenth century. The preparation by burning sulfur with saltpeter was first described by
Valentinus in the fifteenth century. Later its preparation by distilling niter with green
vitriol was mentioned by Persian alchemist Abu-Bekr-Ahhases, who died in 940.The
weathering of iron pyrites was usually the source of green vitriol.
Sulfuric acid has been an important item of commerce for at least 250 years and has been
known and used since the Middle Ages. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, it was
essentially and entirely produced by chamber process, in which oxides of nitrogen (as
nitrosyl compounds) were used as homogeneous catalysts for the oxidation of sulfur
dioxide. The product made by this process were of rather low concentration (typically 60Û
Baume or 77 to 78% H2SO4) not high enough for many commercial uses.
In 1746, Roebuck of Birmingham, England produced successfully on commercial scale

by burning sulfur and potassium nitrate in ladle suspended in a large glass partially filled
with water.
The contact process was first discovered in 1831 by Phillips, an Englishman whose patent
included the essential features of the modern contact process namely the passing of the
mixture SO2 over a catalyst followed by absorption of SO3 in 98-99% H2SO4. Later it
was demonstrated that excess of oxygen in the gaseous mixture for contact process was
advantageous. The contact process has been improved in all details and at the current
scenario is one of the low cost industries and is almost wholly automatic continuous
process for the manufacture of sulfuric acid.
During the first part of the twentieth century, the contact process gradually replaced the
chamber process and today the former is considered to be obsolete. However there has
been one recent installation of a modified chamber plant to process very dilute SO2 gases
generated by molybdenum ore roasting.
Primary impetus for the development of the contact process came from a need for high
strength acid and oleum to make synthetic dyes and organic chemicals. The contact
process employing platinum catalysts began to be used on large scale for this purpose late
in the nineteenth century. Its development accelerated during the World War I to provide
the concentrated mixtures of sulfuric and nitric acid for the production of explosives.
In 1915, an effective vanadium catalyst for the contact process was developed and used
by Badische in Germany. This type of catalyst was employed in the United States starting
in 1926 and gradually replaced the platinum catalyst over the next few decades.
Vanadium catalysts have the advantages of superior resistance to poisoning and of being
relatively abundant and inexpensive compared to platinum.
Another significant change in the contact process occurred in 1963, when Bayer AG
announced the first large scale use of Double Contact Double Absorption process and
granted several patents. In this process, the SO2 gas that has been partially converted to
SO3 by catalysis is cooled, passed through sulfuric acid to remove SO3, reheated and then
passed through another one or two catalysts bed. By this means the overall conversions
can be increased from 98 up to 99.5-99.8% thereby reduced emissions of unconverted
SO2 to the atmosphere. Because of worldwide pressure to reduced SO2 emissions, most
new plants now utilize Double Contact Double Absorption and many existing plants have
been modified to use it.
PROPERTIES AND USES:-
SULFUR:-
Sulfur is one of the most important raw material used for the production of sulfuric acid.
It’s insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvents. Its available in the nature in the
form of rocks, lumps, ground powder, sublimed powder etc. The various physical
properties are mentioned in the table shown
CHEMICAL FORMULA S
ATOMIC WEIGHT 32.07
MELTING POINT: RHOMBIC 112.8 ÛC
MONOCLINIC 119.0 ÛC
BOILING POINT 444.6 ÛC
SPECIFIC GRAVITY:
SOLID - RHOMBIC 2.07
MONOCLINIC 1.96
LIQUID 1.803
SULFUR TRIOXIDE:-
Sulfur trioxide at room temperature and atmospheric pressure is a colourless liquid that
fumes in air. Trace amounts of water of sulfuric acid can catalyze the formation of
polymers. However the polymerization apparently proceeds at a negligible rate so long as
the liquid is maintained free of solids ( that is above its freezing point ). Once the solid
polymers are present, temperatures of 50 to 75 ÛC are required to fully convert polymers
back to liquid monomers.
There is some controversy about the nature of the polymeric sulfur trioxide. Apparently,
polymers can have various molecular weights and degrees or types of cross-linking. The
literature generally reports that solid sulfur-trioxide can exist in three trimorphic phases
as shown in the table
PHASES MELTING POINTS
ALPHA SO3 62.3 ÛC

BETA SO3 32.5 ÛC
GAMMA SO3 16.8 ÛC
The alpha and beta forms melt to five liquid gamma SO3. The alpha - SO3 phase has a
polymeric cross-linked structure that forms crystals resembling ice-needles, beta - SO3
consists of polymeric molecules that form white asbestos-like crystals with a silky lusture
and gamma - SO3 is in a colloidal form that consists of cycle trimer and monomer
molecules.
The various properties of Sulfur trioxide are summarized in the following table:-
PROPERTY NUMERICAL
VALUE
CRITICAL TEMPERATURE, ÛC 217.8
CRITICAL PRESSURE, KPa 8208
CRITICAL DENSITY, g/cc 0.630
75,3/( 32,17 35(6685( 3KDVH .3D 21.13
Û
75,3/( 32,17 7(03(5$785( 3KDVH C 16.80
NORMAL BOILING POINT TEMPERATURE, ÛC 44.80
MELTING POINT, ÛC 16.80
TRANSITION TEMPERATURE, ÛC -183.0
Û
/,48,' '(16,7< 3KDVH DW C), g/cc 1.922
Û
62/,' '(16,7< 3KDVH DW C), g/cc 2.290
LIQUID COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION, / ÛC 0.002
LIQUID HEAT CAPACITY (at 30 ÛC), KJ/KgÛC 3.222
HEAT OF FORMATION OF GAS (at 25 ÛC), MJ-Kg/mole -395.7
FREE ENERGY OF FORMATION (at 25 ÛC) MJ-Kg/mole -371.1
ENTROPY OF GAS (at 25 ÛC) MJ-Kg/mole/ ÛC 0.256
HEAT OF DILUTION MJ/Kg 2.109
+($7 2) 9$325,6$7,21 3KDVH 0-.J 0.058
Û 2
DIFFUSION IN AIR (at 80 C), m /s 0.000013
LIQUID DIELECTRIC CONSTANT (at 18 ÛC) 3.11
SULFURIC ACID:-
Sulfuric acid is a strong acid that is in aqueous solution, it is largely changed to hydrogen
ions (H+) and sulfate ions (SO4-). Each molecule gives two hydrogen ions and thus
sulfuric acid is dibasic. The general physical properties of the sulfuric are given below:-
EMPIRICAL FORMULA H2SO4

MOLECULAR WEIGHT 98.08
MELTING POINT 10.5 ÛC
BOILING POINT 340 ÛC (Decomposition)
SPECIFIC HEAT 1.4435 KJ/Kg
SPECIFIC GRAVITY 1.8357
HEAT OF DILUTION 9.304 KJ/Kg water
Commercial sulfuric acid is sometimes colorless but, it is often yellow and its color
ranges from pale to dark brown shades. In dilute solution, it is highly corrosive and
attacks nearly all metals.
Sulfuric acid, oily, corrosive colorless liquid when mixed with water releases
considerable amount of heat. Unless the mixture is well stirred the added water may be
heated beyond its boiling point and the sudden formation of steam may blow the acid out
of the container. The concentrated acid destroys the skin and flesh and can cause the
blindness, if it gets into eyes. The best treatment is to flush away the acid with large
amount of water.
Dilute solution of sulfuric acid show all the behavior characteristics of acids. They taste
sour, conduct electricity, neutralize alkalies and corrode active metals with the formation
of hydrogen gas. From sulfuric acid, one can prepare both normal salts containing the
sulfate group (SO4) and acid salts containing hydrogen sulfate groups (HSO4).
Sulfuric acid is not one–function or one purpose product. Its used as drying agent,
acidifying agent (pH control), hydrolyzing agent, neutralizing agent, dehydrating agent,
oxidizing agent, absorbing agent, purifying agent, leaching agent, catalyst and active
reagent is petrochemical industries.
Sulfuric acid need not be one time use product. It can be recovered easily from some
phases in the refining of the petroleum and in the manufacture of explosives,
petrochemicals, detergents, and dyes. It is often recovered in the form unsuitable for re-
use in the same process but of strength and quality suitable for use in another process.
Sulfuric acid can also be returned to the producer for the fortification with sulfur trioxide
or for the regeneration to strong virgin acid.
Sulfuric acid is not a one-quality product. It is produced and supplied in exact purity for
storage batteries, rayon, textiles, dyes, food and pharmaceutical industries, in less pure
grade for steel, heavy chemicals, petrochemicals, fertilizers, super phosphates and
ammonium sulfate industries.
Sulfuric acid is used in wide range of concentrations from very dilute for pH control to
the strong fuming acids used in dyes, explosives, detergents, pharmaceuticals and
petrochemical industries.
Standard strengths available in the market are listed below:-
SPECIFIC GRAVITY – 1.250 33.33%

60Û BAUME 77.67%
66Û BAUME 93.19%
20% OLEUM 104.5%
40% OLEUM 109.0%
GRADES OF SULFURIC ACID:-
CHEMICAL COMMERCIAL E-GRADE, FEDERAL

IMPURITIES GRADE BATTERY ACID SPECIFICATION
(Max ppm) (Max ppm) CLASS – I
(Max ppm)
Ammonium 10.0 10.0 10.0
Antimony 0.02 0.02 1.0
Arsenic 1.0 1.0 1.0
Chloride 10.0 10.0 10.0
Copper 1.0 1.0 50.0
Iron 100.0 50.0 50.0
Manganese 0.2 0.2 0.2
Nickel 1.0 1.0 1.0
Nitrate 20.0 5.0 5.0
Platinum None None None
Selenium 0.05 0.05 20
Sulfurous acid 400.0 40.0 40
Zinc 10.0 10.0 40
Cadmium 1.0 1.0 -
Cobalt 1.0 1.0 -
Chromium 0.75 0.5 -
Lead 0.2 0.1 -
Mercury 1.0 1.0 -
Organic matter None None None
Fixed residue 300.0 300.0 300.0
GRADES OF ACID % H2SO4 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
(At 18 0C)
50 Û Be (Fertilizer acid) 62.2 1.525
60 Û Be (Oil of Vitriol) 93.2 1.833
95 % Acid 95.0 1.840
98% Acid 98.0 1.843
Monohydrate Acid 100.0 1.834
20 % Oleum (fuming) 104.5 1.924
(20 % free SO3)
40 % Oleum (fuming) 109.0 1.963
(40 % free SO3)
65 % Oleum (fuming) 114.6 1.987
(65 % free SO3)
In the past it was popular to report the concentration of sulfuric acid as specific gravity in
degrees Baume. In United States, the Baume scale is calculated using the formula
0
Be = 145- (145 / Sp gr)
The Baume scale only includes the sulfuric acid concentration in the range of 0 to
93.19% H2SO4. Higher acid concentrations are not covered because of the great difficulty
in differentiating between acid concentrations in the range of 93 to 100% H2SO4 by
specific gravity measurements.
The graphs shown describe the various properties of the acid namely electrical
conductivity, viscosity, surface tension, refractive index, solubility of oxygen in sulfuric
acid, solubility of sulfur dioxide in sulfuric acid, normal boiling point, critical
temperatures, azeotropic composition of sulfuric acid as a function of pressure, heat of
mixing with water, density of oleums , boiling point of oleums, freezing point of oleums,
viscosity of oleums, oleums heat capacity, vapors pressure curve for oleum etc.
APPLICATION:
Sulfuric acid is widely used in industry because of its most important chemical and
physical properties. Other acids have similar properties but the relative low cost of
sulfuric acid makes it the most economical choice for wide variety of chemical
application and these operations can be classified by the particular property of sulfuric
acid involved.
1. Sulfuric acid is an active acid with a high boiling point. The manufacture of
halogen acids namely HCl, HF etc and pickling of still make use this high boiling
point. Leaching ores in the manufacture if a metal pigment is more effective with
sulfuric acid because high leaching temperatures can be used without loss of acid
by volatilization.
2. Sulfuric acid has great affinity for water. It is widely used for drying gases
containing moisture (Ex-Cell Chlorine). Virtually complete removal of water
vapor from these gases is accomplished by simple scrubbing operation.
3. Sulfuric acid forms hydrolysable sulfates with many organic compounds. Many
alkylation operations of petroleum and petrochemical industries depend on the
ability of this acid to react with hydrocarbons to form intermediate compounds.
Aromatic alkylamines important to dye, photographic and pharmaceutical
industries are manufactured with sulfuric acid. The production of industrially
important synthetic alcohols is also based on this sulfuric acid property.
4. Sulfuric acid has special catalytic properties, probably related to its affinity for
water. These catalytic properties account for its large volume use in the
manufacture of aviation gasoline.
5. Oleum is used in the manufacture of organic sulfonates. These materials used in
large quantities are major ingredients of the household detergents. Smaller
quantities of special sulfonates are used as lubricants and as additives to
automotive lubricants.
6. Teamed with relative low cost as a marked advantage of sulfuric acid is the
availability. Sulfuric acid in the strengths (99 to 99%) common to commerce,
doesnot reacts appreciably with steel. Special containers are needed to transport
commercial grades of Hydrochloric acid and Nitric acid, but sulfuric acid can be
transported in steel tank cars and tank trucks or shipped in steel drums.
7. Sulfuric acid is widely used in the acidulation and neutralization processes
because it is frequently the most economical acid available for a particular
purpose. The widespread use of Sulfuric acid for pH control, which can be
performed satisfactorily by any acid, is a direct result of its low cost and its
availability. The manufacture of phosphate fertilizers is the single largest use of
sulfuric acid. Large amounts of sulfuric acid are used in acid Coagulation Process
(Ex- GRS Synthetic Rubber) and in the regeneration of cationic exchange
equipment. Other major use include as the neutralizing agent is the production of
synthetic fibers
Thus the uses of sulfuric acid are so varied that the volume of its production provides an
approximate index of general industrial activity. American production of Sulfuric acid
exceeded 29 million tons annually in the early 1970, a figure corresponding to a daily
production of 1/ 3 Kg per person throughout the year. The largest single use of sulfuric
acid is for making fertilizers, both superphosphate and ammonium sulfate, organic
products, refining petroleum, making paints and pigments, processing metals, making
rayon, as car energizer etc. and hence it is difficult to imagine the human survival in
absence of Sulfuric Acid
MANUFACTURING METHODS:-
As described above, sulfuric acid is an important raw material for phosphate fertilizer
production and to a much lesser extent for nitrogen and potassium fertilizers. World
production of sulfuric acid was about 121 million tons in 1977 and about half of this
production was used in the fertilizer production.
About 58% of the worlds production was based on elemental Sulfur, 25% on Pyrite and
17% on other sources. Of the other sources, the principal one was the by-product sulfuric
acid recovered from smelting operations.
In general terms, the sulfuric acid is produced by catalytic oxidation of sulfur dioxide to
sulfur trioxide, which is subsequently absorbed in water to form sulfuric acid. In practice
the sulfur trioxide is absorbed in sulfuric acid which is kept at a controlled concentration
(usually 98%) by the addition of water.
There are no major variations of commercial interests on this mentioned chemistry. There
are alternatives as to source of Sulfur dioxide and method of conversion to sulfur
trioxide. The two most common methods for the conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfuric
acid are
1. Lead Chamber Process:

2. Contact Process
Lead Chamber Process:
This is an old process and was introduced in Europe in near the middle of 18th century.
This method uses nitrogen oxides as oxygen carrying catalysts for the conversion of
sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide. The reactions which produce the sulfur trioxide and
sulfuric acid take place within the huge lead chambers or in packed towers which may be
substituted for the chambers. Chambers process produced acid of concentration less than
80 %.The major disadvantage includes the limitations in throughput, quality and
concentration of the acid produced. All known new plants uses the Contact process
although some older Chamber process plants may still be in use.
Contact Process:
In the contact processes, the sulfur dioxide is converted to sulfur trioxide by the use of
metal oxide catalyst. Platinum was once widely used as catalyst but because of it’s
excessive first cost and susceptibility to poisoning, it has been largely replaced by
vanadium oxide. The vanadium pentaoxide is dispersed on a porous carrier in a pellet
form. The characterstics of the catalyst which can be used are mentioned as follows:
1. Porous carrier having large surface area, controlled pore size and resistance to
process gases at high temperature; in pellet form if used in fixed bed and
powdered form if used for fluidized bed. Ex- Alumina, silica gel, zeolites.
2. Active catalytic agent:
Vanadium pentaoxide in this case. Preparations are generally kept secret for the
competitive reasons but they usually consist of adding water soluble compounds
to gels or porous substrates and firing at temperature below the sintering point.
3. Promoter:
Alkali and/or metallic compounds added in trace amounts to enhance the activity
of the catalytic agent.
Advantages of the V2O5 catalyst
1. Relatively immune to poisons.

2. Low initial investment and only 5% replacement per year.
Disadvantages of V2O5 catalyst

1. Must use dilute SO2 input (7-10%).
2. As a catalyst it is less active and requires high oxygen or sulfur dioxide to give
economic conversions
3. Requires larger converters and thus higher initial investment.
Now the SO3 gas is passed to an absorption tower where it is absorbed in recirculating
concentrated acid. There are many variations in the contact process depending upon the
types of raw materials available and other considerations; also a number of engineering
variations are in use by many different design/construction firms offering services in this
field.
Main disadvantages of the contact process are that concentrated acid (98%) of high purity
can be produced directly and that compact plants of quite high capacity have now become
rather common place.
THE PRODUCTION OF SULFURIC ACID BY CONTACT PROCESS:
RAW MATERIALS:
One of the early raw materials for the sulfuric acid was sulfate of iron or vitriol. By
heating the solid sulfate and condensing the fume an oil of vitriol resulted. The rectified
oil of vitriol (ROV) is concentrated acid and the brown oil (BOV) is about 77% Sulfuric
Acid. The raw materials for sulfuric acid manufacture are chiefly Sulfur, Pyrites, Spent
oxide, anhydrite and gases from the smelting of metalliferous ores, from the purification
of natural gas and from refining operations.
CHEMISTRY OF SULFURIC ACID PRODUCTION:
The equations governing the production of sulfuric acid are:
S + O2 SO2 û+ -70 KCal

(solid) (gas)
SO2 + 1/2 O2 SO3 û+ -23.50 KCal
SO3 + H2O H2SO4 û+ -32 Kcal
The first reaction expressing the combustion of sulfur is strongly exothermic; sulfur on
burning gives about one third of the heat of combustion of coal, and this heat raises the
temperature of combustion gases roughly in accordance with the graph as shown
This heat is high in temperature and there is plenty of it, consequently it is worth utilizing
and the hot gases are led across pipes through which the water passes. The water is
heated, steam is raised and the gases are cooled. This is the arrangement in the water tube
boiler. In the fire tube boiler the hot gases pass through the tubes which are surrounded
with water.
The second equation is also exothermic and it’s apparent that the equation gives a
decrease in volume, three volumes become two volumes and this reaction would be aided
by pressure. High conversions are however, obtainable with catalysts at 400 to 500ÛC
with a small excess of oxygen and the use of pressure.
The third equation represents the absorption of sulfur trioxide to form sulfuric acid. It is
exothermic and the absorbing sulfuric acid has to be cooled continuously; the heat is
available at a relatively low temperature and is not worth recovering. Sulfuric acid is used
for the absorption of sulfur trioxide as it has been found in practice that sulfur trioxide
and water form a mist, which is difficult to separate from the gas and that under these
conditions the absorption, is not complete. The strength of the acid is best about 98%.
SULFUR HANDLING AND STORAGE:
Sulfur used for the production of sulfuric acid is practiced to handle as solid in bulk, from
ship to wagon and from wagon to cool off and solidify; it can then be broken up and
shovelled into wagons for disposal. It consists of carbonaceous matter and inorganic ash.
Although commercial sulfur is over 99% sulfur, the impurities present as dust in the plant
gases tend to be filtered out by the catalyst and a blanket or layer of hardened dust on the
catalyst detracts from the efficiency of conversion. In consequence some manufacturers
filter the molten sulfur through leaf filters to remove some of the impurities and so obtain
a longer period before the plant has to be shut down for cleaning away the dust and
sieving the top layers of the catalyst from it. However, the filter leaves have to be
removed for the replacement of the filtering medium and for the removal of the
accumulated sludge, and these unpleasant operations, together with the installation cost
of the equipment, have to be weighed against the benefits of having slightly less dusty
gases.
SULFUR BURNING:
There are several types of burners for sulfur. One is revolving cylinder containing pool of
molten sulfur which is combusted by the passage of air over its surface. Another type is a
brick lined vertical cylindrical vessel in which is erected a pile of fire brick in the form of
a pyramid, and on to this structure molten sulfur is pumped to be met by a stream of co-
current dry air for its combustion. A third variety is in the form of a burner similar to an
oil burner.
The quantity of air is regulated to give between 8 to 10% SO2.
In the starting up the plant with a vertical burner the fire-brick is first heated by the
burning of a fuel gas. The gas, when a sufficiently high temperature has been reached is
cut off and the liquid sulfur is pumped over the brick-work. A measured amount of air is
passed down the burner and the sulfur burns to sulfur dioxide providing sufficient heat in
normal operation to raise the temperature of the gases to some 810-900 ÛC. If the air
contains 21% oxygen and sulfur is burned to give 10% sulfur dioxide gas, then 11%
oxygen and 79% nitrogen will form the residual gases. Some excess oxygen is necessary
over and above that required to combine with the sulfur and the sulfur dioxide. Out of the
11% oxygen, 5% will be required to combine with the dioxide to form the trioxide
leaving an excess of 6%. This is adequate but if attempts were made to have a 14% sulfur
dioxide gas then 14% from the 21% oxygen would be taken up in forming sulfur dioxide
and another 7% would be required to convert the dioxide to trioxide. This would leave no
excess oxygen and an excess has shown to be essential for a good conversion of the
dioxide.
When sulfur burns, the gases rise to a temperature depending on the dioxide
concentration; with 8% sulfur dioxide the temperature is about 750ÛC. In the diagram, the
gas temperatures are plotted against the dioxide concentrations. To withstand these
temperatures the burner is brick lined and the area of the brickwork radiates heat and
helps to burn the sulfur completely in the time given by the volume of the burner for the
passage of the gases.
The composition of the gas can be varied by altering either the air or the sulfur to the
burner. The very hot gases containing the ash from the sulfur are led straight into the
waste heat boiler.
THE WASTE HEAT BOILER:
The object of the waste heat boiler is to utilize the heat in the gases to generate steam. A
water tube boiler consists of tubes among which gases pass, the tubes being full of water.
The gases heat the tubes which in turn raise the temperature of the water. The boiler is in
the form of cylinders connected by hairpin shaped tubes arranged across the path of
gases. The tubes are kept filled with water (to prevent burning) and are connected at the
top to a steam drum, a cylindrical vessel in which water is kept at a constant level by an
automatic feeding device. The steam drum, where the water boils, is above the tubes and
serves to supply water to the boiler and for the release of steam. The surface area of the
water inside the drum must be sufficient to minimize the carryover of the spray with
steam which is led off from the top of the drum and then through super heater tubes by
which the steam is heated several degrees above its condensation temperature to give it
superheat and make it free from droplets, dry and suitable for use in turbines or other
steam engines. The water circulates from the steam drum to the sludge drum, another
cylindrical shaped vessel at the bottom of the boiler, from which the solids, deposited
from the evaporating water, are sludged out and the solid content of the boiler water
controlled. The water circulates through the hairpin tubes upwards to another cylindrical
drum and then passes from this intermediate drum upwards again through another set of
hairpin tubes to the steam drum. The pressure under which steam is generated depends
upon the purpose for which it is to be employed.
There are the usual auxiliaries which are associated with a boiler, the feed pumps for
pumping the feed water into the drum against the boiler pressure, the feed water
preparation tank where phosphates and alkali are added to the water to prevent boiler
corrosion, and the economizer which heats the boiler feed water near to the temperature
of the water in the boiler drum. The feed water is sometimes preheated by exhaust steam
from the boiler feed pumps before being heated in the economizer. Preheat may be to
100ÛC and the final temperature of the feed water say 215ÛC. The economizer and the
super heater obtain their heat from the sulfurous gases at convenient points in the process
usually from the converter after the second and third stages. Cold water in the
economizer tubes could cause local condensation from the sulfurous gases and result in
corrosion. After the first stage of conversion there is another waste heat boiler similar in
construction to the first boiler but smaller and the two boilers use the same steam drum.
The inlet gas temperature to the converters should be 380-400ÛC and the waste heat boiler
is designed to take away the heat from the gases until their temperature is in this range.
This reduction in temperature is about 400ÛC and corresponds to several tons of steam an
hour form the moderate size sulfur burning plant.
The temperature of the exit gases is controlled by a by-pass on the waste heat boiler. The
amount of heat evolved is dependent upon the quantity of sulfur and the temperature on
the proportion of sulfur dioxide in the gases. The higher the temperature, the higher is the
proportion of heat which is to be removed. It is best to gauge this so that the waste eat
boiler by-pass in normal operation is almost shut.
The waste heat boiler design takes into consideration the following factors. The area of
the tubes must be adequate to take the requisite amount of heat from the gases. This is
dependent upon the amount of heat transferred per unit of tube area, which itself is
dependent upon the velocity of gases over the tubes and the temperature difference
between the gases and the boiler water
GAS DRYING:
It has been found in practice that if moisture is present in the gases before conversion, a
sulfur trioxide mist will form after the converters, which is extremely difficult to absorb
in the acid absorbers. There are several theories to account for this. It may be that the
sulfur trioxide particles are surrounded by a film of acid and the aggregates are
sufficiently small to pass through the absorbers and out into the atmosphere, giving rise
to inefficient absorption and causing a local nuisance. There mists can be destructive to
vegetation, damaging to buildings and extremely unpleasant to life in the vicinity. It is
therefore essential to use dry air for sulfur burning or install special plant for absorbing
the mist, which is a difficult proposition.
Air is dried in a drying tower which uses strong sulfuric acid for this purpose. The tower
consists of a mild steel vertical cylinder lined with acid-resisting brick and packed with
ceramic rings. The acid is distributed down the tower and air is blown upwards counter-
current to the acid by a blower which also serves to give the air sufficient for it to pass
through the whole of the sulfuric acid plant to atmosphere after the absorbers.
The vapor pressure of water above acids of high concentrations at ordinary temperatures
can be extremely low and consequently under the right conditions (95-98% H2SO4 at
35ÛC or less) the acid removes nearly all the water vapor in the air that is down to
30mg/m3.
The tower has to be of a sufficient diameter not to require a significant pressure drop for
the gases to pass through it and to have an adequate surface area of packing for the
absorption of water from the air to take place in the time which the gases take to pass
through the tower volume. Consequently the gas velocity up the tower must be small, and
this will determine the minimum diameter of the tower. The amount of acid used in the
tower has to be significant to wet the surface of the packing without flooding and not to
become so dilute that its vapor pressure becomes appreciable. The amount of water in air
at a given temperature and relative humidity is known and hence the minimum quantity
of 98% acid on the drying tower can be calculated.
It is common practice to use acid from the absorption section on the drying tower; the
heat of dilution is then removed on the absorption coolers but coolers are sometimes
provided on the drying section with a bleed-off to the absorption circulation system.
GAS FILTRATION:
The gas from the burners after passage through the waste heat boiler contains ash from
the sulfur and some scale from the waste heat boiler and gas lines. These solid impurities
are best removed before the gases enter the converter; otherwise the dust accumulates on
the layers of catalyst and causes channeling through the catalyst layers, irregular contact
and pressure drop.
The filter consists simply of the wide diameter vessel filled with the filtering medium
which is commonly the lumps of quartz. The vessel is of squat cylindrical shape in mild
steel. The gases pass downwards to assist in the removal of the solids at a velocity which
is slow because of the wide diameter of the vessel. When the filter is first put into service,
the pressure drop is several m atmospheres, but when it is ready for opening and
cleaning, this pressure drop rises to some 100m atmosphere. The interval between
removals of dust depends on the ash content of the sulfur; a filter usually lasts three to six
months and this period would be extended if the molten sulfur were also filtered before
burning.
In many cases the gas filtration unit may not be present and thus this step may be treated
as the auxiliary unit, depending upon the requirement. In the flow sheet given, the gas
filtration unit is not shown.
CONVERSION:
The converter is a reactor and its objective is to combine the sulfur dioxide with the
residual oxygen in the gases to form sulfur trioxide. The conversion is aided by a catalyst
and the more sensitive the catalyst the lower the temperature at which the conversion
takes place and more favorable the equilibrium but in general sensitive catalyst are more
readily poisoned. In practice it is necessary to have a catalyst which is sufficiently robust
to resist poisoning but is active enough to give good conversion at about 400ÛC. The
converter consists of a tall cylindrical vessel of sufficient diameter (generally 3.5 to
5.5m) to give a low gas velocity, inside which there are three or four trays for quantities
of catalyst. Between the catalyst sections there are devices for cooling the gases to keep
the temperature entering the later catalyst sections in the region of 405 to 440ÛC. The first
catalyst pass contain relatively little catalyst because the reaction is rapid and the
temperature rises sharply; the second a little more, and the last stages most of the catalyst,
where both the sulfur dioxide and oxygen are less concentrated.
After the passage through the first catalyst tray when the gas temperature has risen from
about 410ÛC to over 600ÛC, the gases pass into an external waste heat boiler to raise steam
and bring the gas temperature down to 430ÛC and at this temperature the gases enter the
second catalyst tray. On passing through the catalyst the temperature again rises but this
time not so much, and after the second tray sufficient heat can be removed by
superheating the steam raised in the waste heat boilers. The super heater tubes are led
from the boiler into a space underneath the catalyst bed in the path of the gases. The
temperature is again brought down to about 430ÛC and after the third pass the gases are
similarly cooled. In the final section, which contains most of the catalyst, the temperature
rise is small as the reaction has been brought near the equilibrium value in the previous
passes and only relatively small amounts of sulfur dioxide and oxygen remain to react.
After leaving the catalyst the gases are at 400 to 450ÛC; they are passed through the
economizer where the temperature is reduced to a lower value. The gases then pass
through an air cooler to the absorbers.
The catalyst consists of vanadium in the form of small pellets or cylinders. The total
volume is arranged to give the time of contact necessary for the reaction to take place.
The speed of the reaction depends on the activity of the catalyst. A conversion of sulfur
dioxide to trioxide of between 98 and 99 % is achieved.
The equilibrium is given by
(PSO3)
KP =
(PSO2) (PO2)½
(PSO2) (PO2)½ should be as high as practicable to give a good value for (PSO3). If there is
excess of oxygen (PO2)½ will increase in value but too great an excess will diminish
(PSO2) initially. On some converters, air is introduced between the converter stages which
acts as a cooling medium and provides the additional excess of oxygen.
A graph showing KP plotted against temperature is given in the figure below:
Below 400ÛC the reaction is very slow but above 630ÛC the reaction is fast but the
equilibrium is becoming unfavorable, the reaction goes more quickly the higher the
temperature, but the equilibrium becomes unfavorable. The aim in running the converter
is to maintain a pattern of temperature which experience has shown will give the
optimum conversion. These temperatures depend on the catalyst activity, gas strengths
and other factors. Figures for four stage converter for temperatures and conversion are
given as follows:
The running of the converter consists in close observance of temperatures, the pressure
drops and the sulfur dioxide conversion. The temperature rise across the catalyst is the
measure of the amount of reaction taking place. Pressure drops across the bed of catalyst,
if they are abnormally high, indicate a partial blockage and channeling through the
catalyst, which would be accompanied by a small temperature rise. A high pressure drop
across the first pass may necessitate shutting down the plant and screening the top layer
of the catalyst which has possibly become choked with dust.
ABSORPTION:
The gas leaving the reactor is cooled further in a heat exchanger as mentioned above and
before entering the absorption tower where the Sulfur trioxide is absorbed in a
recirculated stream of concentrated sulfuric acid. The sulfuric acid is maintained at
desired concentration (usually 98% H2SO4) by the addition of water and its temperature
is controlled in the desired range of 70 to 90ÛC measured at the tower inlet by cooling the
recirculated acid.
Some of the acid goes to the air drying tower mentioned previously where the moisture
from the incoming air supplies some of the water needed in the reaction. Since, the heat
released in this step is at a low temperature level, little use can be made of it.
In the above mentioned Single Absorption process, the recovery of the sulfur as sulfuric
acid is 97-98% and the remainder is lost to the atmosphere as Sulfur dioxide. In many
countries, the discharge of this amount of Sulfur dioxide to the atmosphere is
environmentally unacceptable. Therefore most of the plants use a Double Contact Double
Absorption Process (DCDA)
The gas after passing through three catalyst bed goes to the first absorption tower where
the Sulfur trioxide is removed. The gas is then reheated to about 420ÛC, passed through
the fourth catalyst bed, then cooled and sent to a second absorption tower.
In the reaction
2SO2 + O2 2SO3
removal of the reaction product sulfur trioxide facilitates more efficient conversion in the
last catalyst bed. The DCDA process reduces the sulfur dioxide loss to less than 2Kg of
sulfur dioxide/ ton of the sulfuric acid. High efficiency mist eliminators are also required
to limit the loss of sulfuric acid mist to less than 0.05Kg/ton of sulfuric acid.
Thus the recovery in a DCDA plant should atleast be 99.8%.
THE TAIL GAS:
The gas from the absorption section contains about 0.15 % sulfur dioxide which oxidizes
in part to sulfur trioxide and forms mist. At this concentration, corresponding to a
conversion efficiency of over 98%, the effluent is tolerable and no further treatment of
gas is required. In exceptional cases where the oxygen content is low or for other reasons
where the conversion is down, the gases can be scrubbed with ammonia liquor and then
treated by electrostatic precipitator.
STORAGE:
The last part of the sulfuric acid plant is the storage and the pumping system. The tanks
are large flat cylinders which are sometimes of more than 1000 tons capacity. The
pumping of acid is commonly done by the centrifugal pumps, the submerged glandless
type on smaller tanks where the shaft can be less than about 10ft in length. The absence
of gland leaks makes for a neat and clean pumping section. The storage installation
should be calculated to maintain continuity of supply, if this is required, during the
shutdowns of the acid plant and to cater for peak demands.
DEVELOPMENTS:
The use of the DCDA system adds 10 to 15% to the cost of the plant in comparison with
the older Single Absorption Process. It also uses more energy and produces less steam or
other recoverable energy. An alternative which is less expensive is to recover the sulfur
dioxide from the single absorption plant by ammonia scrubbing. Scrubbing the gas with
the ammonia solution produces an ammonium sulfite solution which is then acidulated
with sulfuric acid. The liberated sulfur dioxide is returned to sulfuric acid plant and a
concentrated ammonium sulfate solution remains which may find use in a fertilizer
industry.
Operation of the sulfuric acid plant has some advantages,
1. The equipment is smaller and less expensive

2. Less Catalyst is required.
3. Equilibrium condition and reaction rates are more favorable in the conversion and
absorption steps.
The solubility of sulfur dioxide in sulfuric acid increases with the increase in pressure and
with the decrease in temperature. In a conventional plant operating at 1 atm and with an
acid temperature 110ÛC, the solubility of sulfur dioxide in sulfuric acid is only 8ppm.
However, increasing the pressure to 8 atm and lowering the temperature to 49ÛC, the
sulfur dioxide solubility is increased to 190ppm.Under these condition a substantial
amount of sulfur dioxide can be transferred in the acid stream to the air drying tower and
then to the incoming air stream. Many authors have pointed out that there is no
theoretical limit to the amount of sulfur dioxide that can be recycled or recovered; it
depends on the rate of re circulation of the acid between the absorber and the air drying
towers.
MATERIAL BALANCE
GIVEN:
TO DESIGN A 1000TPD CAPACITY H2SO4 ACID PLANT
BASIS:
1 HOUR OF OPERATION.
PURITY:
PRODUCT WHICH IS TO BE MANUFACTURED IS ASSUMED TO HAVE

STRENGTH OF 98% ACID.
3
1000TPD implies that we have 1000 x 10 / 24 = 41666.67 Kg/Hr of
Acid
With 98% purity, the acid that is produced per hour = (98 x 41666.67)
/ 100
= 40833.34 Kg/Hr
Kmoles of Sulfuric acid to be produced = 40833.34 / 98

= 416.667 Kmoles/Hr
It’s assumed that overall absorption of the acid is 100 %
Then, SO3 required = 416.667 / 1.0

= 416.67 Kmoles/Hr
Also its assumed that the overall conversion of SO2 to SO3 in the reactor
is 99.8%
Then SO2 required= 416.67 / 0.998

= 417.51Kmoles/Hr
Assuming 100% combustion of Sulfur,
Then S required = 417.5 Kmoles/Hr

= 13360.3 Kgs
Amount of oxygen required to convert 1Kmole of S to SO3 = 1.5 Kmoles
Then, amount of Oxygen required = 417.51 x 1.5

= 626.26 Kmoles
As cited in the literature that some amount of excess oxygen must be
used,
Using 40% excess,
O2 required = 626.26 x 1.4

= 876.76 Kmoles
From this the total dry air that is coming in can be calculated as.
Dry air in = (876.76 x 100)/ 21

= 4175 Kmoles/Hr
•
At 30 C, assuming 65% Relative Humidity,
Humidity as calculated from the psychometric chart is,

Humidity = 0.0165 Kg water/ Kg dry air
Then, water entering with dry air = 4175 x 29 x 0.0165

= 1997.73 Kg/Hr
= 110.980 Kmoles/Hr
Total weight of entering air = 4175 x 29 + 110.980 x 18

= 123073 Kgs
DRYING TOWER:
Q (121075 Kgs)
(Dry Air)
R (193806 Kgs)
P (123073
Kgs)
S (195804 Kgs)
Making a Mass balance around the Drying Tower
P+R=Q+S
As water is being removed from the incoming air to make it dry, the 98%
acid that is being recycled to the tower, decreases in concentration and
let this concentration be assumed as 97%, then we can write,
0.02 x R + 1998 = S x 0.03 (1)

H2SO4 Balance will give,
R x 0.98 = S x 0.97 (2)
Solving the above equations
R = 193806 Kgs
S = 195804 Kgs
SULFUR BURNER:
SULFUR (13360.3 Kgs)
DRY AIR
SO2
(26720.6 Kgs)
(121075Kgs) O2 (14696
Kgs)
N2 (92352.4
Kgs)
The combustion reaction takes place inside the burner where Sulphur is
oxidized to Sulphur Dioxide
Moles of Sulfur coming in = 417.51 Kmoles

Moles of Oxygen coming in = 876.76 Kmoles
As mentioned before we have assumed 100% combustion of sulphur,
Sulfur Dioxide Formed = 417.51 Kmoles

Oxygen leaving = 876.76 – 417.51
= 459.25 Kmoles
Nitrogen leaving = (876.76 x 79)/ 21
= 3298.3 Kmoles
REACTOR:
As cited in the reference by author NORMAN SHREVE et al Pg 337, the

temperature and conversions in Each Stage of a Monsanto Converter is
given as follows:
•
LOCATION TEMPERATURE ( C) EQUIVALENT
CONVERSION (%)
Gas entering first pass 410.0
Gas leaving first pass 601.8
Rise in temperature 191.8 74.0
Gas entering second 438.0
pass
Gas leaving second 485.3
pass
Gas entering third 432.0
pass
Gas leaving third pass 444.0
Gas entering fourth 427.0
pass
Gas leaving fourth 430.3
pass
TOTAL RISE 254.4 98.0%
Note: As we see from the table that the overall conversion in the reactor
is 98% but to validate our assumption that was made earlier, we assume
that the conversion in the last stage of the reactor is 3.1% instead of
1.3% so that the assumption of 99.8% as overall conversion remains
unaffected and thus temperature for the gas leaving the fourth pass is
•
then assumed to be 437 C.
COMPONENT I STAGE II STAGE III STAGE

S 74% 18.4% 4.3%
CONVERSION CONVERSION CONVERSION
I/LET O/LET I/LET O/LET I/LET O/LET
KMOLS KMOLS KMOLS KMOLS KMOLS KMOLS
N2 3298.3 3298.3 3298.3 3298.3 3298.3 3298.3
SO2 417.51 108.55 108.55 31.73 31.73 13.77
SO3 0.0 308.95 308.95 385.77 385.77 403.73
O2 459.26 304.7 304.7 266.36 266.36 257.39
TOTAL Kmols 4175.1 4020.6 4020.6 3982.2 3982.2 3973.2
ST
N2 = 3298.3 I CONTACT
Kmoles
SO2 = 417.51
Kmoles
SO3 = 0.0 BED OF
Kmoles CATALYST
ST
I CONTACT N2 = 3298.3
Kmoles
SO2 = 13.77
Kmoles
SO3 = 403.73
Kmoles
nd
Sample calculation for the 2 stage is shown as follows:
Components: SO2 INLET = 108.55 Kmoles

OUTLET = 108.55 – 417.51 x 0.184 Kmoles
= 31.73 Kmoles
N2 INLET = 3298.3 Kmoles

OUTLET = 3298.3 Kmoles
O2 INLET = 304.78 Kmoles

OUTLET = 304.78 - 417.5 x 0.5 x 0.184
Kmoles
= 266.4 Kmoles
SO3 INLET = 308.95 Kmoles

OUTLET = 308.95 + 417.5 x 0.184 Kmoles
= 385.77 Kmoles
The arrow shown indicates that the output from one stage is the input to
the other stage.
After the passage from the 3 stages or after the first contact the gases are
let into the interpass absorber where the absorption of the SO3 takes
place. After the contact with H2SO4 in the tower, the gases are returned
th
back to the 4 stage for the second contact.
We can write from the reaction for sulfur dioxide oxidation to give sulfur
trioxide that,
(PSO3)
KP = (A)
½
(PSO2) (PO2)
And available in the reference by author NORMAN SHREVE et al Pg

333, the equilibrium constants for the Sulfur Dioxide Oxidation are given
at different temperatures
th •
Now for KP at the entering temperature of 4 stage i.e. 427 C,
We have KP = 270.2
INTERPASS ABSORBER:
From the equation (A), SO3 present are calculated by the following
Let X1 = Moles of SO2

X2 = Initial moles of SO2 entering the reactor
X3 = Moles of O2
X4 = Moles of SO3
Then
0.5
KP = (X4 + 0.031 x X2) x (X1 + X3 + X4)
(B)
0.5
(X1 - 0.031 x X2) x (X3 – 0.5 x 0.031 x X2)
The above equation is once again mentioned in the literature.
Calculating the value of the unknown X4, we have, with KP = 270.2, we

get
X4 = 158.01 Kmoles
Then Moles of SO3 removed in the interpass absorber is given as =

(403.73 – 158.014)
= 245.718 Kmoles
SO3 + H2O H2SO4
As from the stoichiometric coefficients of the reaction given, we can find

out the weight of sulfuric acid to be absorbed as = 245.718 x 98
= 24080.4 Kg/Hr
Also mentioned in the literature that “its required to take the strength of
the solvent H2SO4 for absorption of SO3 not to increase by more than 1-
2%, and the best absorption will occur when the absorbing acid has the
strength between the range 97.5 to 99%”.
Let X1 be the Kgs/hr of the fed to the tower acid

Then, H2SO4 balance around the absorber tower gives,
1.0 (X1 + 24080.4) = (0.98X1 + 24080.4) N = 3298.3
2
Kmoles
By trial and error, we have SO2 = 13.77
X1 = 24000 Kg/Hr Kmoles
SO3 = 158.01
Kmoles
N2 = 3298.3 98% H2SO4

Kmoles
SO2 = 13.77
Kmoles
SO3 = 403.73
Kmoles
100%
REACTOR:
For the second contact we have the following details,
COMPONENTS I STAGE
3.1%
CONVERSION
I/LET O/LET
KMOLS
KMOLS
N2 3298.3
3298.3
SO2 0.835
13.778
SO3 170.96
158.01
O2 250.92
257.39
TOTAL Kmols 3721.0
3727.5 4
REACTOR
N2 = 3298.3
Kmoles
SO2 = 13.778
Kmoles ND
SO3 = 158.01 II CONTACT
Kmoles
N2 = 3298.3
Kmoles
SO2 = 0.835
Kmoles
FINAL ABSORPTION TOWER: SO3 = 170.96
Kmoles
Let X2 be the Kgs/hr of the acid fed in this tower,
Then,
1.0 (X2 + 170.96 x 98) = 0.98 x X2 + 170.96 x 98
Again by trial and error, we have
X2 = 16500 Kgs/Hr
TANKS: ACID
PRODUCT RECYCLE
DILUTION
WATER ACID COMING
FROM
Tank – 1:
Dilution water is added in the tank to bring down the concentration to
the desired 98%, and this is calculated as
= 245.718 x 18 + (24080.4 x 2)/98
= 4915 Kgs/Hr
Material balance around the tank is given as,
Or, 24000 + A1 – (24000 + 245.718 x 98 – 245.718 x 18) - 4915 = 0
Then,
A1 = 24572 Kgs/Hr
Tank – 2:
Dilution water is also added in this tank to bring down the concentration
to desired 98%,
which is calculated as
= 170.95 x 18 + (16754 x 2)/98
= 3419 Kgs/Hr
Material balance around the tank is given as,
Or, 16500 + A2 - (16500 + 170.95 x 98 – 170.95 x 18) – 3419 = 0
Then,
A2 = 17095 Kgs/Hr
Then total amount of acid that is formed is
= 41667 Kgs/Hr
= 41667 x 24
=1000008 Kgs/day
=1000.01 TPD
HEAT BALANCE
BASIS:
1 HOUR OF OPERATION.
BURNER :
As cited in the literature, the heat of combustion of sulfur is = 2170 Cal/g
And,
Moles of Sulfur burnt = 417.51Kmoles/Hr
Then,
Heat evolved in the reaction is = 2170 x 4184 x 417.5 x 32
= 1.212 x 1011 J/Hr
As this reaction is exothermic,
We have, û+ = - 1.212 x 1011 J/Hr
The above heat is recovered in the waste heat boiler.
WASTE HEAT BOILER :
Inlet Gas Temperature = 601 ÛC

Outlet Gas Temperature = 438 ÛC
SPECIFIC HEAT DATA for the Gas Stream as Available from the literature are
tabulated as follows:
COMPONENT SPECIFIC HEAT (CP)

Cal/gm-mole K
1. N2 6.42 + 1.34 x 10-3 T
2. SO2 9.52 + 3.64 x 10-3 T
3. SO3 12.13 + 8.12 x 10-3 T
4. O2 6.74 + 1.64 x 10-3 T
Base temperature (assumed) = 25 ÛC

Gas with maximum temperature = 601 ÛC
Then,
Bulk Temperature of the Gas = 313 ÛC
= 586 ÛK
The Heat Capacities at this bulk temperature are calculated and tabulated as follows:
COMPONENT SPECIFIC HEAT (CP)

KJ/Kg-mole K
1. N2 30.146
2. SO2 48.773
3. SO3 70.680
4. O2 32.221
For the reaction,

SO2 + ½ O2 SO3
û+ - 24.6 + 1.99 x 10-3 T (KCal/gm-mole)
And at the bulk temperature of the gas,
û+ - 98047 (KJ/Kg-mole)
Heat of dilution = 9.304 KJ
Specific heat of Sulfuric acid = 1.4435 KJ/Kg-K
Heat balance is given by,
Heat Input – +HDW 2XWSXW P (A)
Heat Input is calculated as
>P [ &p x (601 – 25)] O2, N2, SO2, SO3

= 7.854 x 1010 J
Heat Output is calculated as
>P [ &p x (438 – 25)] O2, N2, SO2, SO3

= 5.633 x 1010 J
6XEVWLWXWLQJ LQ +HDW EDODQFH HTXDWLRQ $ ZLWK WKH YDOXH RI DW EDVH WHPSHUDWXUH RI
Û
C
that is,
[
3
J/Kg
m = 9094.7 Kgs/Hr
REACTOR :
The table shown below summarizes the heat balance inside the reactor at each bed:
INLET OUTLET HEAT HEAT HEAT HEAT

BED TEMP. TEMP. INPUT OUTPUT EVOLVED LOSS
(ÛC) (ÛC) (J) (J) (J) (J)
1. 410 601 5.182 x1010 7.854 x1010 3.03 x1010 0.3570 x1010
2. 438 485 5.326 x1010 6.292 x1010 0.753 x 1010 0.0929 x1010
3. 432 444 5.568 x1010 5.737 x1010 0.176 x1010 0.0784 x109
4. 427 437 4.806 x1010 4.928 x1010 0.127 x1010 0.0470 x109
HEAT EXCHANGERS :
GAS: GAS:
TEMP = 485 ÛC TEMP= 427 ÛC
6.2929 x010 J 4.8062 x 1010 J
HEAT
EXCHANGER- I
GAS: GAS:
TEMP= 368 ÛC © TEMP = 432 ÛC
4.0817 x 1010 J 5.5688 x 1010 J
GAS:
TEMP = 368 ÛC
4.082 x 1010 J
GAS:
TEMP= 444 ÛC
5.737 x 1010 J
HEAT
EXCHANGER - II
GAS: GAS:
TEMP = 90 Û& TEMP = 202.4 ÛC ©
0.7735 x 1010 J 2.4287 x 1010 J
COOLER – I :
Inlet Gas temperature = 202.41 ÛC

Outlet Gas temperature (assumed) = 110 ÛC
Using heat balance equation (A), gives as,

Heat Input – +HDW 2XWSXW P
7KHQ ZLWK = 2442.5 x 103 J/Kg

m = 5179 Kgs/Hr
INTERPASS ABSORBER :
TOTAL = 3727.5
Kmoles
TEMP = 90 ÛC
7.735 x 109 J
TOTAL = 3973.2 24000 Kgs/Hr

Kmoles 98% H2SO4
TEMP = 110 Û& TEMP = 30 Û&
1.163 x 1010 J 0.1732 x 109 J
43657.44 Kgs/Hr
100% H2SO4
TEMP = 89.5 ÛC ©
4.067 x 109 J
We make a heat balance around the absorber,
Heat Input = Heat Output
Then, 1.163 x 1010 + 0.1732 x 109 = 7.735 x 109 + 43657.44 x 1.4435 x 103 (T-25)
T = 89.55 ÛC
But to account for the absorption of heat, we have assumed a temperature of 120 ÛC
TANK – I :
Heat that is coming with the acid (120 ÛC) = 0.5986 x 1010 J
Water for dilution which is fed at 30ÛC = 4914.36 x 4184 x (30-25)
= 0.1028 x 109 J
Heat evolved due to Dilution = 4915 x 9304
= 0.0457 x 109 J
Heat coming out from the tank with the acid = 48572 x 1443.5 x (T1-25)
Heat Balance gives,

T1 = 112.5 ÛC
ACID COOLER :
Inlet Acid temperature = 112.5 ÛC

Outlet Acid temperature = 30 ÛC
Inlet water temperature = 25 ÛC
Outlet water temperature = 40 ÛC
Making heat balance,

Heat Input = Heat Output
48572 x 1443.5 x (112.5 – 30) = p x 4184 x (40 – 25)

p = 92166.64 Kgs/Hr
ECONOMISER :
Inlet Gas temperature = 437 ÛC

Outlet Gas temperature (assumed) = 90 ÛC
Heat Input = 4.928 x 1010 J

Heat Output = (4.928 x 1010 ) x (90 – 25) / (437-25)
= 7.775 x 109 J
Heat Input – +HDW 2XWSXW D
a = 16994.5 Kgs/Hr
FINAL ABSORPTION TOWER :
TEMP = 70 Û&
5.382 x 109 J
16500 Kgs/Hr
98% H2SO4
TEMP = 90 Û& TEMP = 30 Û&
7.775 x 109 J 0.1191 x 109 J
30175 Kgs/Hr
100% H2SO4
TEMP = 82 ÛC ©
2.509 x 109 J
TANK – II :
Heat that is coming with the acid (82.6 ÛC) = 2.509 x 109 J
Water for dilution which is fed at 30ÛC = 3419 x 4184 x (30-25)
= 0.0715 x 109 J
Heat evolved due to Dilution = 3419 x 9304
= 0.0318 x 109 J
Heat coming out from the tank with the acid = 33595 x 1443.5 x (T2-25)
Heat Balance gives,

T2 = 78.85 ÛC
T1 and T2 are the temperatures at which the sulphuric acid streams are coming out after
passing the respective acid coolers from the Tank – I and Tank – II.
Note – The symbols which are used mean the following:
– Latent heat at the base temperature.

– The value has been assumed and the further calculations are done based on
this value
© - The value has been calculated based on the assumed value
DESIGN OF EQUIPMENTS
ABSORBER
PROCESS DESIGN OF ABSORBER:
BASIS:
1 HOUR OF OPERATION
COMPOSITION OF THE INCOMING GAS:
COMPONENT AMOUNT IN KMOLES MOLE FRACTION
N2 3298.32 0.8301
SO3 403.732 0.1016
SO2 13.777 0.00346
O2 257.395 0.06478
TOTAL 3973.23 1.0
Avg Mol Wt = [28 x 3298.32 + 32 x 257.395 + 64 x 13.778 + 80 x 403.7] / 3973.23

= 33.6 Kg/Kmoles
Inlet temperature of the gas =110 ÛC
Density of the gas = [ 33.6 x 273 ] / { 22.4 x 383 }

= 1.0711 Kg/m3
Sulfur Trioxide is absorbed in 98% sulphuric acid and the gases after absorption are
returned back to the converter. The exit concentration of the acid is assumed to be 103%
(3% free oleum)
Assuming negligible absorption of the other gases and at the average temperature of the
gas inside the tower at 95 ÛC,
Moles of SO3 at the exit = 158.014
SO3 to be absorbed = 403.732 - 158.014

= 245.718 Kmoles
= 19657.5 Kgs
Water required to absorb SO3 = 245.72 x 18

= 4422.96 Kgs
Water present in incoming gas = 110.98 Kmoles

Sulfuric acid formed = 110.98 Kmoles
= 10876.04 Kgs
Free SO3 with it = 326.3

Total SO3 absorbed by water = 110.98 x 80 + 326.3
= 9204.7 Kgs
SO3 to be absorbed in 98% acid = 19657.5 – 9204.7

= 10452.8 Kgs
Let ‘W’ be the weight of 98% acid used in the tower,

Then,
SO3 absorbed by it = [W x 0.02 x 80] / 18
Total weight of 100% acid = W + { [W x 0.02 x 80] / 18 }
= 1.0889 W
Free SO3 associated with it = 0.03 x 1.0889 W

= 0.03267 W
Total Weight = (1.0889 + 0.03267) W
= 1.12157 W
Kgs of SO3 absorbed by W Kgs = 1.12157 W – W
= 0.12157 W
Now,
For 0.12157 W = 10452.8 Kgs
then, For W = 85982 Kgs acid / Hr
= 23.88 Kgs/s
Thus, Liquid flow rate is given as,

L = 23.88 Kgs/s
'HQVLW\ !L) = 1850 Kg/m3
Gas Flow Rate = [3973.23 x 33.6] / 3600

= 37.08 Kgs/s
G = 37.08 Kgs/s
!
'HQVLW\ G) = 1.0711 Kg/m3
DIAMETER CALCULATION:
Adopting the methodology as given in RICHARDSON AND COULSON,VOLUME 6,
First we calculate,
!
>/*@ [ ^ G !L) }0.5
= 0.0155
In the Literature given by RICHARDSON & COULSON, Pg 544
From the Plot of K4 9V >/*@ [ ^ !G !L) }0.5
K4 at flooding line = 6.1
Lets choose the following packing, as given in RICHARDSON & COULSON, Pg 533
Material = 3” Ceramic, Raschig Rings

Nominal Size = 76 mm
Bulk Density = 561 Kg/m3
Surface Area = 69 m2/m3
Packing Factor = 65 m-1
Voidage = 75%
Then,
G* = [ {K4 [ !G !L – !G )} / {13.1 x Fp [ !L L)-0.1}]0.5
= [ {6.1 x 1.0711 ( 1850 - 1.0711 )} / {13.1 x 65 x (6 x 10-3 / 1850)0.1}]0. 5
= 7.08 Kg/m2-s
Designing for a Pressure Drop of 42 mm water per m of packing, we have
K4 = 1.9
Then,
% Loading = {1.9 / 6.1}0.5 x 100%
= 56 %
And,
G* = 3.95 Kg/m2-s
Then, Cross Section Area Required,

A = [Mass Flow Rate] / G*
= 37.08 / 3.95
= 9.38 m2
Thus,
Di = [{4 x 9.38 }/@ 0.5
= 3.45 m
Hence the Diameter which is calculated from this approach is 3.45 m
HEIGHT OF PACKING CALCULATION:
L = 23.88 Kgs/s
!
'HQVLW\ L) = 1850 Kg/m3
GV = 37.08 Kgs/s
!
'HQVLW\ G) = 1.0711 Kgs/m3
Volumetric Flow rate of the entering gas is given by,

Gv = [37.08 / 1.0711]
= 34.62 m3/s
Gas Velocity at the bottom of the tower is given by,
Vbg = 34.62 / 9.38
= 3.69 m/s
Mass Flow Rate at the top of the tower is given by,

GT = [ 3727.51 x 33.6 ] / 3600
= 34.79 Kgs/s
Volumetric Flow rate at the top of the tower is given by,

Gt = [34.79 / 1.0711]
= 32.48 m3/s
Gas Velocity at the top of the tower is given by,
Vbg = 32.48 / 9.38
= 3.46 m/s
Then Average Gas Velocity is given as,
Vavg = 3.57 m/s
And, Average Gas Velocity in the Packing,
VP = 3.57 / 0.75
= 4.76 m/s
Liquid Flow = 23.88 / 9.38

= 2.54 Kgs/m2-s
Given that,
Surface Area of Packing = 69 m2/m3
Liquid Density = 1850 Kg/m3
Then,
Wetting Rate = 2.54 / [1850 x 69]
= 1.9898 x 10-5 m3/m-s
The Above wetting rate is greater than the required minimum limit and this is adequate
for wetting the packing.
The Methodology adopted for the calculation of Height of the Packing is referred from
the literature by NORMAN W.S (ABSORPTION, DISTILLATION AND COOLING
TOWERS), Pg 214.
The Average Properties of the gas at the temperature are given as follows,
!
'HQVLW\ RI WKH JDV PL[WXUH G) = 1.0711 Kg/m3

9LVFRVLW\ RI WKH JDV PL[WXUH mix) = 2.772 x 10-5
Diffusivity of the gas (D) = 8.2 x 10-6 m2/s
Schimidt Number (NSc) mix >!G) x (D)]

= 2.772 x 10-5 / [1.0711 x 8.2 x 10-6]
= 3.15
As given in the literature,
The Reynolds number is calculated for the Standard Wetted Wall Column having the
diameter,
d = 0.083 ft
= 0.0253 m
Reynolds Number (NRe) >!G x d x VP@ mix)

= [1.0711 x 4.76 x 0.0253] / (2.772 x10-5)
= 4654
Cited in the Reference NORMAN W.S (ABSORPTION, DISTILLATION AND
COOLING TOWERS), Pg 212, the co-relation is,
kG x (RT/ VP) x (P/pBM [ ^mix >!G x D]}0.5 = [ ^>!G x d x VP@mix)}-0.25
Now,
With (P/pBM) =1(approx), we have,
kG = [ 0.04 x (4654)-0.25 x (3.15) -0. 5 x 15.61 x 3600 ] / {1.318 x 368}

= 0.316 lb mole / hr-ft2-atm
Also given in the table of NORMAN W.S (ABSORPTION, DISTILLATION AND

COOLING TOWERS), Pg 210 & Pg 211
For the conditions specified above the partial pressure of SO3 in equilibrium with the acid
is extremely small and it may be assumed that the absorption is controlled by gas film.
Partial Pressure of SO3 in the gas at inlet,p1= 0.1016

Partial Presure at the Outlet, p2 = [0.1016 x 0.0423]/[0.8984+0.1016x 0.0423]
= 4.76 x 10-3
Mean Driving Force = [¨ S1 - ¨ S1] / ln [¨ S1 / ¨ S1]
= 0.0316 atm
SO3 absorbed = 19657.5 / ( 80 x 0.454) lbmoles

= 541.71 lbmoles/ hr
Area of Packing = 541.71 / (0.31 x 0.0316)

= 55300 ft2
= 5140 m2
Area of Packing/ft height = 69 x 9.38

= 647.22
Height of Packing Required = 5140 / 647.22

= 7.94 m
Therefore the height of the packing required is 8m

MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ABSORBER
Inner Diameter of vessel, Di = 3.45 m

Height of the packing required = 8m
Skirt height = 2m
Density of material column = 7700 Kg/m3
Wind pressure = 130 Kg/m2
MATERIAL :
Carbon Steel
Permissible tensile stress ( f )= 950kg/cm2
THICKNESS OF SHELL:
Thickness of shell, ts = [p D / (2f J – p)] + c

Where,
Inner Diameter of vessel, Di = 3.45 m
Working Pressure = 1.013 x105 N/m2
Design Pressure, p = 1.05 x 1.013 x105 N/m2
= 0.10635 N/mm2
Permissible Stress = 95 N/mm2
Joint Efficiency(J) = 0.85
Corrosion allowance = 3mm
Hence,
ts =2.25 mm
We take thickness as 8mm
So outer diameter of shell Do = 3.45 m + 2 x 0.008m = 3.466 m
STRESS ANALYSIS AND SHELL THICKNESS AT DIFFERENT HEIGHTS:
Let X be the distance in “m” from the top of the shell, then
1. AXIAL STRESS DUE TO PRESSURE
Axial stress due to pressure, fap = p Di / 4 ( ts – c )

= 184 Kg/cm2
2. STRESS DUE TO DEAD LOAD

a) Compressive Stress due to weight of shell up to a distance X
Outer Diameter Of shell = Di + 2 t s

= 3.466 m
Density of Shell material, ρs = 7700 Kg /m3
fds = π/4 ( Do2 – Di2 )ρs X] / π /4 ( Do2 – Di 2 )
= 0.77 X Kg/cm2
b) Compressive stress due to weight of insulation at height X
Material for Insulation = Asbestos

Thickness of insulation, tins = 100 mm
Density of insulation = 575 Kg/m3
Let,
Dins = Diameter of insulation,
Dm = Mean diameter of vessel
And,
For large diameter column,
Dins = Dm
fdins = [π Dins tins ρ ins X] / {π Dm ( ts – c )}

= 1.15 X Kg /cm2
c) Compressive stress due to liquid in column up to height X
Density of liquid, ρl = 1850 Kg/m3

fdliq = [ ( π /4 ) Di2 X ρ l ]/ π Dm ( ts – c )
= 3.19 x106 N/m2
= 31.9 Kg/cm2
d) Compressive stress due to attachment
We have the following attachments in the absorber column

Piping weight
Head weight
Ladder
Head weight (approximately) = 2500 Kgs
Weight of Ladder = 160 X Kgs
Total compressive stress due to attachments fd is given by,
fd(attachments) = (Piping Weight + Head Weight + Ladder)/[π Di ( ts – c )]

= (2500 + 160X) / (π x 0.5 x 345)
= 4.613 + 0.295 X Kg/cm2
e) Stress due to Wind

fw = [ 1.4 x 130 x X2 [ @ > [ 3450 x 5 ]
= 0.3358 X2 Kg/cm2
To determine the value of X
Permissible Stress = 95 N/mm2

And,
ftmax = fwx + fap – fdx
Or, 0.3358 X2 – (36.513 + 2.215X ) + 184 – 950 x 0.85 =0
Or, 0.3358 X2 – 2.215 X - 660.01 =0
Solving the above equation,

We get,
X = 47.752 m
SUPPORT FOR ABSORBER
Skirt support is used to support the absorber column.
Material to be used = Structural steel ( IS 800)

Inner Diameter of the vessel, Di = 3.45 m
Outer Diameter of the vessel, Do = 3.466 m
Height of the Packing, =8m
Density of carbon steel, ρs = 7700 kg /m3
Total weight = Weight of vessel + Weight of Attachments
= (π/4) ( Do2 – Di2) x H x ρs x 9.81 +

(π /4) Di2 x H x ρl x 0.6 +
(π /4) Di2 x H x ρp + 35000N + 1600 x H
= 1.422 x10 7 N
Diameter of Skirt = 3.45 m
Considering the height of Skirt is 8m
Wind Pressure is 1285 N/m2
Stress due to Dead Weight
Thickness of the skirt support is tsk
Stress due to dead load
fd = Total Weight /π Ds tsk
= 9.302 x 10 5 N/m2
Due to wind load

The forces due to wind load acting on the lower and upper parts of the vessels are
determined as
plw = k p1 h1 Do
puw = k p2 h2 Do
Where K is coefficient depending on the shape factor.
k=0.7 for cylindrical surface
p1 is wind pressure for the lower part of the vessel.
p2 is wind pressure for the upper part of the vessel
p1 = 700 N /m2
p2 = 2000 N /m2
h1=20m
h2 =14 m
plw = k p1 h1 Do
= 47686.8
puw = k p2 h2 Do
= 149872.8
Bending moment due to wind at the base of the vessel is determined by
Mw =plw (h1/2) + puw ( h1 + h2 /2)
=4.09 x 10 6 Nm
fwb = 4 x Mw / πDo tsk
=10.71 x10 7 /tsk
Stress due to Seismic Load

Load F= CW
W is total Weight of vessel
C is Seismic Coefficient
C=0.08
fsb = ( 2/3)[ CWH/π Rok2 tsk]
Where,
Rok is radius of skirt
= 4.159 x 10 6 /tsk N/m2
Maximum Stress at bottom of Skirt

ftmax = ( fwb or fsb ) – fdb
= (3.229 x 10 6 / tsk ) N / m2
Permissible tensile Stress for structural steel = 140 N/mm2

tsk = 0.023m
Hence thickness of skirt is 23 mm
Maximum Compressive Stress

fcmax = ( fwb or fsb ) + fdb
= (5.089 x 10 6 / tsk ) N /m2
Yield point = 200 N / mm2
fc permissible <or = 1/3) Yield point
= 66.6 N/mm2
tsk =76mm
Maximum Compressive Stress between bearing plate and foundation
fc= Total Weight /A + Mw /2
Dsko = 5 .018m
Dski = 4.866m
A = ( π/4) ( Dsko2 – Dski 2)
fc = 6.911 x 10 6 N / m2
F = (3 x fc x L2) / tb2
Permissible stress F in bending is 157.5 N/mm2
tb = 118 mm
Anchor Bolt,
Wmin=7.86 x 10 5 N (assumed)
Fc = (Wmin/ A ) – (Mw /Z)
= - 9.9 x 10 5 N /m2
Fc is ‘- ve’ , vessel skirt must be anchored to the concrete foundation by anchor bolt
Number of bolt = 4.866 x 10 3 / 600
= 32
Pbolt = (fc) min x A) / N
= 3.11 x 10 5 N
HEAT EXCHANGER
PROCESS DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGER:
BASIS:
1 HOUR OF OPERATION
GIVEN:
THE FLUIDS ARE:
WATER:
INLET TEMPERATURE = 25 ÛC
OUTLET TEMPERATURE = 40 ÛC
SULFURIC ACID:

The Sulfuric acid coming out from the absorption towers are cooled from a high
temperature to a lower temperature in a Shell and Tube Type Heat Exchanger. Water
which enters the Heat Exchanger at room temperature is heated to 40 ÛC and comes out of
the system.
BULK TEMPERATURE OF THE ACID = (30 + 112)/2

= 71.0 ÛC
PROPERTIES OF WATER AT BULK TEMPERATURE OBTAINED FROM THE

LITERATURE ARE AS FOLLOWS:
PROPERTIES NUMERICAL VALUE
1. BULK TEMPERATURE OF WATER 32.5 ÛC

'(16,7< !w 994.86 Kg/m3
3 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY, CPw 4.184 KJ/Kg-K
4. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY, Kw 0.623 W/m-K
9,6&26,7< w 0.8 Centipoise
PROPERTIES OF SULFURIC ACID AT BULK TEMPERATURE OBTAINED
FROM THE LITERATURE ARE AS FOLLOWS:
1. BULK TEMPERATURE OF WATER 71 ÛC

'(16,7< !h 1850 Kg/m3
3 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY, CPh 1.4435 KJ/Kg-K
4. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY, Kh 0.655 W/m-K
9,6&26,7< h 6.83 Centipoise
1. HEAT LOAD:
HEAT INPUT = HEAT OUTPUT

mh = 48572 Kg/Hr
= 13.49 Kg/s
Q = mh x CPh [ >û7@h
= 13.49 x 1.4435 x 103 x (112 - 30)
= 1.596 x 106 J/s
Q = 1596.7 x 103 J/s
Overall Heat Balance gives,

mw x 4187 x 15 = 1596.7 x 103
mw = 25.42 Kg/s
2. LMTD:
ACID WATER û7
TEMPERATURES 112.0 40 72 ÛC
LMTD = [(112-40)-(30-25)] / ln [(112-40)-(30-25)] = 25.11 ÛC
R = [112-30] / {40-25} = 5.46

S = [40-25] / {112-25} = 0.172
From the graph of FT against S at various R, we have
FT = 0.834
Then, LMTD = 20.94 ÛC

3. ROUTING:
Shell Side = Sulfuric Acid

Tube Side = Cooling Water
4. DETERMINATION OF AREA:
Assume Uo = 630 W/m2-K

Then, Area can be calculated as,
A = 1596.7 x 103 / [630 x 20.94]
= 121.03 m2
5. CHOICE OF TUBES:
From the tubing characteristics as given in PERRY,

We choose the following dimensions of the tube,
1 inch Outer Diameter tubes with 1.25 inch Triangular Pitch,16BWG
Do = 1.0 inch
= 25.4 mm
Di = 0.87 inch
= 22.1 mm
ï
P = 31.75 mm
Let us assume the tube to be of length of 6m.

Number of tubes [ [
= 253
6. CORRECTION OF HEAT TRANSFER AREA:
From the tube count table,

We have For TEMA P or S (1- 4 Exchanger)
1 Shell Pass and 4 Tube Passes
Diameter of Shell, Ds = 635 mm
Number of Tubes, Nt = 250
Corrected HT Area [ [ [

= 119.69 m2
Corrected Uoc = 637.07 W/m2-K
7. CALCULATION OF INSIDE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
Area of the tubes, at > [ Gi2 x Nt ] / [ 4 x NP ]

= 0.024 m2
Mass velocity Gst = 25.42 / 0.024
= 1059.16 Kg/m2-s
Velocity inside the tubes, Vt P > ! [ Dt ]

= 1059.16 / 994.865
= 1.06 m/s
The above velocity is also within acceptable limits of 1 to 3 m/s.
Reynolds Number, NRe = [Gst x di @

= [1059.16 x 22.1 x 10-3 ] / 0.8 x 10-3
= 29260
Prandtl Number, NPr = 5.37
(hi di / k) = jH x (NRe) x (NPr)(1/3)

where,
jH = 0.0036
Then,
(hi di / k) = 184.45
hi = 5199 W/m2 K
8. CALCULATION OF OUTSIDE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
Length of tube L =6m

Baffle Spacing, Ls = 0.266 x Ds
= 168.9 mm
Number of baffles, Nb +1 = 6 / Ls
Nb = 35
ï ï
Sm = [ Ls (P - Do) Ds ] / P
= [(0.03175 – 0.0254) x 0.1689 x 0.635 / 0.03175
= 0.02145 m2
vs = mh / (Sm [ !h)
= {48572/3600} / (0.02145 x 1850)
= 0.340 m/s
The above value of velocity is also in the range of 0.3 to 1m/s, so this is also
acceptable.
Equivalent Diameter, de = 1.1 {31.752 – 0.917 x 25.42 }/ 25.4
= 18.04 mm
NRe = [de *@

= [ 629 x 18.04 x 10 -3 ] / 6.83 x 10-3
= 1661
NPr = 42.9
From the graph, we have

jH = 0.019
(ho de / k) = jH (NRe) (NPr)(1/3) w)0.14

= 103.65
ho = 3763 W/m2 K
[ 1 / Uo ] = [ 1 / ho ] + [ Do / Di ] [ 1 / hi ] + [Do x ln {Do/Di} / (2Kw)]

+ [ 1 / hod ] + [ Do / Di ] [ 1 / hid ]
Taking,
[ 1 / hod ] = 1 / 3000 (m2-K)/W
[ 1 / hid ] = 1 / 5000 (m2-K)/W
[ 1 / Uo ] = 1.083 x 10-3 (m2-K)/W
Uo = 923 W/(m2-K)
Note: As this value of Uo is greater than the corrected value of Uoc, so the design
with the above specifications is accepted.
9. PRESSURE DROP CALCULATION:
For Tube side,
f = 0.079 x (NRe)-0.25
= 0.00604
û3L = [(4fLVt2 [ !f ] / {2 x Di}

= 3666 N/m2
û3t ! x Vt2 / 2]
[ > f
= 1397 N/m2
û3T = Np û3L û3t)
= 20252 N/m2
= 20.25 KPa
Note: As the value of the pressure drop is less than 70KPa, the design is
acceptable from the tube side pressure drop consideration.
For Shell Side,
Pressure Drop in the Cross Flow section is calculated by,
û3c = [{b x fK x W2 x Nc ` !f x Sm2 @ [ ^w b}0.14 KN/m2
NRe = 1668
b = 2 x 10-3
fK = 0.25
!h !f) = 1850 Kg/m3
mh(W) = 13.49 Kg/s
Nc = [ Ds ( 1 – 2 {Lc/Ds} ) / Pp ]
= 635 x (1-2 x 0.25) / 22
= 14.43
= 14.5
û3c = [{2 x 10-3 x 0.25 x 13.492 x 15}/( 1850 x 0.021452)] KN/m2

= 1.55 KPa
Pressure Drop in End Zones is calculated as,
û3e û3c ( 1 + {Ncw / Nc} ) KN/m2
Ncw = 0.8 lc / Pp
= [0.8 x 0.25 x 635] / 22
=6
û3e = 1.55 [1 + ( 6 / 14.5 )]

= 2.191 KPa
Pressure Drop in Window Zones
û3w = [ b x W2 x ( 2 + 0.6 Ncw ) / { Sm x Sw [ !f }] KN/m2
b = 5 x 10-4
Sw = Swg - Swt
From the graph from PERRY Fig. 10-18, Pg. 10-29
Swg = 100 inch2

= 0.0645 m2
Swt = ( Nt / 8 ) x ( 1 – Fc [ [ 'o2
Fc = 0.65
Swt = (250 / 8) x ( 1 – 0.6 [ [ 2
= 0.0222 m2
Sw = Swg - Swt
= 0.0645 – 0.0222
= 0.0423 m2
û3w = [ 5 x 10-4 x 13.492 x ( 2 + 0.6 x 6 ) / {0.02145 x 0.0423 x 1850}]

= 0.303 KPa
Therefore the total Pressure Drop on the shell side is calculated by the following
relation
û3s (TOTAL) [ û3e + (Nb – [ û3c + Nb [ û3w

= 2 x 2.191 + 35 x 1.55 + 36 x 0.303
= 69 KPa
As this value of Pressure Drop on the shell side is less than the 70 KPa, the design
is acceptable from the Pressure Drop Point of View.
Thus, the design is acceptable from process design consideration.
SUMMARY OF PROCESS DESIGN FOR HEAT EXCHANGER
Mass flow rate of acid = 13.49 Kg/s

Mass flow rate of water = 25.42 Kg/s
Shell outer diameter = 635 mm
Number of tubes = 250
Tube OD = 1 inch
Pitch (Triangular) = 1.25 inch
Tube length =6m
Shell side pressure drop = 69 KPa
Tube side pressure drop = 20 KPa
Heat Exchanger type = TEMA P or S type 1-4 Heat Exchanger
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGER
Working Pressure = 1 atm

Inlet Temperature = 110 ÛC
Design pressure = 1.1 atm
Shell diameter = 635 mm
The entire mechanical design is referred from the literature in PROCESS EQUIPMENT
DESIGN by M.V JOSHI.
1. SHELL THICKNESS
Material: IS 2825-1969 Grade I plain Carbon steel.
Shell thickness , (tS) = [{P x Di }/ ( 2fJ – P )]

= [{635 x 1.1} / (2 x 95 x 0.85 – 1.1)]
= 4.29 cm
= 5 mm
From the Table 9.2, its found that minimum shell thickness when severe
conditions are not expected is 8mm, which includes the Corrosion Allowance.
2. NOZZLES
Take inlet and outlet nozzles as 100mm diameter.
Vent nozzle = 25mm diameter

Drain nozzle = 25mm diameter
Relief Valve = 50 mm diameter.
Nozzle thickness = [ P x Di ] / { 2 f J - P }
= 0.68 mm
Minimum nozzle thickness is 6mm and 8mm is choosen which includes the
corrosion allowance.
Also only the inlet and outlet nozzles need compensation. The compensation
required is minimum and is given by pads of 10mm thickness.
3. HEAD
Torispherical heads are taken for both ends.
Rc (Crown radius) = 635 mm

Rnk (knuckle radius) = 63.5 mm
Head thickness ( th ) = [ P x Rc x W ] / { 2 f J }
Where,
W = (1/4) x [ 3 + (Rc / Rnk)0.5 ]
= 1.54
Head thickness = 6.66 mm
Therefore we take Head Thickness as that of the Shell Thickness = 8mm
4. TRANSVERSE BAFFLES
Number of Baffles = 35
Baffle cut = 25%
Baffle thickness = 6mm (standard)
5. TIE RODS AND SPACERS
Diameter of tie rods = 10mm

Diameter of Spacers = 8mm
6. FLANGE DESIGN
Flange is ring type with plain face.
Flange material: IS 2004-1962 Class 2 Carbon Steel

Bolting steel: 5% Chromium, Molybdenum Steel
Gasket Material: Asbestos
Shell OD = 0.635 m
Shell Thickness = 0.008 m (g)
Shell ID = 0.627 m
Allowable stress for flange material = 100 N/mm2

Allowable stress of bolting material = 138 N/mm2
6 (i). DETERMINATION OF GASKET WIDTH
Minimum design yield seating stress , y = 52.386 N/mm2

Gasket factor, m = 3.75
Gasket Size:
Outer Diameter = 680 mm
Inner Diameter = 650 mm
Mean Gasket Diameter, G = 665 mm
Minimum gasket width,
Choose N = 30 mm.
Basic gasket seating width, bo = 30/2
= 15 mm
Effective Gasket Seating Width, b = 2.5 x [bo]0.5

= 9.7 mm
6 (ii). ESTIMATION OF BOLT LOADS
Under atmospheric conditions, the bolt load due to gasket reaction is given by
Wm1 = π b G y
= π x 2 x 665 x 52.39
= 1061 KN
Load due to design pressure

Wm2 = H+HT
Wm2 = πG2P/4 + πG(2b)mp
= 549.23 KN
Wm1 > Wm2 Hence, the controlling load is Wm1
6 (iii). CALCULATION OF MINIMUM BOLTING AREA:
Am = Ao =W/S
S = allowable stress for bolting material
Am1 = Ao = 1061 x 103/138 = 7688.4 mm2
6 (iv). CALCULATION OF OPTIMUM BOLT SIZE.
Bolts are of 5% Cr Mo Steel
Number of bolts = G / [bo x 2.5]

= 665 / [15 x 2.5]
= 18 bolts
Diameter of bolts = [(Am1 / Number of bolts ) x ( 4 / π) ]1/2
= 24 mm
7. FLANGE THICKNESS
Thickness of flange , tf = [G√(p/Kf) ] + C

Where,
C is the Corrosion allowance
hG is radial distance from gasket load reaction to bolt circle
Hydrostatic end force, H = (π /4) G2 p
= 38.69 KN
K =1/[ 0.3 + {( 1.5 Wm hG) / (H x G)}]
hG = (B – G )/2
Where,
B = Outside diameter of Gasket + 2xDiameter of Bolt +12mm
= 680 + 2 x 24 + 12
= 740 mm
Then, hG = (B – G )/2
= 37.5 mm
K = 1/[ 0.3 + {( 1.5 Wm1 hG) / (H x G)}]

= 0.382
tf = [G√(p/Kf) ] + C
= 35.8 + C
= 38 mm
Hence the thickness of flange = 38 mm
TUBE SIDE
Material:Stainless steel ( IS- grade 10)
Thickness of tube = tf = {P x Do} / ( 2 f J + P)
Where,
Working pressure = 12 N/mm2
Design pressure, P = 14 N/mm2
Permissible Stress, f = 100.6 N/mm2
Joint Efficiency, J =1
Thickness of tube = 1.65 mm
Use tube with thickness of 2mm
No Corrosion allowance, since the tubes are of stainless steel.
1. TUBE SHEET
The tube sheet is held between shell flange and the channel. The joint on the shell
flange side is of male and female facing and on the channel side of ring facing,
since the pressure on the channel
Thickness of Tube Sheet , tts = FG√[(0.25 P)/f]

Where,
F = 1.25
Thickness of tube sheet = 155 mm
2. CHANNEL AND CHANNEL COVER

Material :Carbon Steel
Permissible stress,f = 95 N/mm2
For Ring type gasket

K =0.3
Thickness of channel, th =G √ [(K x P) /f ]
=140 mm
4. GASKET SIZE
Width of ring gasket, N = 30 mm
Gasket material: Steel Jacketed Asbestos

Minimum design seating stress, Ya = 126.6 N / mm2
Basic gasket seating width, bo =N/8
= 30 / 8
= 3.75 mm
Effective gasket seating width,b = bo

Mean diameter, G = 665 mm
Wm1 = π b G Ya
= 991.8 KN
After the internal pressure is applied, the gasket which is compressed earlier, is
released to some extent and the bolt load is given by
Wm2 = π x 2 b x G x m x P + ( π / 4 )G2 P
= 6069 KN
“f ” is permissible tensile stress in bolts under atmospheric condition

Bolt Material: 5%Cr Mo Steel,
f = 140.6 N/mm2
Am = area of bolt
Am1 = Wm1 / fa
= 7075 mm2
Am2 = Wm2 / fb
= 43165 mm2
Number of bolts = (mean diameter) / 10 x 2.5

= 26 bolts
To determine the size of bolts , the larger of above two areas should be considered
Diameter of bolts,Db = [( Am2 / Number of bolts ) x ( 4 / π )]1/2

= 46 mm
5. THICKNESS OF NOZZLE
Considering inlet and outlet diameter to be 100mm, then thickness of the nozzle is
given by,
Thickness of nozzle, tn = (P x Dn) / [2 x f J – P]

Permissible stress, f = 95 N/ mm2
Joint Efficiency, J = 0.85
Then,
Thickness of nozzles =10 mm
6. FLANGE THICKNESS:
Thickness of the Flange , tf = [G√(P/Kf) ] + C

Where,
Allowable stress for flange material, f = 100 N/mm2

Hydrostatic end force, H = (π /4) G2 P
= 4863 KN
K =1/[ 0.3 + {( 1.5 Wm hG) / (H x G)}]
hG = (B – G )/2
Where,
= 680 + 2 x 46 + 12
= 784 mm
Then, hG = (B – G )/2
= 60 mm
K = 1/[ 0.3 + {( 1.5 Wm2 hG) / (H x G)}]
= 2.1326
Then,
tf = [G√(P/Kf) ] + C
= 170 + C
= 175 mm
SUPPORT FOR SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
Length of the heat exchanger, L = 6000 mm

Inner diameter of Shell, Di = 635 mm
Outer diameter of Shell, Do = 643 mm
Thickness of Shell, ts = 8 mm
Outer diameter of tube, do = 25.4 mm
Number of tubes, Nt = 250
Density of Steel,ρs = 7850 Kg /m3

!
'HQVLW\ RI /LTXLG LQ WXEHV l = 1000 Kg /m3
Volume of Shell body, V = (π / 4) ( Do2 – Di2 ) x L

= 0.0482 m3
Weight of Shell body, Ws = V x ρs

= 379 Kgs
Volume of Tubes, Vt = ( π / 4 ) ( do2 – di2 ) x L x Nt

= 0.185 m3
Total Weight of Tubes, Wt = Vt x ρs

= 1453 Kgs
Volume of Head, Vh = 0.087 Di3

= 0.022 m3
Weight of Head, Wh = Vh x ρs
= 173 Kgs
Weight of Liquid, Wl = ( π / 4) (di2) x L x N x ρl

= 577 Kgs
Total Weight, W = Ws+ Wt + Wh + Wl

= 2582 Kgs
= 25.82 KN
Depth of head, H = 250 mm
Q = (W/2)
= 12.91 KN-m
Now, we calculate,
Distance of saddle center line from shell end ,
A = 0.4 x Ri
= 0.4 x (635/2)
= 127 mm
1. LONGITUDINAL BENDING MOMENTS
Radius, R = 0.317 m
Depth of head, H = 0.250 m
The bending moment at the supports is
M1 = QA [ 1 – {(A/L)+ (R2 - H2) / 2 AL}/{1 + 4H/3L}]

= 80.12 N-m
The bending moment at the center of the span is given by

M2 = (Q L / 4)[{1+ 2 ( R2 - H2 ) / L2 }/{1+ 4H / 3L} - ( 4A / L) ]
= 16745 N-m
2. STRESS IN SHELL AT THE SADDLE
For θ =120Û
k1 = 0.107
k2 = 0.192
Thickness of shell, t = 8 mm
f1 = M1/( k1πR2 t)
= 297 x 103 N/m2
f2 = M1/( k2π R2 t)
= 165.2 x 103 N/m2
3. STRESS IN THE SHELL AT MID- SPAN
The stress at the mid span is f3, which is either tensile or compressive depending
on the position of the fiber. The resultant tensile stresses ( including the axial
stress due to internal pressure ) should not exceed the permissible stress, and the
resultant compressive stress should not exceed the permissible compressive stress
f3 = M2 /(πR2 t )
=6.63 x 106 N/m2
Axial Stress in Shell due to internal pressure
fp = (P x Di )/ (4 t)
= 2.262 x 106 N/m2
All combined stresses ( fp + f1 ) , ( fp + f2 ) , and ( fp + f3 ) are well within
allowable limits. Hence, the given parameters can be considered for design.
Thus a shell and tube Heat Exchanger with the above specifications is designed.
COOLER
PROCESS DESIGN OF COOLER:
BASIS:
1 HOUR OF OPERATION
GIVEN:
THE FLUIDS ARE:
WATER:
PROCESS GAS:
INLET TEMPERATURE = 202.41 ÛC

The Process gas which consists of mixtures of Sulphur Dioxide, Sulfur Trioxide,
Nitrogen (inert) and Oxygen are cooled from a high temperature to a lower temperature
in a Shell and Tube Type Heat Exchanger. Water which enters the Heat Exchanger at
room temperature is heated to 40 ÛC and comes out of the system.
BULK TEMPERATURE OF THE GAS MIXTURE = (202.41 + 110)/2

= 156.20 ÛC
PROPERTIES OF WATER AT BULK TEMPERATURE OBTAINED FROM THE

LITERATURE ARE AS FOLLOWS:
1. BULK TEMPERATURE OF WATER 32.5 ÛC

'(16,7< ! 994.86 Kg/m3
3 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY, CP 4.187 KJ/Kg-K
4. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY, K 0.623 W/m-K
9,6&26,7< 0.8 Centipoise
For the gas mixture, the only known property is its specific heat and other properties of
the gas mixture are predicted using the Transport Phenomena considerations. The
properties which have to be predicted are namely viscosity and thermal conductivity.
For the Gas Mixture,
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY, CPg = 1.041 KJ/Kg-K
PROPERTIES OF PROCESS GAS ARE PREDICTED AS MENTIONED BELOW:
Based on the Literature on TRANSPORT PHENOMENA BY BIRD, we have the

following :
CALCULATION OF VISCOSITY OF GAS MIXTURE:
The Critical constants data are given
COMPONENT CRITICAL CRITICAL

TEMPERATURE(K) PRESSURE(ATM)
1. N2 126.2 33.5
2. O2 154.4 49.7
3. SO2 430.7 77.8
4. SO3 490.8 83.6
Bulk temperature = 154.29 + 273

= 427.29 K
Pressure = 2.13 atm
COMPONENT TR (K) PR(ATM)

1. N2 3.380 0.06358
2. O2 2.760 0.04285
3. SO2 0.990 0.02730
4. SO3 0.870 0.02550
c for each component is then calculated by the equation as,

c = 7.7 x (M)0.5 x (PC)(2/3) x (TC)(-1/6)
Where M is the Molecular weight

Tabulating the Data that are obtained from the graph as well as from the calculation,
COMPONENT r (poise) c (poise) SRLVH

1. N2 1.6 1.89 x 10-6 3.024 x 10-4
2. O2 1.2 254.2 x 10-6 3.0504 x 10-4
3. SO2 0.45 408.5 x10-6 1.8380 x10-4
4. SO3 0.38 468.8 x 10-6 1.7810 x 10-4
COMPONENT MOLE MOLECULAR SRLVH

FRACTION WEIGHT
1. N2 0.8301 28 3.024 x 10-4
2. O2 0.0647 32 3.0504 x 10-4
3. SO2 0.0034 64 1.8380 x10-4
4. SO3 0.1016 80 1.7810 x 10-4
We tabulate the calculations,
i j (Mi / Mj ) / j )
i -ij [j -ij)
1 1 1.000 1.000 1.000
2 0.875 0.990 1.062 1.129
3 0.437 1.640 1.954
4 0.350 1.690 2.202
2 1 1.142 1.008 0.938

2 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.0625
3 0.500 1.659 1.850
4 0.400 1.710 2.089
3 1 2.285 0.607 0.521

2 2.000 0.602 0.557 0.5871
3 1.000 1.000 1.000
4 0.800 1.032 1.134
4 1 2.857 0.588 0.455

2 2.500 0.583 0.488 0.5142
3 1.250 0.968 0.878
4 1.000 1.000 1.000
In the above tabular column, the value of -ij is calculated by the equation,
-ij = (1/¥ [ > 0i / Mj )-0.5 @ [ > / j )0.5 x (Mj / Mi )0.25 ] 2

i
mix > [i i [j -ij) ]

= [{0.8301 x 3.024 x 10-4}/1.129] + [{0.06479 x 3.0504 x 10-4}/1.0625]
+ [{0.003467 x 1.838 x 10-4}/0.5871] + [{.1016 x 1.781 x 10-4}/0.5142]
= 2.772 x 10-4 g-cm-1-s-1
= 2.772 x 10-5 Kg/ms
CALCULATION OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY:
COMPONENT Pr Tr Kc Kr K
1. N2 0.0635 3.380 1.024 x 10-4 1 1.024 x 10-4
2. O2 0.4285 2.760 9.459 x 10-5 0.78 7.370 x 10-5
3. SO2 0.0273 0.990 3.893 x 10-5 0.33 1.284 x 10-5
4. SO3 0.0255 0.870 4.025 x 10-5 0.28 1.127 x 10-5
Kc is calculated from the relation given by,
Kc = [ CP 50 @ [
Where value of R is 1.987
Kmix > [i Ki [j -ij) ]

= [{0.8301 x 1.024 x 10-4}/1.129] + [{0.06479 x 7.370 x 10-5/1.0625]
+ [{0.003467 x 1.285 x 10-5}/0.5871] + [{.1016 x 1.127 x 10-5}/0.5142]
= 8.21 x 10-5 Cal / s-cm-K
= 344.8 x 10-4 J/s-m-K
1. HEAT LOAD:
With,
mg = 131518.5 Kg/Hr
= 36.5 Kg/s
Q = mg x CPg [ >û7@gas
= 131518 x 1.041 x 103 x (202.41 – 110)
= 12.65 x 109 J/Hr
= 3.514 x 106 J/s
As the values of Mass Flow Rate (mg ) and Heat Load (Q) are on higher side, we
split the entire flow rate into 4 equal parts so that we have 4 equal area heat
exchangers operating in parallel and which are handling equal heat load.
So, we have
mg = 9.13 Kg/s
Q = 878.5 x 103 J/s
Overall Heat Balance gives,
mw x 4187 x 15 = 878.5 x 103
mw = 13.98 Kg/s
2. LMTD:
GAS MIXTURE WATER û7
TEMPERATURES 202.41 40 162.4 ÛC
LMTD =[(202.41-40)-(110-25)] / ln[(202.41-40)/(110-25)] = 119.5 ÛC
R = [202.41-110] / {40-25} = 6.16

S = [40-25] / {202.41-25} = 0.0846
FT = 0.98
Then, LMTD = 116.6 ÛC
3. ROUTING:
Shell Side = Process Gas

Tube Side = Cooling Water
4. DETERMINATION OF AREA:
Assume Uo = 200 W/m2-K

Then, Area can be calculated as,
A = 878.5 x 103 / [ 116.6 x 200]
=37.67 m2
5. CHOICE OF TUBES:
From the tubing characteristics as given in PERRY,

We choose the following dimensions of the tube,
0.75 inch Outer Diameter tubes with 1 inch Triangular Pitch
Do = 0.75 inch
= 0.01905m
Di = 0.62 inch
= 0.01575m
ï
P = 0.0254m
Let us assume the tube to be of length of 2m.

Number of tubes [ [
= 314.728
6. CORRECTION OF HEAT TRANSFER AREA:
From the tube count table,

We have For TEMA L or M (1-6 Exchanger)
1 Shell Pass and 6 Tube Passes
Diameter of Shell, Ds = 540mm
Number of Tubes, Nt = 320
External Area = 0.0598 m2/m length

Corrected HT Area = 0.0598 x (2 – 0.05) x 320
= 37.31 m2
Corrected Uoc = 878.5 x 103 / (37.31 x 116.6)

= 201.93 W/m2-K
7. CALCULATION OF INSIDE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
Flow area available per pass, at > [ Gi2 x Nt ] / [ 4 x NP ]

= 0.01039 m2
Velocity inside the tubes, Vt P > ! [ Dt ]

= 13.98 / [ 994.86 x 0.01039 ]
= 1.3524 m/s
Reynolds Number, NRe = [ 994.86 x 0.01575 x 1.3524 ] / 0.8 x 10-3

= 26488
Prandtl Number, NPr = 5.37
(hi di / k) = 0.023 (NRe)0.8 (NPr)(1/3)

= 139
hi = 5498 W/m2 K
8. CALCULATION OF OUTSIDE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
Length of the tube, L = 2m

Let, the number of baffles, Nb =1
Nb +1 = L / Ls
Ls = 1
ï ï
Sm = [ Ls (P - Do) Ds ] / P
= [(0.0254 – 0.01905) x 0.540] / 0.0254
= 0.135 m2
G = Ws / Sm
= 9.13 / 0.135
= 67.64 Kg/m2-s
!s = PM / RT
= (2.13 x 33.6) / (0.082 x 429)
= 2.044 Kg/m3
NRe
'*
= [ 0.01905 x 67.64 ] / 2.772 x 10-5
= 46484
NPr = 0.8368

j = 4 x 10-3
(ho do / k) = j (NRe) (NPr)(1/3)

= 175.1
ho = 316.7 W/m2 K
[ 1 / Uo ] = [ 1 / ho ] + [ Do / Di ] [ 1 / hi ] + [Do x ln {Do/Di} / (2Kw)]

+ [ 1 / hod ] + [ Do / Di ] [ 1 / hid ]
Taking,
[ 1 / hod ] = 1 / 3000 (m2-K)/W
[ 1 / hid ] = 1 / 5000 (m2-K)/W
[ 1 / Uo ] = 3.99 x 10-3 (m2-K)/W
Uo = 250.47 W/(m2-K)
Note: As this value of Uo is greater than the corrected value of Uoc, so the design
with the above specifications is accepted.
9. PRESSURE DROP CALCULATION:
For Tube side,
f = 0.079 x (NRe)-0.25
= 6.193 x 10-3
û3L = [(4fLVt2 [ !f ] / {2 x Di}

= 2851.08 N/m2
û3t ! x Vt2 / 2]
[ > f
= 2266.06 N/m2
û3T = Np û3L û3t)
= 30702.8 N/m2
= 30.7 KPa
Note: As the value of the pressure drop is less than 70KPa, the design is
acceptable from the tube side pressure drop consideration.
For Shell Side,
Pressure Drop in the Cross Flow section is calculated by,
û3c = [{b x fK x W2 x Nc ` !f x Sm2 @ [ ^w b}0.14 KN/m2
NRe = 46484
b = 2 x 10-3
fK = 0.12
!v !f) = 2.044 Kg/m3
mg(W) = 9.13 Kg/s
Nc = [ Ds ( 1 – 2 {Lc/Ds} ) / Pp ]
= 540 x (1-2 x 0.25) / 22
= 12.27
û3c = [{2 x 10-3 x 0.12 x 9.132 x 12.27}/( 2.044 x 0.1352)] KN/m2

= 6.6 KPa
Pressure Drop in End Zones is calculated as,
û3e û3c ( 1 + {Ncw / Nc} ) KN/m2
Ncw = 0.8 lc / Pp
= [0.8 x 0.25 x 540] / 22
=5
û3e = 6.6 [1 + ( 5 / 12.27 )]

= 9.28 KPa
Pressure Drop in Window Zones
û3w = [ b x W2 x ( 2 + 0.6 Ncw ) / { Sm x Sw [ !f }] KN/m2
b = 5 x 10-4
Sw = Swg - Swt
Swg = 75 inch2
= 0.04838 m2
Swt = ( Nt / 8 ) x ( 1 – Fc [ [ 'o2
Fc = 0.65
Swt = (320 / 8) x ( 1 – [ [ 2
= 0.01596 m2
Sw = Swg - Swt
= 0.04838 – 0.01596
= 0.03242 m2
û3w = [ 5 x 10-4 x 9.132 x ( 2 + 0.6 x 5 ) / { 0.135 x 0.03242 x 2.044 }]

= 23.29 KPa
Therefore the total Pressure Drop on the shell side is calculated by the following
relation
û3s (TOTAL) [ û3e + (Nb – [ û3c + Nb [ û3w

= 2 x 9.28 + 1 x 23.29
= 41.856 KPa
As this value of Pressure Drop on the shell side is less than the 70 KPa, the design
is acceptable from the Pressure Drop Point of View.
Thus, the design is acceptable from process design consideration.
SUMMARY OF PROCESS DESIGN FOR SINGLE COOLER
Mass flow rate of process gas = 9.13 Kg/s

Mass flow rate of water = 13.98 Kg/s
Shell outer diameter = 540 mm
Tube OD = 0.75 inch = 0.01905 m
Pitch (Triangular) = 1 inch = 0.0254 m
Tube length =2m
Shell side pressure drop = 41.86 KPa
Tube side pressure drop = 30.7 KPa
Cooler type = TEMA L or M type 1-6 Heat Exchanger
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF COOLER
Working Pressure = 0.101 N/mm2

= 1.03 Kg/cm2
Design Temperature = 150 ÛC
Design pressure = 0.1084 N/mm2
= 1.105 Kg/cm2
Shell diameter = 540 mm
The entire mechanical design is referred from the literature in PROCESS EQUIPMENT
DESIGN by M.V JOSHI.
1. SHELL THICKNESS
Material: IS 2825-1969 Grade I plain Carbon steel.
Shell thickness , (tS) = [{P x Di }/ ( 2fJ – P )]

= [{540 x 1.105 } / (2 x 950 x 0.85 – 1.105)]
= 0.37 cm
= 3.7mm
From the Table 9.2, its found that minimum shell thickness when severe
conditions are not expected is 8mm, which includes the Corrosion Allowance.
2. NOZZLES
Take inlet and outlet nozzles as 100mm diameter.
Vent nozzle = 25mm diameter

Drain nozzle = 25mm diameter
Relief Valve = 50 mm diameter.
Nozzle thickness = [ P x Di ] / { 2 f J - P }
= 3.72mm
Minimum nozzle thickness is 6mm and 8mm is choosen which includes the
corrosion allowance.
Also only the inlet and outlet nozzles need compensation. The compensation
required is minimum and is given by pads of 10mm thickness.
3. HEAD
Torispherical heads are taken for both ends.
Rc (Crown radius) = 540 mm

Rnk (knuckle radius) = 54 mm
Where,
W = (1/4) x [ 3 + (Rc / Rnk)0.5 ]
= 1.54
Head thickness = 4.836 mm

Therefore we take Head Thickness as that of the Shell Thickness = 8mm
4. TRANSVERSE BAFFLES
Number of Baffles =1
Baffle cut = 25%
Baffle thickness = 6mm (standard)
5. TIE RODS AND SPACERS
Diameter of tie rods = 10mm

Diameter of Spacers = 8mm
6. FLANGE DESIGN
Flange is ring type with plain face.

Design pressure = 0.1084 N/mm2 (external)

Bolting steel: 5% Chromium, Molybdenum Steel
Gasket Material: Asbestos
Shell OD = 0.540 m
Shell Thickness = 0.008 m (g)
Shell ID = 0.532 m
Allowable stress for flange material = 100 N/mm2

Allowable stress of bolting material = 138 N/mm2
6 (i). DETERMINATION OF GASKET WIDTH
dO/di = [(y-Pm)/(y-P(m+1))]0.5
Assume a gasket thickness of 1.6mm

Minimum design yield seating stress , y = 25.5 N/mm2
dO/di = 1.002 m
Let, di = B+10
= 0.550 m
Minimum gasket width, N = 0.550(1.002-1)/2

= 0.00055 m
= 0.55 mm
Choose N = 40 mm.
do = 0.630 m
Basic gasket seating width, bo = 40/2

= 20 mm
Effective Gasket Seating Width, b = 2.5 x [bo]0.5

= 11.18
Diameter at location of gasket load reaction G = di + N = 0.590 m
6 (ii). ESTIMATION OF BOLT LOADS
Wm1 = π b G y
= π x 2 x 590 x 25.5
= 94.53 KN
Load due to design pressure
H = πG2P/4
= 29.64 KN
where P is the design pressure
Load to keep joint tight under operation:

Hp = πG(2b)mp
= π x (590) x (4) x (2.75) x (0.1084)
= 2.210 KN
Total Operating Load,Wm2 = H+HT

= 31.85 KN
Wm1 > Wm2 Hence, the controlling load is Wm1
6 (iii). CALCULATION OF MINIMUM BOLTING AREA:
Am = Ao =W/S
= 94.53 x 103/ S
S = allowable stress for bolting material
Am = Ao = 94.53 x 103/138 = 685mm2
6 (iv). CALCULATION OF OPTIMUM BOLT SIZE.
Bolts are of 5% Cr Mo Steel
Number of bolts = G / [bo x 2.5]

= 590 / [20 x 2.5]
= 12 bolts
Diameter of bolts = [(Am / Number of bolts ) x ( 4 / π) ]1/2
= 9 mm
7. FLANGE THICKNESS
Thickness of flange , tf = [G√(p/Kf) ] + C
Where,
Hydrostatic end force, H = (π /4) G2 p
= 29.63 KN
K =1/[ 0.3 + {( 1.5 Wm hG) / (H x G)}]
hG = (B – G )/2
Where,
= 630 + 2 x 9 + 12
= 660mm
Then, hG = (B – G )/2
=0.035 m
K = 1/[ 0.3 + {( 1.5 Wm1 hG) / (H x G)}]
= 1.713
tf = [G√(p/Kf) ] + C
= 14.8 + C
= 20 mm
TUBE SIDE
Material:Stainless steel ( IS- grade 10)
Thickness of tube = tf = {P x Do} / ( 2 f J + P)
Where,
Working pressure = 12 N/mm2
Permissible Stress, f = 100.6 N/mm2
Thickness of tube = 1.24mm
Use tube with thickness of 2mm
No Corrosion allowance, since the tubes are of stainless steel.
1. TUBE SHEET
The tube sheet is held between shell flange and the channel. The joint on the shell
flange side is of male and female facing and on the channel side of ring facing,
since the pressure on the channel
Thickness of Tube Sheet , tts = FG√[(0.25 P)/f]
Where,
F = 1.25
Thickness of tube sheet = 140 mm
2. CHANNEL AND CHANNEL COVER

Material :Carbon Steel
Permissible stress,f = 95 N/mm2
For Ring type gasket

K =0.3
Thickness of channel, th =G √ [(K x P) /f ]
=125 mm
4. GASKET SIZE
Width of ring gasket, N = 22 mm

Inner diameter, Di = 0.550 m
Outer diameter, Do = 0.630 m
Gasket material: Steel Jacketed Asbestos

Minimum design seating stress, Ya = 126.6 N / mm2
Basic gasket seating width, bo =N/2
= 22 / 2
= 11 mm
Effective gasket seating width,b = 2.5 x (bo)0.5

= 8.3 mm
Mean diameter, G = ( Di + Do) / 2
= 0.590 m
Wm1 = π b G Ya
= 1948 KN
After the internal pressure is applied, the gasket which is compressed earlier, is
released to some extent and the bolt load is given by
Wm2 = π x 2 b x G x m x P + ( π / 4 )G2 P
= 6197 KN
“f ” is permissible tensile stress in bolts under atmospheric condition
Bolt Material: 5%Cr Mo Steel,

f = 140.6 N/mm2
Am = area of bolt
Am1 = Wm1 / fa
= 13855 mm2
Am2 = Wm2 / fb
= 44075 mm2
Number of bolts = (mean diameter) / bo x 2.5

= 22 bolts
To determine the size of bolts , the larger of above two areas should be considered
Diameter of bolts,Db = [( Am2 / Number of bolts ) x ( 4 / π )]1/2

= 51 mm
5. THICKNESS OF NOZZLE
Considering inlet and outlet diameter to be 100mm, then thickness of the nozzle is
given by,
Thickness of nozzle, tn = (P x Dn) / [2 x f J – P]

Permissible stress, f = 95 N/ mm2
Then,
Thickness of nozzles =10 mm
6. FLANGE THICKNESS:
Thickness of the Flange , tf = [G√(P/Kf) ] + C

Where,
Allowable stress for flange material, f = 100 N/mm2

Hydrostatic end force, H = (π /4) G2 P
= 3827 KN
K =1/[ 0.3 + {( 1.5 Wm hG) / (H x G)}]
hG = (B – G )/2
Where,
= 630 + 2 x 51 + 12
= 744 mm
Then, hG = (B – G )/2
= 77 mm
K = 1/[ 0.3 + {( 1.5 Wm2 hG) / (H x G)}]
= 1.620
Then,
tf = [G√(P/Kf) ] + C
= 158 + C
= 160 mm

SUPPORT FOR SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
Length of the heat exchanger, L = 2000 mm

Outer diameter of Shell, Do = 556 mm
Inner diameter of Shell, Di = 540 mm
Thickness of Shell, ts = 8 mm
Outer diameter of tube, do = 19.05 mm
Inner diameter of tube, di = 15.75 mm
Number of tubes, Nt = 320
Density of Steel,ρs = 7850 Kg /m3

Density of Liquid in tubes ,!l = 1000 Kg /m3
Volume of Shell body, V = (π / 4) ( Do2 – Di2 ) x L

= 0.0275 m3
Weight of Shell body, Ws = V x ρs

= 216 Kgs
Volume of Tubes, Vt = ( π / 4 ) ( do2 – di2 ) x L x Nt

= 0.0577 m3
Total Weight of Tubes, Wt = Vt x ρs

= 453 Kgs
Volume of Head, Vh = 0.087 Di3

= 0.013 m3
Weight of Head, Wh = Vh x ρs
= 102 Kgs
Weight of Liquid, Wl = ( π / 4) (di2) x L x N x ρl

= 124.6 Kgs
Total Weight, W = Ws+ Wt + Wh + Wl

= 900 Kgs
= 9.0 KN
Depth of head, H = 220 mm
Q = (W/2) x (L+4H/3)
= 10.32 KN-m
Now, we calculate,
Distance of saddle center line from shell end ,
A = 0.45 x Ri
= 0.45 x (0.540/2)
= 121.5 mm
1. LONGITUDINAL BENDING MOMENTS
Radius, R = 0.270 m
Depth of head, H = 0.220 m
The bending moment at the supports is
M1 = QA [ 1 – {(A/L)+ (R2 - H2) / 2 AL}/{1 + 4H/3L}]

= 171.68 N-m
The bending moment at the center of the span is given by

M2 = (Q L / 4)[{1+ 2 ( R2 - H2 ) / L2 }/{1+ 4H / 3L} - ( 4A / L) ]
= 3302 N-m
2. STRESS IN SHELL AT THE SADDLE
For θ =120Û
k1 = 0.107
k2 = 0.192
Thickness of shell, t = 8 mm
f1 = M1/( k1πR2 t)
= 876 x 103 N/m2
f2 = M1/( k2π R2 t)
= 488 x 103 N/m2
3. STRESS IN THE SHELL AT MID- SPAN
The stress at the mid span is f3, which is either tensile or compressive depending
on the position of the fiber. The resultant tensile stresses ( including the axial
stress due to internal pressure ) should not exceed the permissible stress, and the
resultant compressive stress should not exceed the permissible compressive stress
f3 = M2 /(πR2 t )
=1.80 x 106 N/m2
Axial Stress in Shell due to internal pressure
fp = (P x Di )/ (4 t)
= 1.829 x 106 N/m2
All combined stresses ( fp + f1 ) , ( fp + f2 ) , and ( fp + f3 ) are well within
allowable limits. Hence, the given parameters can be considered for design.
Note: This Cooler is fabricated 4 in number and are operated in parallel to take care of
the Cooling duty required in the Process.
POLLUTION COLTROL
Sulfuric Acid Mist and Sulfur Dioxide are the two main pollutants in the DCDA Process
for the manufacture of Sulfuric Acid. The Emission Standards given in the literature are:
COUNTRY SO2 LEVEL Kg/Ton ACID MIST Kg/Ton

PRODUCT ACID PRODUCT ACID
1.UNITED STATES 2.0 0.075
2.UNITED KINGDOM 3.3 -
3.WEST GERMANY 2.9 0.4
4.SWEDEN & DENMARK 5.0 0.5
5.JAPAN 0.5 to 1.0 -
6.INDIA 12.0 5.0
(200 TPD CAPACITY)
The waste gases from a contact sulfuric acid plant leaving the absorbing tower commonly
called the tail gas, consist principally of nitrogen, oxygen and small amounts of sulfur
dioxide, the amount of the latter being dependent upon the efficiency of the total plant
operation. In addition the tail gases contain sulfur trioxide and sulfuric acid as vapor and
mist. The amount of these components are normally present in small concentrations in a
well-designed and well-operated contact plant. During the start-ups and upset plant
conditions, however the concentrations can increase to an amount that constitutes a
nuisance. Since sulfur dioxide originating from many sources, is by far the most common
noxious gas which is discharged into the atmosphere, it is the first contaminant to be
singled out for attention in communities that are concerned with air pollution.
If present in sufficient concentration, it can be irritating to the throat and nasal passages
as well as injurious to vegetation. Sulfur trioxide is also an irritant gas but it immediately
forms a sulfuric acid mist with the water vapor in the atmosphere. Sulfuric acid vapor
will also immediately form a sulfuric acid mist. A very small amount of sulfuric acid will
produce an appreciable, visible plume from an acid plant stack.
On long exposures, sulfur dioxide concentrations above 0.25 ppm cause injury to
growing plants. Elimination of damage to plants from sulfur dioxide emissions by the
industry averts any hazard to humans or animals. Permissible limits for prolonged
exposure of humans are considered to be 10 ppm of sulfur dioxide, 1 ppm of sulfur
trioxide or 2-10 ppm of sulfuric acid. Nitrogen oxides are quite harmful and hence their
emissions must be kept low.
Various Processes for the treatments of tail gases are discussed below:
DISPERSAL OF WASTE GASES WITH TALL STOCKS:
Tall stacks represent by far the most common method of disposing of the tail gases of
sulfuric acid plants. The height of the stack necessary to get proper dispersion of gases
into the atmosphere in order to avoid ground air pollution will depend on the
meteorological conditions which exist at the plant location and the topography of the
terrain surrounding the plant, as well as building and structures in the immediate vicinity
of the stack. Stacks 150-200ft in height have proved satisfactory for plants where no
usual terrain or meteorological conditions exist. Stacks of more than 400ft height have
been used to deal with the problems in special instances.
SCRUBBING OF SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM WASTE GASES:
SCRUBBING WITH WATER:
Several Plants scrub the tail gas with water and report a reduction of 50-75% of sulfur
dioxide content. These plants are located where disposal of acidic waste water doesnot
present a problem.
SCRUBBING WITH SODA ASH SOLUTIONS:
Some plants scrub the tail gases with soda ash solution, producing a marketable sodium
bisulfite.
SCRUBBING WITH LIME SLURRIES:
Neutralization with lime has been employed on flue gases of powerhouses. The lime is
supplied as water suspension, and the reaction products are calcium sulfite and calcium
sulfate. The slurry of calcium sulfite and calcium sulfate crystals circulates over a grid
packed tower. Part of the circulating acid is continuously withdrawn and after passing
through an oxidizing tank, the sludge is settled out, with the clarified liquor being
returned to the circulation system.
SCRUBBING WITH SALT SOLUTIONS:
The stack gases from sulfuric acid plant are treated with a slightly alkaline, heated and
concentrated saline solution of ammonium sulfate. Oxygen added to the gases oxidizes
the products formed by the reaction of the acidic constituents in the gas with the bases in
the saline solution.
SEPARATION OF SULFURIC ACID MISTS FROM WASTE GASES:
The tail gases from contact sulfuric acid plants normally contain traces of finely divided
sulfuric acid. This sulfuric acid aeroVRO ZLWK SDUWLFOH VL]HV UDQJLQJ IURP OHVV WKDQ ò WR
DQG ODUJHU LV VSRNHQ DV DFLG PLVW 0LVW FRPSRVHG RI SDUWLFOHV RI EHWZHHQ DQG
is visible in the exit gases if present in amounts greater than about 1 mg of sulfuric acid/
cu ft of gas. The smaller the particle size of the mist, the more easily visible is the plume.
3DUWLFOHV RI VXOIXULF DFLG ODUJHU WKDQ DUH SUREDEO\ SUHVHQW DV D UHVXOW RI PHFKDQLFDO
entrainment of absorber acid but contribute little to visibility of the plume. Droplets of
this size deposit readily on the duct and stack walls, and unless the acid plant is operating
under conditions of high exit gas velocity, do not constitute an emission problem.
SOURCES OF SULFURIC ACID MISTS:
SULFUR TRIOXIDE BASED MISTS:
Exit gases containing sulfur trioxide by reason of incomplete absorbing-tower action will
form mist upon contact with atmospheric moisture. If the absorbing acid is weak or cold,
acid mist may be formed when the process gases containing sulfur trioxide enter the
absorber. If the absorbing acid strength is too strong, the partial pressure of sulfur trioxide
will increase, and sulfur trioxide will pass through the absorber. Similarly, mist may be
formed when the process gases are cooled prior to final absorption, as in the manufacture
of oleum. These mists are generally of smallest particle size and present the most difficult
control problem.
SULFURIC ACID BASED MISTS:
This mist result from the condensation of sulfuric acid vapor formed from hot absorbing
tower acid. The partial pressure of sulfuric acid vapor above the absorbing tower acid
increases with temperature and concentration of absorber acid. While the amount of
sulfuric acid vapor is small under normal operating conditions, it may be sufficient to
produce a visible mist.
WATER BASED MISTS:
This mist is formed as a result of the presence of water vapor in the process gases fed to
the converter. Poor drying-tower performance is a common contributor; efficient drying
tower operation should reduce the moisture loading to 5.0 mg/cu ft or less, and no
sulfuric acid entrainment. In sulfur burning plants, mist may be formed from water
resulting from the combustion of hydrocarbon impurities in the sulfur. In acid sludge-
regeneration plants, mists formed in the wet purification system are not completely
removed in the electrostatic precipitators. These mists will pass through the drying tower
and although they are volatilized at converter temperature, will reform when the gases are
cooled in the absorption tower. Obviously, steam or water leaks into the system
contribute to the formation of this type of mist.
EQUIPMENT FOR MIST REMOVAL:
MECHANICAL COALESCERS:
Acid mists (except those of the smallest particle size such as result from oleum producing
plant) have been successfully removed by wire-mesh filters and porous ceramic filters.
CYCLONE SEPARATORS, BAFFLES, VANE TYPE SEPARATORS:
Cyclone separators and simple baffles are not effective in coalescing particles much
smaller than 5 7KXV DOWKRXJK FRQVLGHUDEOH DFLG PLVW PD\ EH UHPRYHG WKH YLVLELOLW\ RI
the stack plume is not greatly affected, since the smallest particles contribute most to
visibility. A “Karbate” Vane-type separator, which operates at relatively high gas
velocity and this makes better use of particles kinetic energy, has been found to be
moderately effective in reducing the visibility of the stack plume from a contact plant
having a wet purification system.
PACKED BED SEPARATORS:
These devices employ particles of sand and coke or fibers of glass or metal, which
intercept the mist particles or cause the coalescence by reason of high turbulence in the
small spaces between the packing. Large filter units packed with layers of closely sized
coke have been used for removing the acid mist.
WIRE-MESH MIST ELIMINATORS:
Wire-mesh mist eliminators are usually employed in two stages. The stages are separated
in the vertical duct by several feet. The lower high-density stage acts as a coalescer, while
the re-entrained coalesced particles are removed in the upper stage. Superficial gas
velocities through these units range from 11-18 ft/s. Below 11ft/s the particle’s kinetic
energy is apparently too low to promote coalescence, and re-entrainment becomes a
problem at the higher velocities. The gas pressure drop through the unit is in the order of
3inch of water. Since the collected mist consists of strong sulfuric acid, possibilities of
corrosion must be considered when selecting the wire mesh material.
CERAMIC FILTERS:
Porous ceramic filter tubes several feet in length and several inches in diameter, with a
wall thickness of about ê LQFK KDYH SURYHG KLJKO\ VXFFHVVIXO LQ UHPRYLQJ WKH DFLG PLVW
The tubes are mounted in horizontal tube sheet. The uppermost ends are open, and the
bottom ends are closed. Process gases flow downward into the tubes and pass out through
the porous walls. Considerably more filtering area is required for the ceramic filter tube
than for the wire mesh. The filter tubes are composed of small regular particles of
alumina or similar refractory fused with a binder into a porous condition. Tube breakage
is a source of trouble with this equipment, so that maintenance costs are higher than for
the wire-mesh filter.
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR:
The electrical precipitators of the pipe treater type are extensively used to remove sulfuric
acid mist particles from the cold sulfur dioxide gas stream of wet purification process.
The same type of equipment has been used for treating sulfuric acid tail gases.
SONIC AGGLOMERATORS:
Sonic agglomerators operate on the principle that sound waves cause smaller particles in
an aerosol to vibrate and thereby coalesce into particles several times larger than the
original particle. These larger particles can then be removed from the gas stream by use
of conventional cyclones. Since some of the sound frequencies are in the audible range,
this nuisance factor must be taken into consideration.
COST ESTIMATION AND ECONOMICS
Given in the literature is the cost versus size Nomograph, from which the cost of
Sulfuric Acid Plant within the capacity between 50 – 500 TPD can be calculated.
The cost for 500 TPD plant with Chemical Engineering Cost Index (CE) =130 (Basis
= 1957 -59; CE = 100) is as follows:
Cost for 500 TPD = Rs. 5.25 x 107 /-
As we know that, from the relation,
C = [a x S] n
Where, ‘ C ’ is the cost in Rupees

‘ S ’ is the size of the plant in TPD
‘ a ’ is a constant.
‘ n ’ is the Exponential Factor
We can then write,
[ C1 / C2 ] = [ S1 / S2 ] n
Now with S1 = 500 TPD

C1 = Rs. 5.25 x 107 /-
n = 0.65
S2 = 1000 TPD
C2 = To be found out for year 1971
Substituting in the above equation we have,
C2 = Rs. 8, 23, 81, 330 /-
Obtained from one of the Internet sites, that Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index
are given as:
Cost index in 1971 = 132

Cost index in 2002 = 402
Thus,
Present Cost of Plant = (Original Cost) x (Present Cost Index) / (Past Cost Index)
= (8,23,81,330 /-) x (402/132) = Rs. 254.8 x 106 /-
Capital Investment = Rs. 254.8 x 106 /-

ESTIMATION OF CAPITAL INVESTMENT COST:
DIRECT COSTS:
Material and labour involved in actual installation of complete facility (70-85% of

fixed-capital investment)
a) Equipment + installation + instrumentation + piping + electrical + insulation +

painting (50-60% of Fixed-capital investment)
a. Purchased equipment cost (PEC):

RANGE = 15-40% of Fixed-Capital Investment
Let Purchased Equipment Cost = 20% of Fixed-Capital Investment
PEC = 20% of Rs. 254.8 x 106 /-
= Rs. 50.96 x 106 /-
b. Installation, including insulation and painting (IC):

RANGE = 25-55% of Purchased Equipment Cost.
Let Installation Cost = 40% of Purchased Equipment Cost
IC = 40% of Rs. 50.96 x 106 /-
= Rs. 20.384 x 106
c. Instrumentation and controls, installed (ICC):

RANGE = 6-30% of Purchased Equipment Cost.
Let Instrumentation Cost = 20% of Purchased Equipment Cost
ICC = 20% of x Rs. 50.96 x 106 /-
= Rs. 10.192 x 106 /-
d. Piping Installed (PC):

RANGE = 10-80% of Purchased Equipment Cost
Let Piping Cost = 45% of Purchased Equipment Cost
PC = 45% x Rs. 50.96 x 106 /-
= Rs. 22.932 x 106 /-
e. Electrical, installed (EC):

Let Electrical cost = 25% of Purchased Equipment Cost
EC = 25% x Rs. 50.96 x 106 /-
= Rs. 12.74 x 106 /-
Buildings, process and Auxiliary (BPC):

Let Buildings, process and auxiliary cost = 50% of Purchased Equipment Cost
BPC = 50% x Rs. 50.96 x 106 /-
= Rs. 25.48 x 106 /-
Service facilities and yard improvements (SF & YIC):
Let Facilities and yard improvement cost = 70% of Purchased Equipment Cost
SF & YIC = 70% x Rs. 50.96 x 106 /-
= Rs. 35.67 x 106 /-
Land (LC):
Let the cost of land = 6 % of Purchased Equipment Cost
LC = 6 % x Rs. 50.96 x 106 /-
= Rs. 3.0576 x 106 /-
Thus, Total Direct cost = Rs. 181.4156 x 106 /-
Indirect Costs (IC):
Expenses which are not directly involved with material and labour of actual
installation of complete facility (15-30% of Fixed-capital investment)
1. Engineering and Supervision (E & SC):

RANGE = 5-30% of Direct costs
Let the cost of engineering and supervision = 20% of Direct costs
E & SC = 20% x Rs. 181.4156 x 106 /-
= Rs. 36.283 x 106 /-
2. Construction Expense and Contractor’s fee (CE & CC):

RANGE = 6-30% of Direct costs
Let construction expense & contractor’s fee = 20% of Direct costs
CE & CC = 20% x Rs. 181.4156 x 106 /-
= Rs. 36.283 x 106 /-
3. Contingency (CC):
RANGE = 5-15% of Fixed-Capital Investment
Let the contingency cost = 7% of Fixed-Capital Investment
CC = 7% x Rs. 254.8 x 106 /-
= Rs. 18.14 x 106 /-
Thus, Indirect Costs = Rs. 90.706 x 106 /-
Fixed Capital Investment (FCI):
Fixed Capital Investment = Direct Costs + Indirect Costs

= Rs 272.1216 x 106 /-
Working Capital (WC):
RANGE = (10-20% of Total Capital Investment)
Let the Working Capital = 20 % of Total Capital Investment
Total Capital Investment (TCI):
Total capital investment = Fixed-Capital Investment + Working Capital

TCI = F C I + 0.2 x T C I
TCI = Rs [ 272.1216 x 106 /- ] / 0.8
= Rs 340.152 x 106 /-
ESTIMATION OF TOTAL PRODUCT COST:

Manufacturing Cost
Manufacturing cost is the sum of Direct Production Cost, Fixed Charges and Plant
Overhead Cost.
Fixed Charges (FC):

RANGE = 10-20% Total Product Cost
Depreciation (DC:
RANGE = Depends on life period, Salvage Value
and method of calculation-about 10% of
FCI for Machinery & Equipment, 2-3%
for Building Value for Buildings.
Let us consider Depreciation Cost = 10% of Fixed Capital Investment for

Machinery & Equipment and 2.5 % for
Building Value for Buildings.
DC = 27.21 x 106 + 0.637 x 106

= Rs. 27.847 x 106 /-
Local Taxes (LT):

RANGE = 1-4% of Fixed Capital Investment
Let the local taxes = 2% of Fixed Capital Investment
LT = 2% x Rs. 272.1216 x 106 /-
= Rs. 5.4424 x 106 /-
Insurance (InC):
RANGE = 0.4-1% of Fixed Capital Investment
Let the Insurance Cost = 0.6% of Fixed Capital Investment
InC = 0.6% x Rs. 272.1216 x 106 /-
= Rs. 1.6327 x 106 /-
Then, Total Fixed Charges = Rs. 34.9224 x 106 /-

Fixed Charges (FC):
RANGE = 10-20% of Total Product Cost
Let the fixed charges = 15% of Total Product Cost
Then Total Product Cost = Rs. 232.81 x 106 /-
Direct Production Cost:

Raw Materials (RMC):
Let the cost of raw materials = 40% of Total Product Cost
RMC = 40% x Rs. 232.81 x 106 /-
= Rs. 93.1252 x 106 /-
Operating Labour (OLC):

Let the cost of operating labour = 12% of Total Product Cost
OLC = 12% x Rs. 232.81 x 106 /-
= Rs. 27.937 x 106 /-
Direct Supervisory and Clerical Labour (DS & CLC):

RANGE = 10-25% of Operating Labour
Let the above mentioned cost = 15% of Operating Labour
DS & CLC = 15% x Rs. 27.937 x 106 /-
= Rs. 4.1905 x 106 /-
Utilities (UC):
Let the Cost of Utilities = 14% of Total Product Cost
UC = 14% x Rs. 232.81 x 106 /-
= Rs. 32.6 x 106 /-
Maintenance and Repairs (M & RC):

RANGE = 2-10% of Fixed Capital Investment
Let the Maintenance and Repair Cost = 5% of Fixed Capital Investment
M & RC = 5% x Rs. 272.1216 x 106 /-
= Rs. 13.6061 x 106 /-
Operating Supplies (OSC):

RANGE = 10-20% of Maintenance & Repairs
Let the Cost of Operating Supplies = 13% of Maintenance & Repairs
OSC = 13% x Rs. 13.6061 x 106 /-
= Rs. 1.7687 x 106 /-
Laboratory Charges (LCC):

RANGE = 10-20% of Operating Labour Charges
Let the Laboratory charges = 15% of Operating Labour Charges
LCC = 15% x Rs. 27.937 x 106 /-
= Rs. 4.19055 x 106 /-
Patent and Royalties (P & RC):
Let the cost of Patent and royalties = 3% of Total Product Cost
P & RC = 3% x Rs. 232.81 x 106 /-
= Rs. 6.9843 x 106 /-
Thus, Total Direct Production Cost = Rs. 184.396 x 106 /-
Plant OverHead Cost (POHC):

RANGE = 50-70% of the Operating labour,
supervision, maintenance or 5-15% of
total product cost; includes for the
following: general plant upkeep and
overhead, payroll overhead, packaging,
medical services, safety and protection,
restaurants, recreation, salvage,
laboratories, and storage facilities.
Let the plant overhead cost = 10% Total Product Cost

POHC = 10% of Rs. 232.81 x 106 /-
= Rs. 23.281 x 106 /-
Thus,
Manufacturing Cost = Direct Production cost + Fixed charges + Plant Overhead cost
= Rs. [184.396 x 106 /- + 34.9224 x 106 /- + 23.281 x 106 /-]
= Rs 242.5994 x 106 /-
General Expenses
General Expenses is the sum of Administrative Costs, Distribution and Selling Cost
and Research and Development Costs.
Administrative costs (AC):

Let the Administrative costs = 4% of Total Product Cost
AC = 4% x Rs. 232.81 x 106 /-
= Rs. 9.3124 x 106 /-
Distribution and Selling Costs (D & SC):

RANGE = 2-20% of Total Product Cost which
includes costs for sales offices, salesmen,
shipping, and advertising.
Let the Distribution and selling costs = 15% of Total Product Cost
D & SC = 18% x Rs. 232.81 x 106 /-
= Rs. 41.9058 x 106 /-
Research and Development costs (R & DC):
RANGE = 5% of Total Product Cost
Let the Research and development costs = 5% of Total Product Cost
R & DC = 5% x Rs. 232.81 x 106 /-
= Rs. 11.64 x 106 /-
Financing (interest) (FC):

RANGE = 0-10% of Total Capital Investment
Let the interest = 6% of Total Capital Investment
FC = 6% x Rs 340.152 x 106 /-
= Rs. 20.409 x 106 /-
Thus,
Total General Expenses = Rs 83.2672 x 106 /-
Total Product cost = Manufacturing Cost + Total General Expenses

= Rs 242.5994 x 106 /- + Rs 83.2672 x 106 /-
= Rs. 325.8653 x 106 /-
Gross Earnings/Income:
Market Selling Price of Sulfuric Acid per ton = US$ 30
Conversion: 1 USD = Rs. 48 /-
Total Income = Selling price × Quantity of product manufactured

= 30 x 48 x 1000 (T/day) × 320 (days/year)
= Rs. 460.8 x 106 /-
Gross Income = Total Income – Total Product Cost

= Rs. 460.8 x 106 /- – Rs. 325.8653 x 106 /-
= Rs. 134.94 x 106 /-
As available in the literature that the Tax rate is generally taken as 45%
Taxes = 45% of Gross Income

= 45% x 134.94 x 106 /-
= 60.7230 x 106 /-
Net Profit = [ Gross income – Taxes ]

= Rs. [134.94 x 106 /- – 60.7230 x 106 /-]
= Rs. 74.217 x 106 /-
Rate of Return:
Rate of Return = [Net profit×100]/Total Capital Investment

= Rs. [ {74.217 x 106 /- x 100}/ Rs 340.152 x 106 /- ]
= 21.8 %
Break-Even Analysis:
Data that are available for the determination of Break Even Analysis are:
Annual Direct Production Cost = Rs 184.396 x 106 /-

Annual General Expenses & Over Head Expenses = Rs. 106.547 x 106 /-
Total Annual sales = Rs. 460.8 x 106 /-
Direct Production Cost per Ton of Sulfuric Acid = 184.39 x106 x 1440/460.8 x106
= Rs.576.23/ Ton
Let ‘B’ TPA be the Break-Even Production Rate.
Break-Even Point Production is given by
(106.547 x 106) + (576.23 x B) = (1440 x B)
Solving for B, we have,
B = 123352 Tons/yr
= 385 TPD
Hence, the Break-Even Point Production Rate is 385 TPD and this value is 38.5% of
the designed Sulfuric Plant Capacity.
Thus the Economic Aspects of 1000 TPD Sulfuric Acid Plant is detailed out.
PLANT LOCATION AND SITE SELECTON
The geographical location of the final plant can have strong influence on the success of
the industrial venture. Considerable care must be exercised in selecting the plant site, and
many different factors must be considered. Primarily the plant must be located where the
minimum cost of production and distribution can be obtained but, other factors such as
room for expansion and safe living conditions for plant operation as well as the
surrounding community are also important. The location of the plant can also have a
crucial effect on the profitability of a project.
The choice of the final site should first be based on a complete survey of the advantages
and disadvantages of various geographical areas and ultimately, on the advantages and
disadvantages of the available real estate. The various principal factors that must be
considered while selecting a suitable plant site, are briefly discussed in this section. The
factors to be considered are:
1. Raw material availability.

2. Location (with respect to the marketing area.)
3. Availability of suitable land.
4. Transport facilities.
5. Availability of labors.
6. Availability of utilities (Water, Electricity).
7. Environmental impact and effluent disposal.
8. Local community considerations.
9. Climate.
10. Political strategic considerations.
11. Taxations and legal restrictions
RAW MATERIALS AVAILABILITY:
The source of raw materials is one of the most important factors influencing the selection
of a plant site. This is particularly true for the sulfuric acid plant because large volumes
of sulfur is consumed in the process which will result in the reduction of the
transportation and storage charges. Attention should be given to the purchased price of
the raw materials, distance from the source of supply, freight and transportation expenses,
availability and reliability of supply, purity of raw materials and storage requirements.
LOCATION:
The location of markets or intermediate distribution centers affects the cost of product
distribution and time required for shipping. Proximity to the major markets is an
important consideration in the selection of the plant site, because the buyer usually finds
advantageous to purchase from near-by sources. In case of sulfuric acid plant, the major
consumers are fertilizer industries and hence the plant should be erected in close
proximity to those units.
AVAILABILITY OF SUITABLE LAND:
The characteristics of the land at the proposed plant site should be examined carefully.
The topography of the tract of land structure must be considered, since either or both may
have a pronounced effect on the construction costs. The cost of the land is important, as
well as local building costs and living conditions. Future changes may make it desirable
or necessary to expand the plant facilities. The land should be ideally flat, well drained
and have load-bearing characteristics. A full site evaluation should be made to determine
the need for piling or other special foundations
TRANSPORT
The transport of materials and products to and from plant will be an overriding
consideration in site selection. If practicable, a site should be selected so that it is close to
at least two major forms of transport: road, rail, waterway or a seaport. Road transport is
being increasingly used, and is suitable for local distribution from a central warehouse.
Rail transport will be cheaper for the long-distance transport. If possible the plant site
should have access to all three types of transportation. There is usually need for
convenient rail and air transportation facilities between the plant and the main company
head quarters, and the effective transportation facilities for the plant personnel are
necessary.
AVAILABILITY OF LABORS:
Labors will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled construction
workers will usually be brought in from outside the site, but there should be an adequate
pool of unskilled labors available locally; and labors suitable for training to operate the
plant. Skilled tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance. Local trade union customs
and restrictive practices will have to be considered when assessing the availability and
suitability of the labors for recruitment and training.
AVAILABILITY OF UTILITIES:
The word “utilities” is generally used for the ancillary services needed in the operation of
any production process. These services will normally be supplied from a central facility
and includes Water, Fuel and Electricity which are briefly described as follows:
Water: -
The water is required for large industrial as well as general purposes, starting with water
for cooling, washing, steam generation and as a raw material in the production of sulfuric
acid. The plant therefore must be located where a dependable water supply is available
namely lakes, rivers, wells, seas. If the water supply shows seasonal fluctuations, it’s
desirable to construct a reservoir or to drill several standby wells. The temperature,
mineral content, slit and sand content, bacteriological content, and cost for supply and
purification treatment must also be considered when choosing a water supply. De-
mineralized water, from which all the minerals have been removed is used where pure
water is needed for the process use, in boiler feed. Natural and forced draft cooling
towers are generally used to provide the cooling water required on site.
Electricity: -
Power and steam requirements are high in most industrial plants and fuel is ordinarily
required to supply these utilities. Power, fuel and steam are required for running the
various equipments like generators, motors, turbines, plant lightings and general use and
thus be considered as one major factor is choice of plant site.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND EFFLUENT DISPOSAL:
Facilities must be provided for the effective disposal of the effluent without any public
nuisance. In choosing a plant site, the permissible tolerance levels for various effluents
should be considered and attention should be given to potential requirements for
additional waste treatment facilities. As all industrial processes produce waste products,
full consideration must be given to the difficulties and coat of their disposal. The disposal
of toxic and harmful effluents will be covered by local regulations, and the appropriate
authorities must be consulted during the initial site survey to determine the standards that
must be met.
LOCAL COMMUNITY CONSIDERATIONS:
The proposed plant must fit in with and be acceptable to the local community. Full
consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not impose a
significant additional risk to the community.
CLIMATE
Adverse climatic conditions at site will increase costs. Extremes of low temperatures will
require the provision of additional insulation and special heating for equipment and
piping. Similarly, excessive humidity and hot temperatures pose serious problems and
must be considered for selecting a site for the plant. Stronger structures will be needed at
locations subject to high wind loads or earthquakes.
POLITICAL AND STRATEGIC CONSIDERATIONS
Capital grants, tax concessions, and other inducements are often given by governments to
direct new investment to preferred locations; such as areas of high unemployment. The
availability of such grants can be the overriding consideration in site selection.
TAXATION AND LEGAL RESTRICTIONS:
State and local tax rates on property income, unemployment insurance, and similar items
vary from one location to another. Similarly, local regulations on zoning, building codes,
nuisance aspects and others facilities can have a major influence on the final choice of the
plant site.
PLANT LAY OUT
After the flow process diagrams are completed and before detailed piping, structural and
electrical design can begin, the layout of process units in a plant and the equipment
within these process unit must be planned. This layout can play an important part in
determining construction and manufacturing costs, and thus must be planned carefully
with attention being given to future problems that may arise.
Thus the economic construction and efficient operation of a process unit will depend on
how well the plant and equipment specified on the process flow sheet is laid out. The
principal factors that are considered are listed below:
1. Economic considerations: construction and operating costs.

2. Process requirements.
3. Convenience of operation.
4. Convenience of maintenance.
5. Health and Safety considerations.
6. Future plant expansion.
7. Modular construction.
8. Waste disposal requirements
COSTS:
The coat of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives the shortest
run of connecting pipe between equipment, and least amount of structural steel work.
However, this will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation and
maintenance.
PROCESS REQUIREMENTS:
An example of the need to take into account process consideration is the need to elevate
the base of columns to provide the necessary net positive suction head to a pump.
CONVENIENCE OF OPERATION:
Equipment that needs to have frequent attention should be located convenient to the
control room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at convenient
positions and heights. Sufficient working space and headroom must be provided to allow
easy access to equipment.
CONVENIENCE OF MAINTENANCE:
Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can be easily withdrawn for
cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalyst or
packing should be located on the out side of buildings. Equipment that requires
dismantling for maintenance, such as compressors and large pumps, should be places
under cover.
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and confine the
effects of an explosion. At least two escape routes for operators must be provided from
each level in process buildings.
FUTURE PLANT EXPANSION:
Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any future
expansion of the process. Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs, and service
pipes over-sized to allow for future requirements.
MODULAR CONSTRUCTION:
In recent years there has been a move to assemble sections of plant at the plant
manufacturer’s site. These modules will include the equipment, structural steel, piping
and instrumentation. The modules are then transported to the plant site, by road or sea.
The advantages of modular construction are:
1. Improved quality control.

2. Reduced construction cost.
3. Less need for skilled labors on site.
The disadvantages of modular construction are:
1. Higher design costs & more structural steel work.

2. More flanged constructions & possible problems with assembly, on site.
THE PLANT LAYOUT KEYWORDS
1. Raw material Storage

2. Maintenance Workshop
3. Process Site
4. Stores for maintenance and operating supplies
5. Product Storage
6. Canteen & Change house
7. Fire Station and Fire Brigade
7. Central Control Room
8. Security office
9. Administrative Building
10. Site for Expansion project
11. Effluent treatment plant
12. Power house
13. Emergency water storage
14. Plant utilities
15. Vehicle parking space
16. Library and Laboratories
17. Training Centre
18. Research and Development Centre
19. Green Belt Area
A detailed plant layout is drawn and submitted with this thesis report. This plant layout is
just a reference plant layout. There may be a lot of changes in actual plant layout.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. CHEMICAL PROCESS INDUSTRIES

AUTHOR: SHREVE AND BRINK
Mc GRAW HILL PUBLICATION
2. THE MANUFACTURE OF SULFURIC ACID

AUTHOR: WERNER W. DECKER ; JAMES R WEST
REINHOLD PUBLISHING CORPORATION
3. CHEMICAL REACTOR DESIGN FOR PROCESS PLANTS

AUTHOR: HOWARD F. RASE
VOL – II , JOHN WILY & SONS
4. PERRY’S CHEMICAL ENGINEERS’ HAND BOOK

AUTHOR: R. H. PERRY AND DON W. GREEN
Mc GRAW HILL INTERNATIONAL EDITION, VOLUME - 6
5. INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL ENGG KINETICS & REACTOR

DESIGN
AUTHOR: CHARLES G. HILL
JOHN WILEY & SONS
6. COULSON AND RICHARDSON’S CHEMICAL ENGINEERING SERIES

AUTHOR: R. K. SINNOTT
BUTTER WORTH-HEINEMANN, 3RD EDITION, VOLUME – 6
7. INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL EQUIPMENT DESIGN

AUTHOR: BHATTACHARYA B. C.
8. INDIAN STANDARD CODE FOR UNFIRED PRESSURE VESSELS

IS : 2825 – 1969
INDIAN STANDARD INSTITUTION
9. ABSORPTION, DISTILLATION AND COOLING TOWERS

AUTHOR: NORMAN W. S.
10. APPLIED PROCESS DESIGN

AUTHOR: LUDWIG E. E
11. PLANT DESIGN AND ECONOMICS FOR CHEMICAL ENGINEERS

AUTHOR : MAX S. PETERS AND KLAUS TIMMERHAUS
MC-GRAW HILL BOOK COMPANY, 3RD EDITION
12. PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN
AUTHOR: JOSHI M .V
MC-MILLAN INDIA LTD, 2ND EDITION
13. DRYDEN’S OUTLINES OF CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY

AUTHOR: M. GOPALA RAO AND MARSHALL SITTIG
EAST-WEST PRESS

Producción Del Ácido Sulfúrico

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Production of Sulfuric Acid

In 1746, Roebuck of Birmingham, England produced successfully on commercial scale

PHASES MELTING POINTS

ALPHA SO3 62.3 ÛC

EMPIRICAL FORMULA H2SO4

Standard strengths available in the market are listed below:-

SPECIFIC GRAVITY – 1.250 33.33%

GRADES OF SULFURIC ACID:-

CHEMICAL COMMERCIAL E-GRADE, FEDERAL

1. Lead Chamber Process:

Lead Chamber Process:

Advantages of the V2O5 catalyst

1. Relatively immune to poisons.

Disadvantages of V2O5 catalyst

THE PRODUCTION OF SULFURIC ACID BY CONTACT PROCESS:

The equations governing the production of sulfuric acid are:

S + O2 SO2 û+ -70 KCal

SO3 + H2O H2SO4 û+ -32 Kcal

The quantity of air is regulated to give between 8 to 10% SO2.

THE WASTE HEAT BOILER:

The equilibrium is given by

A graph showing KP plotted against temperature is given in the figure below:

Thus the recovery in a DCDA plant should atleast be 99.8%.

THE TAIL GAS:

Operation of the sulfuric acid plant has some advantages,

1. The equipment is smaller and less expensive

TO DESIGN A 1000TPD CAPACITY H2SO4 ACID PLANT

PRODUCT WHICH IS TO BE MANUFACTURED IS ASSUMED TO HAVE

Kmoles of Sulfuric acid to be produced = 40833.34 / 98

It’s assumed that overall absorption of the acid is 100 %

Then, SO3 required = 416.667 / 1.0

Then SO2 required= 416.67 / 0.998

Assuming 100% combustion of Sulfur,

Then S required = 417.5 Kmoles/Hr

Amount of oxygen required to convert 1Kmole of S to SO3 = 1.5 Kmoles

Then, amount of Oxygen required = 417.51 x 1.5

Using 40% excess,

O2 required = 626.26 x 1.4

Dry air in = (876.76 x 100)/ 21

Humidity as calculated from the psychometric chart is,

Then, water entering with dry air = 4175 x 29 x 0.0165

Total weight of entering air = 4175 x 29 + 110.980 x 18

0.02 x R + 1998 = S x 0.03 (1)

R x 0.98 = S x 0.97 (2)

Solving the above equations

Moles of Sulfur coming in = 417.51 Kmoles

As mentioned before we have assumed 100% combustion of sulphur,

Sulfur Dioxide Formed = 417.51 Kmoles

As cited in the reference by author NORMAN SHREVE et al Pg 337, the

COMPONENT I STAGE II STAGE III STAGE

Components: SO2 INLET = 108.55 Kmoles

N2 INLET = 3298.3 Kmoles

O2 INLET = 304.78 Kmoles

SO3 INLET = 308.95 Kmoles

And available in the reference by author NORMAN SHREVE et al Pg

Let X1 = Moles of SO2

The above equation is once again mentioned in the literature.

Calculating the value of the unknown X4, we have, with KP = 270.2, we

Then Moles of SO3 removed in the interpass absorber is given as =

SO3 + H2O H2SO4

As from the stoichiometric coefficients of the reaction given, we can find

Let X1 be the Kgs/hr of the fed to the tower acid

N2 = 3298.3 98% H2SO4

Heat Input – +HDW 2XWSXW P (A)

>P [ &p x (601 – 25)] O2, N2, SO2, SO3

>P [ &p x (438 – 25)] O2, N2, SO2, SO3

7KHQ ZLWK = 2442.5 x 103 J/Kg

– Latent heat at the base temperature.

Schimidt Number (NSc) mix >!G) x (D)]

Reynolds Number (NRe) >!G x d x VP@ mix)