CROP PROCESSING

A. PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF PRESERVATION

Crop Preservation
 operation or a series of operation in which the properties of the crop is
intentionally altered through the process
 degree of alteration in properties may vary
Example
 pasteurization of milk
 fermentation of milk to produce cheese
 though properties change, nutritional properties should not be damaged
severely

Why process crop?

 To ensure long term stability and to provide a variety in the diet
 It makes food available.
 It makes possible the marketing of produce in other areas.
 It makes the crop available throughout the year.
 To avoid wastage of surpluses
 To facilitate handling

Food Spoilage
 degree and rate of spoilage vary
 variation in deterioration due to moisture
 Perishable – high M.C.
 Non-perishable – low M.C.
 high M.C. is conducive for microbial growth

Food spoilage causative agents

 Microbial
o Fungi (yeast and mold) – minor agent, common in dried fruits and
vegetables
o Bacteria – major agent, especially on wet or high moisture food
 Chemical
o Enzymic – compounds that catalyze chemical reaction such as in
respiration or oxidation
o Non-enzymic

Steps
1. Microorganisms utilize the food constituents for their metabolic activities
resulting in loss of quality.
2. They produce enzymes and other chemicals during metabolic activities to
enhance food quality deterioration.
Example: conversion of proteins, fats and carbohydrates
Preservation Methods
Three general techniques to avoid microbial spoilage
1. Destroy the microorganisms
2. Suppress their growth by modifying their environment
3. Deprive them of water

Principal methods of food preservation

1. Thermal processing
 food is subjected to heat treatment
 two types of thermal processes are pasteurization and sterilization

Pasteurization
 foods are heated to a temperature below the boiling point of water
 generally followed by prompt cooling

Sterilization
 application of heat (high temperature) to eliminate microorganisms
 example: canning

2. Dehydration and Drying

Drying – removal of moisture to a safe level

Dehydration – complete removal of moisture
Concentration – removal of water in liquid or addition of solid to lower
water/solid ratio

Ways of removing water from food

o Use of natural agents, i.e. sun, wind
o Use of chemicals, i.e. salt, sugar
o Use of engineering devices, i.e. heating, freezing

General rule: Reduction of water content in the food retards enzymatic

action.

3. Freezing
o most microorganisms do not grow below freezing
o microorganisms are more resistant to low temperature than heat
o control of microorganism is generally attributed to the formation of
crystals
o size and type of ice crystals depend on freezing rate

Methods of freezing
1) direct contact with refrigerant
example: immersion or spray freezing (food/liquid interphase)
2) indirect contact between food and refrigerant
example: plate freezing (food/solid interphase)
3) use of refrigerated air – similar to (1) but food/gas interphase
 example: blast freezing

4. Chemical Preservation

Commonly used preservatives/practices

a. salt and sugar
 lowers the water activity of foods therefore inhibits the
growth of microorganisms
 example: salted egg, jams and jellies
b. wood smoking
 wood smoke contains alcohols, organic acids, phenols,
aldehydes, ethers, etc.
 water absorbs these chemicals providing added color and
flavor
c. other additives
 benzoic acid, sodium benzoate, propionic acid and others

5. Fermentation
 process aerobic or anaerobic breakdown of carbohydrates with or
without production of CO2
 breakdown of proteinaceous materials results to putrefaction (cause
of offensive odors)
 in fermentation, a particular type of microorganisms is encouraged to
grow and multiply
o example: in mango pickling, salt is added to enhance the growth of
lactic acid bacteria

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COMMON GRAIN CROPS

BULK DENSITY, ρb – mass/volume where volume includes pore spaces

Example: IR – 8 at 14% MC
100% purity
ρb = 576 kg/m3 or 36 lb/ft3
corn: ρb = 718 kg/m3 or 44.8 lb/ft3

ρb is dependent on grain moisture content, foreign matter present and variety of

grain sample

TRUE or PARTICLE DENSITY, ρg

- using water displacement method
- mass/volume (water displaced)

ρg is dependent on grain moisture content and variety of grain sample

POROSITY, ε (%)
- ratio of the voids volume to the total volume
ε = (1 - ρg/ ρb) x 100

ANGLE OF REPOSE, ϕr
- slope of the sides of the mass of grain when poured to the rest by gravity on
a flat surface
- dependent on grain moisture content and foreign matter
- 30° – 38° – very free flowing
- 39° – 45° – free flowing
- 46° – above – cohesive or non-easy flowing

ANGLE OF FRICTION, ϕf
- Maximum angle at which the grain remains in equilibrium on an inclined
surface
- Dependent on grain moisture content and type of surface
- Example: rice
o steel - 26° to 28°
o wood (along the grain) - 29° to 30°
o wood (across the grain) - 31° above
- used in the design of hoppers and unloading devices in storage bins
(inclination of hoppers: ϕf + 10°)

PHYSICAL DIMENSIONS – length, width and thickness

 rough rice/paddy
o TYPE I (long grain) length > 6.5 mm
o TYPE II (medium) 5.5 mm ≤ length ≤ 6.5 mm
o TYPE III (short) length < 5.5 mm
 milled rice
o TYPE I (long grain) length > 5.9 mm
o TYPE II (medium) 5.0 mm ≤ length ≤ 5.9 mm
o TYPE III (short) length < 5.0 mm

SAMPLE PROBLEM:

A rectangular storage bin with floor dimensions of 3 meters by 2 meters is to be

filled with 20 metric tons of corn grains. Assume ρb = 720 kg/m3. What should be the
minimum height of the bin?

MOISTURE CONTENT DETERMINATION

Moisture Content, %
- weight of water contained in paddy or rice expressed in percent
-could be expressed in wet basis or dry basis

Wm Wm
MC wb   100 MC db   100
Wm  Wdm Wdm
Problem:
500 kg of paddy at 22% MCwb is dried to 14% MCwb for milling. Calculate the amount
of moisture removed in drying.

Solution:
Initial wm= (%MCwb/100) x wt= 0.22 x 500 kg = 110 kg
wdm = wt – wm = 500 kg – 110 kg = 390 kg
Wm Wm
MC wb   100 0.14  Wm = 63.49 kg
Wm  Wdm Wm  390

amount of water removed = initial wm – final wm

= 110 kg – 63.49 kg = 46.51 kg

Importance of MC determination
Knowledge of the moisture content of the grain will be helpful in:
1. determining the harvesting and threshing index
2. determining the safe storage
3. seed certification
4. drying to the optimum level
5. milling to prevent breakage

RULE OF THUMB:
There is a weight change of 0.5 kg per bag per 1% decrease in moisture content

Factors affecting choice of method

1. form of water present
2. nature of product
3. relative amount of water present
4. rapidity of determination
5. accuracy desired
6. cost of equipment

Two general methods of MC determination

I. Primary Method
o involves direct evaporation of water from a product
o usually used as a standard for calibration and comparison with
indirect methods
o too cumbersome and time consuming; not suitable for use in the field

A. Oven Method
1. Vacuum Oven
• a representative sample of 2 – 3 g is ground
• dried in a vacuum oven (25 min) for 72 – 96 hours at 100°C
• measure the weight of the dried sample

2. Air Oven Method

 i. one stage (grains at MC<13%)
o grind duplicate samples of 2 – 3 g
o heat for one hour at 130°C
o place in a desiccator
o weigh the sample
ii. two stage (grains at MC>13%)
o 25 – 30 g sample
o heat at 130°C for 14 – 16 hours
o Continue as in one stage
3. Water Oven Method
• 25 – 30 g sample
• heat at 100°C for 72 – 96 hrs
• place in a desiccator
• weigh the dried sample

B. Distillation Methods
1. Brown-Duvel Distillation
• 100 g sample mixed with 150 mL of mineral oil
• heated to 190°C for paddy and 200°C for milled rice for 30 – 45
minutes
• collect condensed water
• amount collected (mL) = % MCwb
o Moisture from the sample is evaporated, collected and condensed
in a graduated cylinder
o Temp of oil in mineral flask should reach 200 deg C within 26
minutes
o The time required is 30 minutes
o If the temp of mineral oil reaches the desired temp within time,
the MC determination is found to be fairly accurate

2. Toluene Distillation Method

• using methyl benzene (boiling point of 111°C)
• grind 25 g sample
• mix with 75 mL of toluene
• continue boiling up to one hour
 C. Drying with Desiccants
• involves placing the sample near an efficient drying agent in a closed
container
• samples should be finely ground
• desiccant maintains very low vapor pressure within the container
• since the vapor pressure of the sample is higher than that of the
desiccant, the moisture moves from the material to the desiccant (e.g.
anhydrous sulfuric acid)

II. Secondary Method

• involves the measurement of properties of the material including electrical,
mechanical or thermal property related to its actual moisture content
• less accurate
• faster determination
• suitable for field use
• usually expressed in wet basis

A. Electrical Resistance (e.g. Universal Moisture Tester)

- The electrical conductivity or resistance of a product depends on its MC

> 17%, parabolic relationship between MC and log R

< 17%, no MC reading since there is little change in electrical resistance

B. Dielectric Properties (capacitance: e.g. MOTOMCO, DOLE)

• Such devices measure dielectric constant of grains

• Capacitance varies as per the water present in sample, the degree of
compaction and grain temperature
 C. Hygrometric Methods
• sample of grain is placed in a sealed container
• allowed to equilibrate with the atmosphere in the container with
known relative humidity and temperature
• the relative humidity of the air in equilibrium with the sample gives a
measure of the moisture content of the sample

D. Chemical Method
• Water is removed by adding a chemical which combines with water.
• From the chemical reaction a gas is produced which can be measured
volumetrically or which decreases the original weight of the sample.
• used for forage and grains
• Example : calcium carbide (CaC2)

Exercises

Sove for the corresponding MCdb and MCwb equivalent

% MCwb % MCdb

(1) 16
(2) 9

(3). 50 g fruits were dried with initial MC of 35%. What was the final moisture
content in wet basis if the final weight was 45 g?

(4). 30 g rice sample was dried with initial MC of 25%. What was the final weight if
the final moisture content in wet basis was 13%?

(5). 1 ton of rice grains were dried with initial MC of 24%. Compute for the amount
of moisture removed if the final moisture content in wet basis was 14%? Moisture
load in drying the crop to 13% final MC

Initial , Moisture load,

%MCwb kg H2O/ kg wet grain
24