TECHNICAL PAPER PRESENTED IN THE EVENT OF RECEIVING CANMET/ACI AWARD

FLY ASH FOR BRICKS, CEMENT AND

CONCRETE – THE INDIAN PERSPECTIVE
By

N Bhanumathidas
N Kalidas

INSTITUTE FOR SOLID WASTE RESEARCH &

ECOLOGICAL BALANCE (INSWAREB)
Visakhapatnam

at

Closing Plenary Session of

7th CANMET/ACI International Conference on Fly ash, Silica

Fume, Slag and Natural Pozzolans in Concrete
(Chennai, India: 22-27 July2001)
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Fly ash for Bricks, Cement and

Concrete – The Indian Perspective

by N. Bhanumathidas and N. Kalidas

Synopsis:

India is a resourceful country for fly ash generation with an annual out put of over
90 million tons, registering almost 50% escalation during the last decade. Though
utilisation of fly ash has been a subject of great concern in India for the past two and
half decades, the utilization has picked up during the last five to six years, recording
10 to 12% use. Nevertheless, the targets are very high with the generation of fly ash
to touch 120 million tpa in the coming decade that summons for more aggressive
promotional efforts at all levels.

Indian fly ashes are one of the best lot in the world but the confidence level in the
country is low for various reasons in the past and present. This paper discusses the
transition in Indian fly ash scenario.
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N. Bhanumathidas, Ph.D, in Chemical Engineering, is the Director General of the

Institute for Solid Waste Research & Ecological Balance (INSWAREB),
Visakhapatnam (India), which is a non-profit organization dedicated to the
utilization of industrial by-products for making building materials.

N. Kalidas is a technocrat and Director of INSWAREB. Both have authored several

papers on FaL-G technology that uses by-product lime and gypsum together with
large volumes of fly ash for making concrete products.

INTRODUCTION

The promotional issues of fly ash utilization in India are altogether different for the
peculiar conditions prevailed in the country such as:

 Brick market is traditionally attached to the age-old clay bricks, vetoeing the
chances for any alternate materials to penetrate on price logistics;

 Till the advent of FaL-G technology, autoclaved curing being the predominantly
known art, no approach was economical to manufacture walling material with
fly ash;

 The poor quality of fly ash generation during 70’s and the unscientific use of
such fly ash in some parts of cement industry had effected the credibility of
pozzolanic cements with regard to durability that haunts the confidence level in
certain segments even today;

 The ban on the use of pozzolan cement for structural applications, imposed by
the government during fall of 80’s, and reiterated in 1999, has given more room
for consumers’ apprehensions, making the task tough to the industry while
exploring the market;

Since the beginning of 90’s need on the utilization of fly ash has attained new thrust
from all segments of the country buttressed by many positive developments. Though
India has to go a long way on fly ash utilization, the stage, set in the country, is
poised to accomplish the target of over 100 million tons in the near future.
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UPGRADATION IN THERMAL PLANT OPERATIONS

Use of pulverised coal:

The installation of PCB (Pulverised Coal Boilers) and FBC (Fluidised Bed
Combustion) systems rapidly since 80’s in Indian thermal plant operations has
contributed to change the quality of fly ash drastically. The coal is segregated of
clay lumps and pulverized to attain a fineness of 75 micron (70% passed). Such
fineness facilitates total combustion within short residential time and also the
effective phase transformation of the mineral matter of the coal.

Economiser and
Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)

The fly ash, thus generated, travels along with the flues and undergoes sudden
temperature drop in economizer attaining more reactivity. Then the fly ash is
segregated from the flue gas and collected in ESPs (Electrostatic Precipitators) or
bag filters. The fineness of fly ash improves as it passes through field after the field;
the field at the boiler-end collecting the coarsest fly ash and the field at the
chimney-end collecting the finest.

It is beyond dispute that, the optimization of thermal plant operations, with heat
recovery systems such as economizers, helped to generate the most qualified fly ash
in India. The following data show the difference in PAI (Pozzolanic Activity Index)
of two fly ashes, collected from the same field, with reference to the impact of
economizer:

Soluble fraction % PAI

Fly ash not subjected through economizer: 4.30 94.00

Fly ash subjected through economizer: 8.80 103.00

The following data show the improvement in fineness, soluble fraction and PAI of
the fly ash of a typical super thermal plant, as the field progresses:
Field No. Fineness - 25 micron SiO2 Al2O3 soluble PAI %
2
cm /gm % % % fraction % 7-d 28-d

I 2633 46.45 63.38 29.02 5.60 70 90

II 3403 54.20 62.52 30.99 6.91 77 92

III 4325 78.29 60.15 33.18 9.92 86 106

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Pneumatic Collection and Conveying Systems

The fly ash utilization has remarkably picked up with the installation of dry ash
collection systems at thermal plants, whereby, the fly ash collected in ESP is
pneumatically transferred to silos for onward delivery to the users. The 1.6 km long
pneumatic conveying system, one of the longest in the world, installed at Ropar
Thermal Plant in Punjab, has been facilitating two giant cement industries to
consume about 360 thousand tons annually. Similar arrangements are underway at
many other plants. At certain power plants, the cement industry is installing
transmitters to the ESP hoppers, at their investment, in order to tap the required
grade of fly ash.

ACTIONS TAKEN BY GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

Circular from Ministry of Power

Considering the enormous quantity of fly ash generated in thermal power stations
associated with serious disposal and ecological problems, the government has felt
the imperative to promote the utilisation with a sense of urgency. Pursuant to the
deliberations by working group set up by the department of Power consisting of
members from various concerned ministries, Planning Commission and
representatives of various autonomous and NGO bodies, a circular was issued on
10th September, 1991, consisting of a lot of promotional programs and incentive
packages.

Fiscal Incentives in the Union Budget

In order to give fillip to the circular of Power Ministry, Ministry of Finance has
accorded excise duty exemption for fly ash products in Union Budget 1991-92. But
this incentive was withdrawn in the budget of 1997-98 without having achieved the
target. Realising the mistake, the government has reintroduced the duty waival in
1998-99 budget.

Gazette Order by Ministry of Environment

Ministry of Environment & Forests has drawn much cohesive action plan vide a
Gazette Notification dt 22.5.1998, giving thrust on use of fly ash towards cement,
concrete and other building materials. It has also summoned the user departments
and construction agencies to include ash and ash based products in construction
systems in their respective schedules of specifications, including appropriate
standards and codes of practice. Noticing the passivity of response, the Delhi High
Court has responded to a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) and issued an Order on
25.8.1999 directing the Central Government to publish a final Notification.
Ultimately, the Ministry of Environment & Forests has issued a Notification
dt 14.9.1999 consisting of more specific directions to all agencies concerned.
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Fly ash Mission

In order to buttress the promotional efforts, it is proposed to promote a coordinating

body that has given way to the constitution of ‘National Fly ash Mission’ under the
aegis of Ministry of Science & Technology. But, surprisingly, this Mission has
precluded the cement and building material from its scope and, ultimately, added the
same in its programme at the fag end of its term, thereby not being able to do justice
to the utilization to its potential in construction sector.

CBIP Seminars

Central Board of Irrigation & Power (CBIP) has taken up the promotion of fly ash
utilisation through education programs and conducting seminars. Despite its
conviction on the subject, CBIP could not influence to vacate the ban on the use of
PPC for structural applications that has been brought in by Ministry of Surface
Transport.

ROLE OF INSWAREB

Advent of FaL-G Technology

Fly ash-lime reactions are known for their slow chemistry resulting in feeble
strengths at early age. Hence, autoclave is an indispensable production unit to
manufacture fly ash-lime products wherein, at a high temperature of around 180 oC
and pressure of about 8-12 bar, the chemistry is augmented. This cost intensive
equipment and utility inputs made the activity prohibitive as far as Indian economic
and marketing logistics are concerned.

FaL-G, a mix of fly ash lime and gypsum, a name christened to the product after its
ingredients, changed the scenario completely within the last 9 years. As against a
handful of autoclaved plants in India, there are over 700 FaL-G brick plants,
manufacturing more than one billion bricks or 2 million cubic meters of blocks
annually. The product is well accepted for rendering two to four fold strength, but at
parallel price to that of clay brick.

FaL-G is the extension of work based on the theory of Crystallo-Mineral

Combination of Setting behaviour, postulated and presented by the authors in
1986[1] to define the improved behaviour of gypsum towards increased strength and
water resistance. Thereby the weak phases of calcium aluminate hydrates of
fly ash-lime mixtures have been tapped of their potential towards calcium sulpho
aluminate hydrates, resulting in the mixture of FaL-G.

The further research to optimize FaL-G as a cementitious binder, oriented the

attention of INSWAREB towards pozzolanic cements and concrete. At this juncture
the ban on PPC imposed in 1987 towards structural applications has caught their
attention. To counter this issue, an extensive research work has been undertaken and
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the efficacy of Indian fly ashes has been established with pozzolanic activity index
to as high as 115 to 120%, proving them as one of the best lot in the world.

To prove the issues in the field, INSWAREB has executed various RCC structures
such as, 2000 sft of slab with FaL-G and 2000 sft of another slab with
Portland:FaL-G. To take the work further, the 3-storeyed institute building has been
built, from the pile foundation to 3000 sft of slab in Portland: FaL-G, where the
strengths were recorded over 40 MPa. Inspired by the HVFC development at
CANMET, two more floors of 3000 sft each have been added to the same structure
in HVFC, containing 40% fly ash, achieving a 60-day strength of 60 MPa.

In infrastructure segment, 3 km of footpaths have been laid in the beach road with
FaL-G, one km of pavement in black cotton soil, partly in PCC of Portland:FaL-G
and remaining part with brick on edge (Khadanza) with FaL-G blocks, all in
Visakhapatnam.

In order to enlarge the raw material base for FaL-G brick, INSWAREB has roped in
various byproducts such as lime grit from milk-of-lime plant, flue gas desulphurised
gypsum from the ‘sintered-pet coke’ industry and magnesia slag from the
magnesium plant. In all these approaches, as observed by Mehta, INSWAREB has
disregarded the standard chemical and physical requirements and developed tailor-
made blends to produce products of adequate strength on normal curing with a
check on their durability criteria in standard test methods.

Classification of Fly ash

Notwithstanding the ASTM C 618 classification of fly ash, based on the boiler
operations, INSWAREB has further classified the fly ash with two distinct identities:

LT fly ash: Generated out of combustion temperature below 900 oC

HT fly ash: Generated out of combustion temperature above 1000 oC.

This classification has a great significance in pronouncing the reactivity and

applications. Thus the distinct characteristics of LT and HT fly ashes have been
studied, more so with reference to reactive alumina, and their avenues of use have
been pronounced.

Source Strength N/mm2

Fly ash + Lime FaL-G
7-day 28-day 7-day 28-day

LT Fly ash 1 9.0 17.9 25.0 32.0

LT Fly ash 2 11.0 15.8 20.0 25.8
HT Fly ash 1 2.6 7.8 8.4 24.0
HT Fly ash 2 3.3 4.9 6.5 24.8
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In either ash, the autoclave could be dispensed away and the FaL-G brick activity
has been brought within the reach of small and tiny sector entrepreneurs. It is
studied that, for FaL-G production, LT fly ash proves good in lime route and HT fly
ash proves good in OPC route as shown in the table:
2
Strength: N/mm Lime route OPC route
Source 3-day 7-day 28-day 3-day 7-day 28-day

LT fly ash 12.4 16.0 22.8 14.0 17.4 20.0

HT fly ash 2.5 7.8 22.0 6.4 18.4 33.8

The Role of Aluminate Chemistry in FaL-G and PPC

As shown in the above, HT fly ash is the ideal input for the production of PPC.
INSWAREB strongly advocates the need to tap the aluminate phase of fly ash in
association with gypsum, towards the formation of sulpho-aluminate hydrates to
achieve rapid setting and high early strengths. Thus, it is possible to use high
volumes of fly ash and still meet or exceed the strengths of control mortar by 28-day
and beyond, as shown by the data:

Compressive strength of mortar (N/mm2)

7 day 14 day 28 day 60 day 270 day

OPC: ---------------- ---------------- --------------- --------------- ---------------
Fly ash (a) (b) (a) (b) (a) (b) (a) (b) (a) (b)

50 : 50 24.4 20.0 32.4 22.8 40.8 29.6 50.8 44.4 56.8 48.0
(PPC-I)

40 : 60 21.2 15.2 29.6 22.0 38.0 34.0 45.2 44.4 56.0 47.8
(PPC-II)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
100 : 0 27.2 35.2 40.4 48.0 54.4
(control mortar)

(a) : Added with anhydrite commensurate to fly ash quantity

(b) : Without anhydrite

For this purpose, the role of gypsum is distinctly described in every blend and thus
defined a set-accelerator for FaL-G and set-retarder for NPC. The chemistry of
cement with fly ash is a two-stage mechanism. First NPC hydration starts
independently wherein, the chemistry of C3A is retarded. This follows
instantaneously with the commencement of secondary mineralogical reactions
wherein, the reaction of alumina of fly ash, with the released lime of hydration
reactions, is accelerated towards calcium sulpho-aluminate hydrates. It is not proper
to consider that the slow setting of blended cement gets further retarded if gypsum is
added. Gypsum manifests as the accelerator when added commensurate to reactive
alumina phase in fly ash.
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A study to manufacture prestressed railway concrete sleepers, replacing cement by

25% fly ash has been undertaken. While the compressive strength is almost parallel,
the flexural strength has exceeded by 10-18%, as shown in the table:

Strength (tons)
Data on Railway Concrete Sleepers RS1 RS2 Centre top

With Control concrete 22.6 22.0 6.5

With PPC concrete containing 25% fly ash 25.0 26.0 6.6

FaL-G as the Coarse Aggregate

While attempting to break the stone-like hardened FaL-G blocks into workable
pieces, ideas have emerged to avail the broken pieces as coarse aggregate. Upon
achieving positive results, the outcome is viewed as an approach to agglomerate
quarry dust that has missed its journey to concrete by getting disintegrated into dust.

The MOR and Young’s Modulus have shown totally identical behaviour to that of
control concrete despite low compressive strength of FMA (FaL-G Mortar
Aggregate). This is attributed to the strong bonding of cement paste with FMA in
the transition zone on account of cementitious nature of the latter product.

Mix Design: 1:2:4 by volume at Zero slump

Strength (N/mm2)
With NSA With FMA

Compressive strength: 3 day 25.6 22.6

7 day 32.8 28.5
28 day 40.6 37.4

Modulus of Rupture 28 day 5.4 5.4

Young’s Modulus 28 day 0.25x105 0.25x105

Development of Non-Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (NAAC)

This process, developed and patented by INSWAREB, does not use autoclave or
foaming agents, but gives an aerated concrete product with impressive pores and
pore refinement, at lesser cost of plant and utilities.
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The object of this invention is to rationalise the plant cost by avoiding the cost-
intensive equipment such as autoclave, as well as the cost of utilities such as steam
or foaming agent. Such approach makes aerated concrete production sustainable in
practice and affordable in price, more so in second and third world countries. This
could be made feasible by integrating the principles of FaL-G technology with
parameters of age-old aeration process. By doing so, the energy consumption could
be slashed down from 250 K. Cal to 75 K.Cal/Kg.

Two compositions, as prepared in the above process, give the following strength and
density:
_______________________________________________________________

Constituent %:Fly ash OPC+Lime Aerated Strength Density

+Gypsum Chemical (kg/cm2) (kg/m3)
_______________________________________________________________

Sample I 70 30 0.15 60 882

Sample II 68 32 0.15 52 950

_______________________________________________________________

The studies on water absorption indicate that the product has pores but relatively
with lesser grade of interconnectivity to result in lower water absorption. The
following data substantiate this observation:

Density kg/cu.m Water absorption

Sand lime AAC 740 38%
NAAC 720 30%

Fly ash – Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)

The Kyoto Protocol is enshrined with CDM in order to ensure the participation of
second and third world countries towards the minimization of green house gases.
INSWAREB has developed certain mathematical models and conducted base-line
studies to define the fly ash based brick and cement plants as qualified CDM
projects. INSWAREB has projected these baseline studies of carbon credits for
various cement and building material projects during their attendance to the COP-6
(The Hague; November 2000) for which UNFCC has accredited them as the
Observer Organisation. For the tangible performance-indicators projected, the PCF
(Prototype Carbon Fund) of World Bank has offered a tie up of US$ 10 million that
can be encashed by operative FaL-G brick plants against carbon credits. But the
Government of India could not clear the proposal for not becoming a signatory to
Kyoto Protocol. But, one can be quite sure and optimistic of interfacing the
incentive of carbon credits to the fly ash utilisation program, thus making it more
lucrative and sustainable to the industry and exchequer with impact on GDP (Gross
Domestic Product).
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INSWAREB believes in promoting the knowledge of cement studies in simple and

tangible explanations. For this purpose, they have selected to interpret the cement
hydration behaviour and related transformations in parallel to the factors of
biological phenomena in the human system. For example, they draw the parallel
of four principal mineralogical phases of cement to that of four basic genetic
codes of life system, A, T, G and C that ultimately decide the behavioural pattern
and personification of human system. Similarly they compare the surplus hydrated
lime of a concrete system to that of surplus sugar in the human body. This way they
believe to give deep imprint in the minds of laymen and marketing folk who have
the ultimate say in the success of a product marketing.

PPC: THE BOON TO CEMENT INDUSTRY

1996-99 is the crucial period for the marketing segment of cement in India. Price-
wars have badly beaten the industry to maintain low prices. At this juncture, one
industry from South India has given thrust to the promotion of blended cements,
selecting PPC as the starting product. The phenomenal success of this company to
register profits, despite spending massive amounts for advertisement and
educational campaigns on blended cements. This has sensitised the cement industry
to go for blended cements aggressively, raising their production from 22 million
tons to 35 million tons within a span of three years ie., from 1998 to 2001.

The industry has realised that, in the environment of price constraints, blended
cement is the only avenue, whereby, one can offer the product of better durability
and, at the same time, maximising the profit margins. While blast furnace slag has
limited quantity (10million tons) of availability, fly ash availability is huge (90
million tons) and scattered through out the country. Thus PPC is proving as the
sustainable path to cement industry to grow and flourish.

The scope of fly ash is realised even by the Ready Mixed Concrete (RMC) industry.
The features of retardation in setting time, improvement in workability and
pumpability, make fly ash as the most favourite complementary input that can
relatively rationalise the use of chemical admixtures.

CODAL REVISIONS

The codes have remained as the major stumbling block for quite a long time.
IS:1489, the code for PPC has confined the input of fly ash to 25% that has been
revised to 35% very recently.

IS:456, the code of practice for concrete, was formulated in 1953 giving thrust on
structural factors, disregarding the importance of material science. However,
pursuant to various government notifications and demand from the industry, a lot of
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thrust has been given to the application of blended cements on the plank of
durability in the fourth revision of the code in 2000. Disregarding all these positive
developments at national and international level to the use of fly ash cement and
concrete as a practice of durability, CPWD has not upgraded their code of practices
as evident by the reiteration of the ban in 1999 on the use of pozzolanic cements
towards structural applications, that was primarily imposed in 1987.

CONCLUSIONS

It is beyond doubt that a distinct shift is evident in the Indian scenario of fly ash
utilisation from pessimism to optimism if the increased production of PPC is any
indication. However the mind set in government construction agencies has to be
necessarily changed for the furtherance of the trend. There is a need to converge the
commitments and actions of various State governments into action.

Maximum sources of Indian fly ash are some of the best lots in the world. Without
giving credence to this fact, any interpretation to discourage the utilisation through
reduction-approach is unfair and disservice to the Nation.

Fly ash based brick and cement are far superior in engineering properties over their
conventional competitors. This knowledge needs to be disseminated globally, more
so in second and third world countries, through tangible technical explanations.

The opportunity to abate CO2 is 35 million tons in cement and 45 million tons in
brick by using fly ash in both the segments in India. When Kyoto Protocol comes
into effect, fly ash utilisation proves as the money-spinner in ‘green trading’ point of
view, for achieving CO2 abatement.

Very few technologies can assimilate economy, value addition and eco-service in a
single go.

Fly ash utilisation is the unique opportunity to serve these multiple indicators
collectively.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors thankfully acknowledge the various articles of Prof P.K. Mehta,
Professor Emeritus of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of California,
Berkeley. Housing & Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO) deserves special
mention for its funding to R&D laboratories at INSWAREB which has facilitated to
accomplish this study.