1220 ||g| CHAPTER 13 SIGNAL G E N E R A T O R S AN
WAVEFORM-SHAPING CIRCUITS
9 A feedback loop consisting of an integrator and a
bistable multivibrator can be used to generate triangular
and square waveforms.
• The 555 timer, a commercially available IC, can be used
with external resistors and a capacitor to implement high-
quality monostable and astable multivibrators.
• A sine waveform can be generated by feeding a triangu-
lar waveform to a sine-wave shaper. A sine-wave shaper
PROBLEMS
SECTION 1 3 . 1 : BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS
* 1 3 . 1 Consider a sinusoidal oscillator consisting of an
amplifier having a frequency-independent gain A (where A is
positive) and a second-order bandpass filter with a pole fre-
quency ft)b, a pole Q denoted Q, and a center-frequency gain K.
(a) Find the frequency of oscillation, and the condition that A
and K must satisfy for sustained oscillation.
(b) Derive an expression for dQ/dco, evaluated at CO = Oh.
(c) Use the result of (b) to find an expression for the per-unit
change in frequency of oscillation resulting from a phase-
angle change of A(j>, in the amplifier transfer function.
Hint: - f (tan-'y) =
ax i + ax
z D 1 3 . 7 Consider the circuit of Fig. 13.3(a) with /^removed
v
1 3 . 2 For the oscillator described in Problem 13.1, show
that, independent of the value of A and K, the poles of the
circuit lie at a radial distance of Oh. Find the value of AK that
results in poles appearing (a) on the jco axis, and (b) in the
right-half of the s plane, at a horizontal distance from the
j o axis of co /(2Q).
0
D l 3 . 3 Sketch a circuit for a sinusoidal oscillator formed
by an op amp connected in the noninverting configuration
and a bandpass filter implemented by an RLC resonator
(such as that in Fig. 12.18d). What should the amplifier
gain be to obtain sustained oscillation? What is the fre-
quency of oscillation? Find the percentage change in co , 0
resulting from a change of + 1 % in the value of (a) L, (b) C,
and (c) R.
1 3 . 4 An oscillator is formed by loading a transconduc-
tance amplifier having, a positive gain with a parallel RLC
circuit and connecting the output directly to the input (thus
applying positive feedback with a factor ¡5=1). Let the
transconductance amplifier have an input resistance of 10 kQ
and an output resistance of 10 kQ. The LC resonator has
L = 10 LiU, C = 1000 pF, and Q = 100. For what value of
can be implemented either by using diodes (or transis-
tors) and resistors, or by using an amplifier having a
nonlinear transfer characteristic that approximates the
sine function.
• Diodes can be combined with op amps to implement
precision rectifier circuits in which negative feed-
back serves to mask the nonidealities of the diode
characteristics.
transconductance G m will the circuit oscillate? At what
frequency?
1 3 . 5 In a particular oscillator characterized by the structure
of Fig. 13.1, the frequency-selective network exhibits a loss
of 20 dB and a phase shift of 180° at Oh. What is the mini-
mum gain and the phase shift that the amplifier must have,
for oscillation to begin?
D 1 3 . 6 Consider the circuit of Fig. 13.3(a) with R removed
f
to realize the comparator function. Find suitable values for all
resistors so that the comparator output levels are ±6 V and the
slope of the Umiting characteristic is 0.1. Use power supply
voltages of ±10 V and assume the voltage drop of a conducting
diode to be 0.7 V.
to realize the comparator function. Sketch the transfer
characteristic. Show that by connecting a dc source V to the
B 6
virtual ground of the op amp through a resistor R , the transfer
B
characteristic is shifted along the v, axis to the point
= ~(R /R )V . Utilizing available +15-V dc supplies for
V l X B B
± 7 and for V , find suitable component values so that the lim-
B
iting levels are +5 V and the comparator threshold is at v =
+5 V. Neglect the diode voltage drop (i.e., assume that V = 0).
The input resistance of the comparator is to be 100 kQ,
and the slope in the limiting regions is to be <0.05 V/V. Use
standard 5% resistors (see Appendix G). .
1 3 . 8 Denoting the zener voltages of Z and Z by V and
t 2
and assuming that in the forward direction the voltage
drop is approximately 0.7 V, sketch and clearly label the
transfer characteristics v -v of the circuits in Fig. P13.8.
0 I
Assume the op amps to be ideal.
SECTION 1 3 . 2 : 0 P - A M P - R C OSCILLATOR
CIRCUITS
1 3 . 9 For the Wien-bridge oscillator circuit in Fig. 13.4,
show that the transfer function of the feedback network
PROBLEMS 1221
(a) (b)
FIGURE P 1 3 . 8
[V (s)/V (s)]
a 0 is that of a bandpass filter. Find C0n and Q of the 1 3 . 1 4 Repeat Problem 13.13 for the circuit in Fig. P13.14.
poles, and find the center-frequency gain.
1 3 . 1 0 For the Wien-bridge oscillator of Fig. 13.4. let
the closed-loop amplifier (formed by the op amp and the
resistors R and R ) exhibit a phase shift of - 0 . 1 rad in the
x 2
neighborhood of co= 1/CR. Find the frequency at which
oscillations can occur in this case, in terms of CR. (Hint: Use
Eq. 13.11.)
1 3 . 1 1 For the Wien-bridge oscillator of Fig. 13.4, use the
expression for loop gain in Eq. (13.10) to find the poles of the
closed-loop system. Give the expression for the pole Q, and
use it to show that to locate the poles in the right half of the
j plane, R /R
2 must be selected to be greater than 2.
x
FIGURE P 1 3 . 1 4
0 * 1 3 . 1 2 Reconsider Exercise 13.3 with /?, and R increased
to reduce the output voltage. What values are required for a
peak-to-peak output of 10 V? What results if R and R are * 1 3 . 1 5 Consider the circuit of Fig. 13.6 with the 50-kQ
3 6
potentiometer replaced by two fixed resistors: 10 kQ between
open-circuited?
the op amp's negative input and ground, and 18 kQ. Modeling
1 3 . 1 3 For the circuit in Fig. P13.13 find L(s), L(jco), the each diode as a 0.65-V battery in series with a 100-Q resis-
t
frequency for zero loop phase, and R /R for oscillation. tance, find the peak-to-peak amplitude of the output sinusoid.
D
2 x
0 * * 1 3 . 1 6 Redesign the circuit of Fig. 13.6 for operation at
10 kHz using the same values of resistance. If at 10 kHz the
op amp provides an excess phase shift (lag) of 5.7°, what will
be the frequency of oscillation? (Assume that the phase shift
zl
introduced by the op amp remains constant for frequencies
around 10 kHz.) To restore operation to 10 kHz, what change
must be made in the shunt resistor of the Wien bridge? Also,
to what value must R /R
2 x be changed?
* 1 3.1 7 For the circuit of Fig. 13.8, connect an additional
R = 10 k Q resistor in series with the rightmost capacitor C.
For this modification (and ignoring the amplitude stabiliza-
tion circuitry) find the loop gain AB by breaking the circuit
FIGURE P 1 3 . 1 3 at node X. Find A^for oscillation to begin, and f i n d / .
0
 CHAPTER 13 SIGNAL GENERATORS A N D WAVEFORM-SHAPING CIRCUITS
PROBLEMS t . I 1 2 2 3

C-,

D 1 3 . 1 8 For the circuit in Fig. P13.18. break the loop at Note that a square wave of amplitude V and frequency to is
1 + — W W

node X and find the loop gain (working backward for simplicity represented by the series
to find V in terms of V ). For R
x 0
10 kQ, find C and R to f
\RL
1 C 2 £ R,
obtain sinusoidal oscillations at 10 kHz 4V7 1 +, -cos5cot
1
cos cot - -cosltot - -cos! cot + • •
3 5 7
* 1 3 . 1 9 Consider the quadrature-oscillator circuit of Fig. 13.9
without the limiter. Let the resistance R be equal to
f (Assume R > co L)
f 0
SECTION 1 3 . 3 : LC AND CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS
2R/(1 + A), where A < 1. Show that the poles of the charac-
* * 1 3 . 2 1 Figure P13.2Lshows four oscillator circuits of (c) (d)
teristic equation are in the right-half j plane and given by'
s = (l/C7?)[(A/4)±;']. the Colpitts type, complete with bias detail. For each circuit,
FIGURE P I 3 . 2 1 (Continued)
derive an equation governing circuit operation, and find the
* 1 3 . 2 0 Assuming that the diode-clipped waveform in
frequency of oscillation and the gain condition that ensures
Exercise 13.7 is nearly an ideal square wave and that the
that oscillations start. (b) If R is selected equal to (1/7) kQ, where 7 is in milliam-
c
1 3 . 2 3 Consider the Pierce crystal oscillator of Fig. 13.16
resonator Q is 20, provide an estimate of the distortion in the
peres, convince yourself that oscillations will start. If oscilla- with the crystal as specified in Exercise 13.10. Let C be vari-
output sine wave by calculating the magnitude (relative to **13.22 Consider the oscillator circuit in Fig. P13.22, and x

tions grow to the point that V is large enough to turn the BJTs
a
able in the range 1 pF to 10 pF, and let C be fixed at 10 pF.
the fundamental) of assume for simplicity that ¡5= <*>.
2

on and off, show that the voltage at the collector of Q will be

2
Find the range over which the oscillation frequency can be
(a) the second harmonic a square wave of 1 V peak to peak. Estimate the peak-to-peak tuned. (Hint: Use the result in the statement leading to the
(a) Find the frequency of oscillation and the minimum
(b) the third harmonic amplitude of the output sine wave V . 0
expression in Eq. 13.27.)
(c) the fifth harmonic value of R c (in terms of the bias current 7) for oscillation
(d) the rms of harmonics to the tenth to start.
SECTION 1 3 . 4 : BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR S
1 3 . 2 4 Consider the bistable circuit of Fig. 13.19(a) with
the op amp's positive-input terminal connected to a positive-
voltage source V through a resistor i? . 3

(a) Derive expressions for the threshold voltages V and V TL m

in terms of the op amp's saturation levels L and L_, R R ,

+ u 2

R , and V.
3

(b) Let L = -7__ = 13 V, V = 15 V, and 7?, = 10 k Q . Find

+

the values of R and R that result in V = +4.9 V and

2 3 TL

F = +5.1V.
r a

1 3 . 2 5 Consider the bistable circuit of Fig. 13.20(a) with

the op amp's negative-input terminal disconnected from
ground and connected to a reference voltage V . R

(a) Derive expressions for the threshold voltages V and V TL TH

in terms of the op amp's saturation levels L and L_, R , R ,

+ x 2

(a) (b) and V . R

(b) Let L = -L_=V and R = 10 k Q . Find R and V that

+ x 2 R

FIGURE P I 3.21 FIGURE P 1 3 . 2 2 result in threshold voltages of 0 and V710.

 CHAPTER 1 3 SIGNAL GENERATORS A N D WAVEFORM-SHAPING CIRCUITS
1 2 2 4
1 3 . 2 6 For the circuit in Fig. P13.26, sketch and label the threshold values. Design so that when »/ = 0 V a current of
transfer characteristic v -w . The diodes are assumed to have
0 7
0.1 mA flows in the feedback resistor and a current of 1 mA
a constant 0.7-V drop when conducting, and the op amp satu- flows through the zener diodes. Assume that the output
rates at ±12 V. What is the maximum diode current? saturation levels of the op amp are ±12 V. Specify the volt-
ages of the zener diodes and give the values of all resistors.
R - 60 kfl SECTION 1 3 . 5 : GENERATION OF SQUARE AND
2
VW
TRIANGULAR WAVEFORMS USING ASTABLE
MULTIVIBRATORS
1 3 . 3 0 Find the frequency of oscillation of the circuit in
Fig. 13.24(b) for the case R = 10 Ml, R = 16 kfl, C = 10 nF,
t 2
andfl = 62k£2.
D 1 3 . 3 1 Augment the astable multivibrator circuit of
Fig. 13.24(b) with an output limiter of the type shown in
Fig. 13.23(b). Design the. circuit to obtain an output square
FIGURE P I 3.26 wave with 5-V amplitude and 1-kHz frequency using a 10-nF
capacitor C. Use ¡5 = 0.462, and design for a current in the
resistive divider approximately equal to the average current
1 3 . 2 7 Consider the circuit of Fig. P13.26 with R elimi-
x
nated and R short-circuited. Sketch and label the transfer in the RC network over a half-cycle. Assuming±13-V op-amp
2
characteristic v -vj. Assume that the diodes have a constant saturation voltages, arrange for the zener to operate at a
0 Note that this circuit has the interesting property that the
current of 1 mA.
0.7-V drop when conducting and that the op amp saturates at
±12 V. D 1 3 . 3 2 Using the scheme of Fig. 13.25, design a circuit
that provides square waves of 10 V peak to peak and triangu-
* 1 3 . 2 8 Consider a bistable circuit having a noninverting
lar waves of 10 V peak to peak. The frequency is to be 1 kHz.
transfer characteristic with L = -L_ = 12 V, V = - 1 V, and
+ TL
Implement the bistable circuit with the circuit of Fig. 13.23(b).
V = +1 V.
TH
Use a 0.01-tfF capacitor, and specify the values of all resistors
(a) For a 0.5-V-amplitude sine-wave input having zero aver- and the required zener voltage. Design for a minimum zener
age, what is the output? current of 1 mA and for a maximum current in the resistive
(b) Describe the output if a sinusoid of frequency / and divider of 0.2 mA. Assume that the output saturation levels of
amplitude of 1.1 V is applied at the input. By how much can the op amps are ±13 V.
the average of this sinusoidal input shift before the output
D*1 3 . 3 3 The circuit of Fig. PI 3.33 consists of an inverting
becomes a constant value?
bistable multivibrator with an output limiter and a noninvert-
D 1 3 . 2 9 Design the circuit of Fig. 13.23(a) to realize a ing integrator. Using equal values for all resistors except R 7
transfer characteristic with +7.5-V output levels and ±7.5-V and a 0.5-nF capacitor, design the circuit to obtain a square
A4
AAAr
FIGURE P 1 3 . 3 3
wave at the output of the bistable multivibrator of 15-V peak-
to-peak amplitude and 10-KHz frequency. Sketch and label
the waveform at the integrator output. Assuming ±13-V op-amp
saturation levels, design for a minimum zener current of 1 mA.
Specify the zener voltage required, and give the values of all
resistors.
SECTION 1 3 . 6 : GENERATION OF A
STANDARDIZED PULSE—THE
M0N0STABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
* 1 3 . 3 4 Figure PI3.34 shows a monostable multivibrator
circuit. In the stable state, v = L , v = 0, and v = - V . The
0 + A B
circuit can be triggered by applying a positive input pulse of
height greater than V . For normal operation, C R < CR.
ref
Show the resulting waveforms of v and v . Also, show that
0 A
the pulse generated at the output will have a width T given by
L -L_
+ * 1 3 . 4 0 The node in the 555 timer at which the voltage is
T = CR In
V„ f
pulse width can be controlled by changing y . ref
Ci
Trigger o |j-
FIGURE P I 3.34
1 3 . 3 5 For the monostable circuit considered in Exer-
cise 13.19, calculate the recovery time.
D * 1 3 . 3 6 Using the circuit of Fig. 13.26, with a nearly ideal
op amp for which the saturation levels are ±13 V, design a
monostable multivibrator to provide & negative output pulse
of 100-jUs duration. Use capacitors of 0.1 nF and 1 nF. Wher-
ever possible, choose resistors of 100 kQ in your design.
Diodes have a drop of 0.7 V. What is the minimum input step
size that will ensure triggering? How long does the circuit
take to recover to a state in which retriggering is possible
with a normal output?
SECTION 1 3 . 7 : INTEGRATED-CIRCUIT TIMERS
1 3 . 3 7 Consider the 555 circuit of Fig. 13.27 when the
Threshold and the Trigger input terminals are joined together
PROBLEMS
1 2 2 5
and connected to an input voltage v,. Verify that the transfer
characteristic v -v, is that of an inverting bistable circuit
0
with thresholds V = | V and V = \ V and output levels
TL cc TH cc
of 0 and V . cc
1 3 . 3 8 (a) Using a 1-nF capacitor C in the circuit of
Fig. 13.28(a), find the value of R that results in an output
pulse of 10-jUs duration.
(b) If the 555 timer used in (a) is powered with V = 15 V, cc
and assuming that V can be varied externally (i.e., it need
TH
not remain equal to | V ), find its required value so that the
cc
pulse width is increased to 20 pis, with other conditions the
ref
same as in (a).
x x
D 1 3 . 3 9 Using a 680-pF capacitor, design the astable circuit
of Fig. 13.29(a) to obtain a square wave with a 50-kHz fre-
quency and a 75% duty cycle. Specify the values oíR and AV
A
V (i.e., the inverting input terminal of comparator 1) is usu-
TH
ally connected to an external terminal. This allows the user to
change V externally (i.e., V no longer remains at | V ).
m TH cc
Note, however, that whatever the value of V becomes, V
TH TL
always remains \V . TH
(a) For the astable circuit of Fig. 13.29, rederive the expres-
sions for T and T , expressing them in terms of V and V .
H L TH TL
(b) For the case C = 1 nF, R = 7.2 kQ, R = 3.6 kQ, and A B
o v 0 Vcc - 5 V, find the frequency of oscillation and the duty cycle
of the resulting square wave when no external voltage is
applied to the terminal V . TH
(c) For the design in (b), let a sine-wave signal of a much
lower frequency than that found in (b) and of 1-V peak ampli-
tude be capacitively coupled to the circuit node V . This sig-
TH
nal will cause V to change around its quiescent value of
m
I V , and thus T will change correspondingly—a modula-
cc H
tion process. Find T , and find the frequency of oscillation
H
and the duty cycle at the two extreme values of V . TH
SECTION 1 3 . 8 : NONLINEAR WAVEFORM-
SHAPING CIRCUITS
0 * 1 3 . 4 1 The two-diode circuit shown in Fig. P13.41 can
provide a crude approximation to a sine-wave output when
driven by a triangular waveform. To obtain a good approxi-
mation, we select the peak of,the triangular waveform, V, so
that the slope of the desired sine wave at the zero crossings is
equal to that of the triangular wave. Also, the value of R
is selected so that when v, is at its peak the output voltage is
equal to the desired peak of the sine wave. If the diodes
exhibit a voltage drop of 0.7 V at 1-mA current, changing at
the rate of 0.1 V per decade, find the values of V and R that
will yield an approximation to a sine waveform of 0.7-V peak
amplitude. Then find the angles 0 (where 6 = 90° when v, is
at its peak) at which the output of the circuit, in volts, is 0.7,
0.65, 0.6, 0.55, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.1, and 0. Use the angle
 CHAPTER 13 SIGNAL GENERATORS A N D W A V E F O R M - S H A P I N G CIRCUITS
1 2 2 6 PROBLEMS 1 2 2 7

values obtained to determine the values of the exact sine wave thermal voltage. Since the output voltage i s proportional to * * 1 3 . 4 5 Detailed analysis of the circuit in Fig. 13.32
(i.e., 0.7 sin 0), and thus find the percentage error of this the logarithm of the input voltage, the circuit is known as shows that optimum performance (as a sine shaper) occurs
circuit as a sine shaper. Provide your results in tabular form. a logarithmi c amplifier. Such amplifiers find application when the values of I and R are selected so that RI = 2.5V , T

in situations where it is desired to compress the signal where V is the thermal voltage, and the peak ampli-
T

R range. tude of the input triangular wave is 6.6V . If the output is

T

taken across R (i.e., between the two emitters), find v, corre-

sponding to v = 0.25V , 0.5V , V , 1.5V , 2V ,
0 T T T 2.4V , T T T

and 2.42 V . Plot v -v and compare to the ideal curve given

T 0 r

by
V[ o
ov 0

FIGURE P I 3.41 = 2.42 V T sin x90<

6.6 W
D 1 3 . 4 2 Design a two-segment sine-wave shaper using a
10-kQ input resistor, two diodes, and two clamping voltages. SECTION 1 3 . 9 : PRECISION RECTIFIER
FIGURE P I 3.43
The circuit, fed by a 10-V peak-to-peak triangular wave, CIRCUITS FIGURE P I 3 . 5 0
should limit the amplitude of the output signal via a 0.7-V
1 3 . 4 6 Two superdiode circuits connected to a common-
diode to a value corresponding to that of a sine wave whose 1 3 . 4 4 Verify that the circuit in Fig. P13.44 implements the 1 3 . 5 1 Plot the transfer characteristics v -v, and v -vi of
load resistor and having the same input signal have their m m

zero-crossing slope matches that of the triangle. What are the transfer characteristic v = v v for v v > 0. Such a circuit
0 x 2 lt 2
the circuit in Fig. PI3.51.
diodes reversed, one with cathode to the load, the other with
clamping voltages you have chosen? is known as an analog multiplier. Check the circuit's perfor-
anode to the load. For a sine-wave input of 10 V peak to
mance for various combinations of input voltage of values, R v R
1 3 . 4 3 Show that the output voltage of the circuit in peak, what is the output waveform? Note that each half- 01 L1

say, 0.5 V, 1 V, 2 V, and 3 V. Assume all diodes to be iden- A/W 1- W V — j ^

Fig. P13.43 is given by cycle of the load current is provided by a separate amplifier,
tical, with 700-mV drop at 1-mA current and n = 2. Note that
and that while one amplifier supplies the load current, the
a squarer can easily be produced using a single input (e.g.,
v = -nV \n[jLj
0 T o
Vl> other amplifier idles. This idea, called class-B operation (see •VC—WV
v{) connected via a 0.5-kQ resistor (rather than the 1-kfl
Chapter 14), is important in the implementation of power
where 7 and n are the diode parameters and V is the resistor shown).
S T
amplifiers.

0 1 3 . 4 7 The superdiode circuit of Fig. 13.33(a) can be ~ R \ R

—VSA, -A A vA V — J
made to have gain by connecting a resistor R in place of the 2 V2
0

0i short circuit between the cathode of the diode and the negative-
input terminal of the op amp, and a resistor R between the x
FIGURE P 1 3 . 5 1
negative-input terminal and ground. Design the circuit for a
gain of 2. For a 10-V peak-to-peak input sine wave, what is
the average output voltage resulting? 1 3 . 5 2 Sketch the transfer characteristics of the circuit in
Fig. P13.52.
0 1 3 . 4 8 Provide a design of the inverting precision rectifier 10 kfl
shown in Fig. 13.34(a) in which the gain is - 2 for negative W V
inputs and zero otherwise, and the input resistance is 100 kQ.
What values of R and R do you Choose?
x 2

0 * 1 3 . 4 9 Provide a design for a voltmeter circuit similar

O V Q
to the one in Fig. 13.35, which is intended to function at fre-
quencies of 10 Hz and above. It should be calibrated for
sine-wave input signals to provide ah output of+10 V for an
input of 1 V rms. The input resistance should be as high as
possible. To extend the bandwidth of operation, keep the 1

gain in the ac part of the circuit reasonably small. As well,

the design should result in reduction of the size of the
capacitor C required. The largest value of resistor available
is 1 MQ.

1 3 . 5 0 Plot the transfer characteristic of the circuit in

FIGURE P 1 3 . 4 4 Fig. P13.50. FIGURE P I 3.52
 : CHAPTER 13 SIGNAL GENERATORS A N D WAVEFORM-SHAPING CIRCUITS
1 228

become when R is replaced with the C whose value was just

D1 3 . 5 3 A circuit related to that in Fig. 13.38 is to be used to
provide a current proportional to v (v > 0 ) to a light-emitting calculated?
A A

diode (LED). The value of the current is to be independent of
the diode's nonlinearities and variability. Indicate how this
may be done easily.
* 1 3 . 5 4 In the precision rectifier of Fig. 13.38, the resistor
R is replaced by a capacitor C. What happens? For equiva-
lent performance with a sine-wave input of 60-Hz fre-
quency with R = 1 k Q , what value of C should be used?
What is the response of the modified circuit at 120 Hz? At
180 Hz? If the amplitude of v is kept fixed, what new func-
A
* 1 3 . 5 5 A positive-peak rectifier utilizing a fast op amp and
a junction diode in a superdiode configuration, and a 10-/xF
capacitor initially uncharged, is driven by a series of 10-V
pulses of W-ps duration. If the maximum output current that
the op amp can supply is 10 mA, what is the voltage on the
capacitor following one pulse? Two pulses? Ten pulses? How
many pulses are required to reach 0.5 V? 1.0 V? 2.0 V?
D 1 3 . 5 6 Consider the buffered precision peak rectifier
shown in Fig. 13.40 when connected to a triangular input of

tion does this circuit perform? Now consider the effect of a

waveform change on both circuits (the one with R and the
1-V peak-to-peak amplitude and 1000-Hz frequency. It uti-
lizes an op amp whose bias current (directed into A ) is 10 nA
2
Output Stages and Power
Amplifiers
and diodes whose reverse leakage current is 1 nA. What is the
one with C). For a triangular-wave input of 60-Hz fre-
smallest capacitor that can be used to guarantee an output
quency that produces an average meter current of 1 mA in
ripple less than 1%?
the circuit with R, what does the average meter current

Introduction 1229 14.7 Variations o n the C l a s s AB

Configuration 1256
14.1 Classification of Output
Stages 1230 14.8 IC Power Amplifiers 1261

14.2 Class A Output Stage 1231 14.9 M O S P o w e r Transistors 1266

14.3 Class B Output Stage 1235 14.10 SPICE Simulation

Example 1271
14.4 Class A B Output Stage 1241
Summary 1276
14.5 Biasing the Class AB
Circuit 1244 Problems 1277

14.6 P o w e r BJTs 1249

INTRODUCTION
A n importan t function of t h e output stage is to p r o v i d e the amplifier w i t h a l o w output resis-
tance so that it c a n deliver t h e output signal to the load w i t h o u t loss of gain. Since the o u t p u t
stage is t h e final stage of the amplifier, it usually deals w i t h relativel y large signals. T h u s t h e
small-signal a p p r o x i m a t i o n s and m o d e l s either are n o t a p p l i c a b l e or m u s t b e u s e d w i t h c a r e.
Nevertheless, linearity r e m a i n s a very i m p o r t a n t r e q u i r e m e n t . In fact, a m e a s u r e of g o o d n e s s
of the desig n of t h e o u t p u t stage is t h e total h a r m o n i c d i s t o r t i o n ( T H D ) it introduces. T h i s
is the r m s value of the h a r m o n i c c o m p o n e n t s of the output signal, excluding the fundamental,
expressed as a percentage of the r m s of the fundamental. A high-fidelity audio p o w e r amplifier
features a T H D of t h e order of a fraction of a percent.
T h e m o s t c h a l l e n g i n g r e q u i r e m e n t in t h e desig n of the o u t p u t stage is that it deliver the
required a m o u n t of p o w e r to the l o ad in an efficient m a n n e r . T h i s i m p l i e s that t h e p o w e r dis-
sipated in t h e output-stage transistors m u s t b e as l o w as p o s s i b l e . T h i s r e q u i r e m e n t s t e m s
mainly from t h e fact that t h e p o w e r dissipated in a transistor raises its internal j u n c t i o n t e m -
p e r a t u r e , a n d there is a m a x i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e (in the r a n g e o f 1 5 0 ° C to 2 0 0 ° C for silicon