I.

NUMBERS

❶ Sets

A set is any collection of M into a whole of definite, distinct objects m (which are called the ‘elements of M’) of our
perception or of our thought.

A set is well-defined if it can be determined whether a given element belongs to the set or not.

Methods of Describing Sets

• Verbal or Word Description. Sentences are used to describe sets.
• Roster or Listing. The elements of the set being described are simply listed down, separated from each
other by commas and enclosed within a pair of braces. Each element is written only once.
• Set Builder Notation or Rule Method. A variable or symbol is used to represent each element of the given
set. The variable followed by a slash symbol or vertical line and a description, are enclosed within a pair of
braces. The description states the property that each element must have to belong to the set.

The cardinality (n) of a set N is the number of elements of N.

Empty or Null sets are sets with no elements or zero cardinality and are denoted by the symbols or { }.

An infinite set is a set which contains an infinite cardinality. If the elements of a set are listed one after the other
and the process eventually “run out” of elements to list, then the set has finite number of elements and so, is
called the finite set.

A set consisting of only one element is called a singleton set or singlet. The cardinality of the singleton set is 1.

A universal set is a set which contains the elements of all sets being considered in a certain discussion.

Two sets A and B are said to be equal if their elements are exactly the same; this is denoted by A = B.

If the elements of set A can be put into a one-to-one correspondence with the elements of set B, then set A and
set B are called equivalent sets; this is denoted by AB or A~B. Simply said, equivalent sets have the same
cardinality.

Set B is a subset of A, if the elements of B are also elements of A. In symbols, B A.

A superset is a set that contains all the elements of another set. More formally, set A is a superset f set B, if and
only if, all elements contained in B are also contained in A. This would be written A B.

The power set of a set S can be defined as the set of all the subsets of S.

Sets with common elements are called joint sets; otherwise they are called disjoint sets.

If sets A and B have no elements in common, then they are called disjoint sets, in symbols, A C = .
The union of two sets A and B is the set of all elements which belong to either A or B or both. This is denoted in
symbol as A B.

The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of all elements which belong to both A and B. This is denoted in
symbol by
A B.

The complement of set A in a given universal set U is the set of all elements that are in U but not in A. This is
denoted in symbol as A’ and read as “A complement” or “A prime”.

The set difference of a set A and a set B are the elements of A which are not in B.

The Venn diagram is a method of showing relationships among sets using a rectangle, which represents the
universal set, and circles which represent the sets being considered. This method is named after the English
mathematician and logician John Venn (1834-1923).

❷ Real Number System

The natural numbers are the counting numbers or the positive integers 1,2,3, and so on. The set of natural
numbers is written N = {1,2,3,…}

The whole numbers are the cardinal numbers of finite sets; that is, the numbers of elements in finite sets. If A ~
{1,2,3,…,m} then n(A) = m, and n ({ }) = 0, where n (A) denotes the cardinality of set A. The set of whole numbers is
written W = {0,1,2,3,…}.

The positive integers (Z+) are the natural numbers. The negative integers (Z-)are the numbers -1, -2, -3, …, where –
s is defined by the equality s + (-s) = (-s) + s = 0. The integers (Z) consist of the positive integers, the negative
integers, and zero.

A rational number (R) is a number that can be represented by a fraction , where a and b are integers, b0.

An irrational number (IR) is a real number that cannot be expressed as the quotient of two integers; it is named
by non-terminating, non-repeating decimal.

❸ Number Theory

If a and b are whole numbers with b0 and there is a whole number q such that a = bq, we say that b divides a. We
also say that b is a factor of a or a divisor of a and that a is a multiple of b. If b divides a and b is less than a, it is
called a proper divisor of a.
A natural number that possesses exactly two different factors, itself and 1, is called a prime number. A natural
number that possesses more than two different factors is called a composite number. The number 1 is called a
unit; it is neither prime nor composite.

Simple Product Form of the Fundamental Theory of Arithmetic: Every natural number greater than 1 can be
expressed as a product of primes in one and only one way.

Let n be a natural number. The 4 divides n if, and only if, n, 4 divides the number named by the last 2 digits of n.
Similarly, 8 divides n if, and only if, 8 divides the number named by the last three digits of n. In general, 2r divides n
if, and only if, 2r divides the number named by the last r digits of n.

A natural number is divisible by 3 if, and only if, the sum of its digits is divisible by 3. Similarly, a natural number is
divisible by 9 if, and only if, the sum of its digits is divisible by 9.

Let n be a natural number. Then n is divisible by 2 if, and only if, it is even, that is, its units digit is 0,2,4,6,8.
Similarly, n is divisible by 5 if, and only if, its units digit is 0 or 5.

Let a and b be natural numbers with no common factor other than 1. Then if a divides c and b divides c, it follows
that ab divides c.

Let n be a natural number. By the Divisibility Product Theorem, n is divisible by 10 if, and only if, 2 and 5 divide n;
that is if, and only if, the units digit of n is 0.

Let n be a natural number. By the Divisibility Product Theorem, n is divisible by 6 if, and only if, 2 and 3 divide n.

Let n be a natural number. By the Divisibility Product Theorem, n is divisible by 12 if, and only if, 3 and 4 divide n.

A natural number is divisible by 11 if, and only if, the difference of the sums of the digits in the even and odd
positions in the number is divisible by 11.

If n, a, b are natural numbers and n divides both a and b, then n divides both a + b and a – b.
Let m and n be natural numbers. The greatest natural number d that divides both m and n is called their greatest
common factor (GCF).

Let a and b be natural numbers. The least natural number m that is a multiple of both a and b is called their least
common multiple (LCM).

❹ Fractions

A fraction is a part of a whole. It is expressed as where b0. The numerator, a, is the part being considered while b
is called the denominator and tells the total number of elements or members of the set.

A fraction is proper if its value is less than 1. When its value is greater than or equal to 1, it is called improper. A
whole number and a proper fraction indicating a whole number plus a part of a whole is called a mixed number
while fractions whose numerators are 1 are called unit fractions.
Two or more fractions with the same denominators are called similar fractions otherwise, they are called
dissimilar fractions.

A fraction is in its simplest form if the numerator and denominator are relatively prime, that is, the GCF of the
numerator and denominator is 1.

When two fractions represent the same part of a whole they are called equivalent fractions. It means that their
cross products are equal or their lowest terms are the same.

To add or subtract similar fractions:

• Add or subtract the numerators.
• Retain the denominator.
• Simplify the resulting fraction if possible.

To add or subtract dissimilar fractions:

• Find the LCD.
• Divide the LCD by the denominator of one term and then multiply it by that term’s numerator.
• Do step 2 to all the terms that are being added or subtracted.
• Perform the addition or subtraction of terms.
• Simplify the resulting fraction if possible.

To multiply fractions:
• Multiply the numerators to get the numerator of the product.
• Multiply the denominators to get the denominator of the product.
• Simplify the resulting fraction if possible.

To multiply mixed numbers, simply express the mixed numbers as improper fractions before proceeding to
ordinary multiplication.

To divide fractions:
• Get the reciprocal of the divisor.
• Change the operation to multiplication.
• Proceed with the multiplication of the factors.
• Simplify the resulting fraction if possible.

❺ Decimals

A fraction can be thought of as a divided by b. It can be written as a decimal by using long division to divide a by b.
If the division stops because the remainder is zero, then the decimal form of the number is a terminating decimal.

If the long division process does not terminate, then it leads to a digit or a group of digits that repeats over and
over. In this case, the decimal form of the number is a repeating decimal.
The word decimal really means based on 10. It comes from the Latin word “decimal” which means a tenth part.
Though the set of whole numbers is a subset of decimals, but by decimal number we usually mean a number with
a decimal point and decimal places.

To add or subtract decimals:

• Write the numbers in a column such that the decimal point are aligned or directly under each other. Zeros
may be added so that the number of decimal places are the same in the given set of numbers.
• Add or subtract as in whole numbers.
• Place the decimal point in the sum or difference directly under the decimal points in the addends or
subtrahend and minuend.

To multiply decimals:
• Multiply the factors as in multiplying whole numbers.
• Count the total number of decimal places in the factors. This will be the number of decimal places of the
product.
• When the product contains fewer digits than the required number of decimal places, prefix as many zeros
as necessary.

To divide decimals:
• If the divisor is a whole number, a) divide as in division of whole numbers and b) place the decimal point
in the quotient directly above the decimal point in the dividend.
• If the divisor is a decimal, a) make the divisor a whole number by moving the decimal point to the right; b)
in the dividend, move the decimal point to the right as many times as you moved the decimal point in the
divisor; c) divide as in division of whole numbers; d) place the decimal point directly above the new place
of the decimal point in the dividend; and e) When the dividend contains fewer digits than the required
number of decimal places, prefix as many zeros as necessary.

❻ Ratio and Proportion

If a and b are real numbers with b0, the ratio of a to b is the quotient .

A rate of a per b is a type of ratio that compares two quantities, a and b, that have different kinds of units of
measure.

If and are two ratios and , this equality is called a proportion.

When two quantities of a proportion are directly proportional, that is, if a change in one produces a corresponding
change in the other in the same direction, it is called direct proportion ().

Indirect or inverse proportion is when two quantities are inversely proportional. It means that change in one
produces a corresponding change to the other in the opposite direction ().

In partitive proportion, the given total is partitioned into different parts according to the ratio given.

❼ Percent
If r is any nonnegative real number, then r percent, written r%, is the ratio .

To express percent as fraction:

• Divide the number by 100.
• Simplify if necessary.
• Remove the % symbol.

To express percent as decimal:

• Divide the number by 100 or simply move the decimal point two places to the left.
• Remove the % symbol.

The base (B) represents the total, the whole, or the 100%. The rate (R) is the ratio between the percentage (P) and
the base. Percentage is a part of the base.

Discount (D) is an amount deducted from the original price. The tag price (TP), list price (LP) or marked price (MP)
is the original price (OP). The amount to be actually paid is the net price (NP).

Commission (C) is the amount paid to a person or agent for the services rendered. The total sales is called gross
proceeds (GP) while the total amount a person receives in a certain period of time, that is, the sum of commission
and salary, is called total pay.

Interest (I) is an amount charged for the use of money. The amount borrowed or loaned is called the principal (P)
while amount (A) is the sum of the principal and the interest.

❽ Integers

The positive integers (Z+) are the natural numbers. The negative integers (Z-)are the numbers -1, -2, -3, …, where –
s is defined by the equality s + (-s) = (-s) + s = 0. The integers (Z) consist of the positive integers, the negative
integers, and zero.

The additive inverse property states that, for every number a, a + (-a) = 0.

The absolute value of an integer is its distance from zero in a number line, and is denoted by writing the number in
between vertical bars, .

BASIC ALGEBRAIC PROPERTIES

The set of integers, like the natural numbers, is closed under the operations of addition and multiplication.

Addition:
Closure Property: If a Z and b Z, then
 (a + b) Z (a+b is an integer)

Commutativity: For all a, b Z, a + b = b + a.

Associativity: For all a, b, c Z, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c).

Existence of Identity Element:

For all a Z, 0 + a = a + 0 = a.

Existence of Inverse Elements: If a Z, there exists an integer –a such that a + (-a) = 0.

Multiplication:
Closure Property: If a Z and b Z, then
(a b) Z (a b is an integer)

Commutativity: For all a, b Z, a b = b a.

Associativity: For all a, b, c Z, (a b) c = a (b c).

Distributivity: For all a, b, c Z, a(b + c) = ab + ac.

Existence of Identity Element:
For all a Z, 1 a = a 1 = a.

Zero Property: For all a Z, a 0 = 0.

To add integers:
• If they have like signs, simply add their absolute value and prefix the common sign to the sum.
• If the signs are different, subtract their absolute values and prefix the sign of the number with the bigger
absolute value.

To subtract integers, add the additive inverse of the subtrahend to the minuend. For any number a and b, .

To multiply two integers:

• If they have like signs, find the product of their absolute values and place a positive sign to the obtained
product.
• If the signs are different, find the product of their absolute values and place a negative sign to the
obtained product.

To divide two integers:

• If they have like signs, find the quotient of their absolute values and place a positive sign to the obtained
answer.
• If the signs are different, find the quotient of their absolute values and place a negative sign to the
obtained answer.

II. GEOMETRY
❶ Shapes

A point is a location in space.

A line is a set of points that extends indefinitely in all directions.

A polygon is convex if no diagonal contains points outside the polygon. Otherwise, it is concave or nonconvex.

The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180.

The sum of the interior angles of an n-gon is (n – 2)180.

An equilateral polygon has all sides congruent. An equiangular polygon has all angles congruent. A regular
polygon is equilateral and equiangular.

❷ Lines and Curves

Two lines are parallel if and only if they are coplanar and do not intersect. Two lines are skew lines if and only if
they are not coplanar and do not intersect.

A line that intersects two or more lines at different points is called a transversal.

The absolute value of a real number a (denoted by ) is given by the formula

OR

The distance between two real numbers a and b on a real number line is given by or .

Consider a plane and draw a pair of perpendicular number lines on the plane such that one of the lines is
horizontal (or equivalently, one of the lines is vertical). The horizontal line is called the x-axis and the vertical line is
called the y-axis. The intersections of the lines is called the origin.

To each point on the plane, we associate an ordered pair (x,y) of real numbers where x is the directed distance of
the point from the y-axis and y is the directed distance of the point from the x-axis.

The number x in the ordered pair (x,y) is called the abscissa of the point while the number y is the ordinate of the
point. The abscissa and the ordinate of a point are called the rectangular or Cartesian coordinates of the point.

The x-axis and the y-axis are called the coordinate axes and they divide the plane into four parts, called quadrants.
The quadrants are numbered I, II, III, and IV.

If P is a point on a plane, we may write P(x,y) to mean that P has coordinates (x,y).

The distance d(P,Q) between two points, P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) on the same plane is given by the formula:
The distance between point P and Q can also be denoted by .

The midpoint M of the line segment joining the points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) has coordinates

The slope m, of the line connecting the two points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is given by

*The slope of a horizontal line is zero.

*The slope of a vertical line is undefined.
*Points are collinear if and only if any two points on the given line have the same slope.
*Two lines are parallel if and only if their slopes are equal.
*Two lines are perpendicular if and only if the product of their slopes is -1, that is the slopes are negative
reciprocals of each other.

The general equation of a line is given by

Ax + By + C = 0

EQUATIONS OF LINES
• Two-point form:
• Intercept form:
• Point-slope form:
• Slope-intercept form:

❸ Angles

An angle is the set of points in the union of two non-collinear rays with a common endpoint. The rays are the sides
of the angle. The common endpoint is the vertex.

Angles that have the same measure are congruent angles.

A right angle is an angle whose measure is 90°. An acute angle is an angle whose measure is less than 90°. An
obtuse angle has a measure of greater than 90° but less than 180°.

All right angles are congruent because they have the same measure.

Adjacent angles are two co-planar angles with a common vertex and a common side but no common interior
points.

Vertical angles are two non-adjacent angles whose union forms two intersecting lines.

Linear pair are adjacent angles whose non common sides are opposite rays.

Two angles are supplementary if and only if the sum of their measures is 180°. Each angle is called the supplement
of the other. Two angles are complementary if and only if the sum of their measures is 90°. Each angle is called the
complement of the other.
❹ Special Triangles

In a 45°-45°-90° triangle (isosceles right triangle), the two legs are congruent and the length of the hypotenuse is
times the length of one leg.

In a 30°-60°-90° triangle, the length of the longer leg is times the length of the shorter leg. The length of the
hypotenuse is twice the length of the shorter leg.

❺ Quadrilaterals

A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with opposite sides parallel. The opposite sides ad opposite angles of the
parallelogram are congruent. Two non-opposite or consecutive angles of a parallelogram are supplementary and
the diagonals bisect each other.

A rhombus is a parallelogram with all sides congruent. The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular to each
other. The diagonal of a rhombus bisects a pair of opposite angles.

A rectangle is a parallelogram with all angles right angles. The diagonals of a rectangle are congruent.

A square is a rectangle with all sides congruent.

A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with exactly one pair of opposite sides parallel.

An isosceles trapezoid is a trapezoid with non parallel sides congruent.

III. MEASUREMENT

❶ Measurement

The Metric System is a decimalized system of measurement based on the meter and gram. The main advantage of
the metric system is that it has a single base unit for each physical quantity. All other units are powers or multiples
of 10 of this base unit.
All systems of weights and measures, metric and non-metric, are linked through a network of international
agreements supporting the International System of Units. The International System is called the SI, using the first
two initials of its French name Systeme International d’ Unites.

Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol Factor

Yotta Y 1 x 1024 Deci d 1 x 10-1
Zetta Z 1 x 1021 Centi c 1 x 10-2
Exa E 1 x 1018 Milli m 1 x 10-3
Peta P 1 x 1015 Micro ɱ 1 x 10-6
Tera T 1 x 1012 Nano n 1 x 10-9
Giga G 1 x 109 Pico p 1 x 10-12
Mega m 1 x 106 Femto f 1 x 10-15
Kilo k 1 x 103 Atto a 1 x 10-18
 Hecto h 1 x 102 Zepto z 1 x 10-21
Deka da 1 x 101 Yocto y 1 x 10-24

❷ Area and Perimeter

PERIMETER
Rectangle:
Square:
Triangle:
Circle:

AREA
Rectangle:
Parallelogram:
Square:
Trapezoid:
Triangle:
Circle:

*Perimeter and Area of Combined Irregular Shapes

A composite figure is an irregular figure composed of different polygons. To find the area or perimeter of an
irregular figure, break it into familiar shapes or figures.

❸ Surface Area

Surface Area of Solids:

A polyhedron is a solid that is formed from polygons. The polygons that form the solid are called faces. A prism is a
polyhedron that has two congruent and parallel faces, called bases. The faces that are not bases are the lateral
faces. Prisms are named according to the shape of their bases.

Surface Area of Prisms:

If a prism has a surface area of SA square units and a height of h units, and each base has a perimeter P units and
an area of A square units, then

If a prism has a lateral area of L square units, a height of h units, and each base has a perimeter P units, then

Platonic solids are regular polyhedral, named after the philosopher and mathematician Plato. There are five
Platonic solids: tetrahedron, hexahedron, octahedron, dodecahedron, and icosahedrons.

Surface Area of a Cylinder:

Surface Area of a Pyramid, Cone, and Sphere:
If a regular pyramid has a surface area of SA square units, a slant height of l units, and its base has a perimeter of P
units and an area of A square units, then

If a cone has a surface area of SA square units, a slant height of l units, and the radius of the base is r units, then

If a sphere has a surface area of SA square units and a radius of r units, then

❹ Volume

If a prism has a volume of V cubic units, a height of h units, and each base has an area of A square units, then

If a prism has a volume of V cubic units, a height of h units, and a base with an area of A square units, then

Cylinder:

Pyramid:

Cone:

Sphere:

III. NUMBER THEORY

DEFINITION of Factor, Divisor, Multiple, Proper Divisor

If a and b are whole numbers with and there is a whole number q such that , we say that b divides a. We also say
that b is a factor of a or a divisor of a and that a is a multiple of b. If b divides a, and b is less than a, it is called a
proper divisor of a.

DEFINITION of Primes, Composite Numbers, and Units

A natural number that possesses exactly two different factors, itself and 1, is called a prime number. A natural
number that possesses more than two different factors is called a composite number. The number 1 is called a
unit; it is neither prime nor composite.

Test for Divisibility by 4, 8, and other Powers of 2

Let n be a natural number. Then 4 divides n, iff, 4 divides the number by the last two digits of n. Similarly, 8 divides
n, iff, 8 divides the number by the last three digits of n. In general, 2r divides n, iff, 2r divides the number named by
the last r digits of n.

Test for Divisibility by 2 and 5

Let n be natural number. Then n is divisible by 2, iff, it is even, that is, its unit digit is 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8. Simiarly, n is
divisible by 5, iff, its unit digit is 0 or 5.

Divisibility by Products (Divisibility Product Theorem)

Let a and b be natural numbers with no common factors other than 1. Then if a divides c and b divides c, then it
follows that ab divides c.

Divisibility by 10
Let n be natural number. Then n is divisible by 10, iff, 2 and 5 divide n. That is, iff, the units digit of n is 0.

Divisibility by 12
Let n be natural number. By the Divisibility Product Theorem, n is divisible by 12, iff, 3 and 4 divide n.

Divisibility Test for 11

A natural number is divisible by 11, iff, the difference of the sums of the digits in the even and odd positions in the
number is divisible by 11.

Divisibility of Sums and Differences

If n, a, b are natural numbers and n divides both a and b, then n divides both a + b and a – b.

DEFINITION of Greatest Common Divisor

Let m and n be natural numbers. The greatest natural number d, that divides both m and n is called their greatest
common divisor and we write d = GCD(m,n).
*To find the GCD of two or more numbers, the following methods may be used:
1. Listing Method
--to use the listing method: Step 1: List the factors of 18 and 30. Step 2: Find the common factors. Step 3:
Find the greatest among the common factors. The biggest among the common factors is the GCD of the given
numbers.
18: 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18
30: 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30
Common Divisors: 1, 2, 3, 6
GCD(18,30) = 6

2. Prime Factorization Method

--Let’s find the GCD of 18 and 30 using the prime factorization method: Step 1: Express both numbers as
the product of their prime factors. Step 2: Find the product of the common prime factors. The product of the
common prime factors is the GCD of the given numbers.
18: 2 . 3 . 3
30: 2 . 3 . 5
GCD(18,30) = 2 . 3 = 6
 3. Continuous Division or Decomposition Method
--Step 1: Divide the given number by any prime number. Write the quotient below the given numbers.
Step 2: Continue the process until each of the quotients is either 1 or a prime number. The product of the
prime divisors is the GCD of the given numbers.
2 18 30
3 9 15
3 5
GCD(18,30) = 2 . 3 = 6

4. Euclidean Algorithm
--Step 1: Divide the bigger number by the smaller number. If there is no remainder, the divisor is the GCD.
Step 2: If there is a remainder, divide the smaller number (divisor) by the remainder. Step 3: Continue the
process until the remainder is zero. Then the last divisor used is the GCD.
30 18 = 1 r.12
18 12 = 1 r.6
12 6 = 2 r.0
6 is the last divisor used.
GCD(18,30) = 6
DEFINITION of Least Common Multiple
Let a and b be natural numbers. The least natural number m, that is a multiple of both a and b is called their least
common mulitple and we write m = LCM(a,b).
*Let’s find the LCM of 16 and 12 using the three methods:
1. Listing Method
--to use the listing method: Step 1: List down the multiples of the given numbers. Step 2: The least
common multiple is the LCM of the numbers.
16: 16, 32, 48, 64, …
12: 12, 24, 36, 48, 60 …
LCM(16,12) = 48

2. Prime Factorization Method

--Step 1: Express both numbers as the product of their prime factors. Step 2: The product of the prime
factors, counting the common prime factors only once, is the LCM of the given numbers.
16: 2 . 2 . 2 . 2
12: 2 . 2 . .3
LCM(16,12) = 2 . 2 . 2 . 2 . 3 = 48

3. Continuous Division or Decomposition Method

--Step 1: Divide the given number by any prime number. Write the quotient below the given numbers.
The numbers not divisible by the prime number are just brought down. Step 2: Continue the process until
each of the quotients is either 1 or a prime number. The product of the prime divisors is the LCM of the given
numbers.
2 16 12
2 8 6
2 4 3
2 3
 LCM(16,12) = 2 . 2 . 2 . 2 . 3 = 48

THEOREM: ab = GCD(a,b) . LCM(a,b)

If a and b are any two natural numbers, then ab = GCD(a,b) . LCM(a,b).

EXERCISES:

• TRUE or FALSE
• If a number is divisible by 2,3, and 6, it must be divisible by 12.
• If a number is divisible by 4 and 6, then it must be divisible by 12.
• If a number is divisible by 24, it must be divisible by each of the factors of 24.
• If n is the greatest common divisor of x and y and m is the least common multiple, then mn = (x + y)(x - y).
• If x is the least common multiple of a and b, then x must be greater than both a and b.
• 12abc is divisible by 8 since abc is divisible by 23.
• The greatest common divisor of a set of numbers can be equal to the biggest number in the set.
• If x is an odd integer, then x + (x + 2) is divisible by 4.
• The sum of two prime numbers is always composite.
• The common multiples of two numbers are the product of their LCM and the natural numbers.

• Give the prim factorization of the following numbers in exponential form.

1) 48 2) 32 3)96 4) 144 5) 240

• Find the divisors of the following:

1) 48 2) 72 3)90 4) 120 5) 64

• Give the greatest common divisor of the following sets of numbers:

1) 16,28 2) 32,48 3) 18,12,54 4) 42,70,2 5) 120,96,72

• Give the first ten multiples of the following:

1) 9 2) 15 3) 24 4) 32 5) 12

• Find the least common multiple of each set of numbers.

1) 12,15 2) 16,20,8 3) 24,36 4) 18,12,24 5) 45,30,60

• Give the value if N that will make the given number divisible by the second number.
1) 57N, 4 2) 2N74, 3 3) 3476N, 8 4) 877N2, 9 5) 123N5, 11

IV. ALGEBRA

❶ Linear Equations and Inequalities

An equation is defined as a statement that two quantities have the same value. A solution to the equation is a
number that makes the equation true when it is substituted to the variable.
Adding the same number to or subtracting the same number from both sides of an equation does not change its
solution. Multiplying both sides or dividing both sides of an equation by the same non-zero number does not
change its solution.

To solve linear equations involving fractions, clear the fractions by multiplying both sides of an equation by the
lowest common multiple of the denominators and then simplify each side by combining like terms with all
variables on one side and the constants on the other sides.

Steps for Problem Solving:

• Understand the problem.
• Choose a variable to represent the unknown.
• Translate the problem into an equation.
• Solve the equation.
• Check the solution.

Properties of Inequalities:
Let a, b, c be any real numbers
• If a < b, then a + c < b + c
• If a < b, and c > 0, then ac < bc
• If a < b, and c < 0, then ac > bc
• If a < b, and b < c, then a < c

❷ Exponents

Exponent is a number or letter written on the upper right hand side of a number, letter or quantity which indicates
the number of times the said number, letter, or quantity is to be taken as a factor.

Laws of Exponents
• For Multiplication:
• For Power of a Power:
• For Power of a Product:
• For Division (m>n):
• For Division (m<n):
• For Power of a Quotient:
• For Negative Exponents:
❸ Radical Expressions

Radicals are numbers or expressions with fractional exponent. That is, if n is a positive integer greater than 1, and
if a1/n is a real number, then , where is the radical sign, a is the radicand, and n is the index. (Note: In the
expression , where x > 0, index is understood to be 2.)
*If the radicand is negative and its index is even, then it has no real root.

Properties of Radicals
•
•
 •

Simplifying Radicals
A radical is in its simplest form
• When there is no perfect nth power in the radicand and if the index is n.
• There is no radical in the denominator or fraction in the radicand.
• The index is the lowest possible.

Operation on Radicals
• Addition or Subtraction of Radicals. Radicals which are similar can be added or subtracted. Radicals are
considered similar if they have the same index and radicand.
• Multiplication of Radicals. To multiply radicals with the same indices, get the product of the radicand.
• Division of Radicals. To divide radicals with the same index and where the radicand in the numerator is
exactly divisible by the radicand in the denominator, just divide the numerator by the denominator. The
quotient will have the same index. If the numerator is not divisible by the denominator, rationalize the
denominator.

Solving Radical Equations

• Isolate the radical. Make sure that one radical term is alone on one side of the equation.
• Apply the power rule. Raise each side of the equation to a power similar to that of the index of the
radical.
• Solve. If the resulting equation still contains a radical, repeat steps 1 and 2.
• Check. It is always advisable to check the solution against the original equation.
❹ Quadratic Equations

Quadratic equations are second degree equations of the form , where and a, b, c are real numbers.

If the graph of a linear equation is a line, the graph of a quadratic equation is a parabola.

The root of a quadratic equation is its solution.

Methods of Finding Roots of Quadratic Equations

• Square Root Property
• By Factoring
• By Completing the Square Method
• By Quadratic Formula

Steps in solving quadratic equations by completing the square:

• Divide both sides by the coefficient of x2.
• Transfer the constant term to the other side of the equation.
• Add the square of the half the coefficient of x to both sides.
• Factor the perfect square trinomial.
• Get the square root of both sides and solve for x.

The quadratic formula:

Use of Discriminant to Determine the Number and Type of Solutions
The discriminant of is given by . If a, b, and c, are integers, then the type of solution is determined as:
DISCRIMINANT TYPE of SOLUTION
, and a perfect square Two different rational
solutions
, and NOT a perfect square Two different irrational
solutions
One rational solution
Two different imaginary
solutions

Find the Quadratic Equation Given Its Roots

The sum of the solution is:
The product of the solution is:

❺ Simultaneous Linear Equations

Steps in solving systems of linear equations by substitution:

• Solve one of the equations for one of its variables.
• Substitute the expression found in step1 into the other equation and solve for the other variable.
• Substitute the value in step2 into the expression found in step1 and solve.
• Check the solution in each of the original equations.

To solve systems of equations by elimination:

• Multiply one or both equations by the same number to make the numerical coefficients of the variable to
be eliminated, the same in each equation.
• Add or subtract the two equations to eliminate the variable.
• Solve for the value of the remaining variable.
• Substitute the value to either of the given equations to solve the value of the other variable.

Special cases of systems of equations:

Dependent equations are equations that represent the same line, that is, the lines coincide. Every point on the line
represents a solution. In this case, there are infinitely many simultaneous solutions.

A system of linear equations is consistent if there is only one solution for the system. The lines intersect at exactly
one point.

A system of linear equations is inconsistent if it does not have any solutions. The lines are distinct and parallel.