3.

0 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In studying control systems the reader must understand how to model dynamic systems and analyze
dynamic characteristics. A mathematical model of a dynamic system is defined as a set of equations
that represents the dynamics of the system accurately or, at least, fairly well. Note that a mathematical
model is not unique to a given system. A system may be represented in many different ways and,
therefore, may have many mathematical models, depending on one's perspective.

The dynamics of many systems, whether they are mechanical, electrical, thermal, economic,
biological, and so on, may be described in terms of differential equations. Such differential equations
may be obtained by using physical laws governing a particular system, for example, Newton's laws
for mechanical systems and Kirchhoff's laws for electrical systems. We must always keep in mind
that deriving reasonable mathematical models is the most important part of the entire analysis of
control systems.

A mathematical model, is a description of a system in terms of equations. Mathematical Modelling is a

procedure of constructing a model of a dynamic system based on the physical laws ( Newton’s law
and so forth) that the system elements and their interconnections are known to obey.

Dynamic systems are systems for which the variables are time-dependent. Not only that the responses
are not instantaneously proportional to the excitations but at any instant the derivatives of one and
more variables depend on the values of the system variables at that instant. Dynamic systems can
respond to input signals, disturbance signals, or initial conditions.

In many cases, signals produced by the system can be measured and be used to contruct a model. The
procedure of constructing a model based on measured data is known as system identification.

The process of using the mathematical model to determine certain features of the system’s cause-and-
effect relationships is reffered as solving the model or simulation.

3.1.1 STEPS IN MODELLING AND SIMULATION OF DYNAMIC SYSTEMS

Actual Physical Engineer’s Mathematical

system Perception Representation

modification

Performance Calculated
Analysis Response

20
3.1.2 THE ADVANTAGES OF MODELLING AND SIMULATION

 Allows predicting the behavior of the system before it is built. This is sometimes called ‘virtual
prototyping’
 We can analyze the performance of an existing system with the intent of improving its dynamic
behavior.
 We can determine what might happen to the system with an unusual input or condition without
exposing the actual system to risky conditions.
 Prediction or forecasting are areas closely related to modeling and simulation, as attempts to
predict future events is limited by the accuracy of the model.

The engineer must realize that the model being analyzed is only an approximate mathematical
description or the system and not the physical system itself.

3.2 MODELS FOR DYNAMICS SYSTEMS

Mathematical models are derived from the conservation laws of physics and the engineering properties
of each system component.
The prefered forms are:
i. Configuration form
ii. State-space representation
iii. Input-output equation (single nth order differential equation)
iv. Transfer Function

3.2.1 Configuration form

In compact form, the configuration model can be written as

𝑞̈ = 𝑓𝑛 (𝑞, 𝑞̇ , 𝑡) with initial conditions 𝑞(0) and 𝑞̇ (0)

A convenient form is the standard second-order matrix form

𝑚𝑞̈ + 𝑐𝑞̇ + 𝑘𝑞 = 𝑓

Where 𝒎, 𝒄, and 𝒌 is the mass, damping and stiffnes matrix respectively, 𝒒 is the vector of the
generalized coordinates, and 𝒇 is vector of the generalized external forces.

3.2.2 State-space representation

𝑥̇ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢 State equation
𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑢 Output equation

Where 𝒙 is the state variables vector, 𝒚 is the output vector, and 𝒖 is the input vector

21
3.2.3 Transfer function

Transfer function is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output and the input by
assuming that the initial conditions are all zero.

𝑌(𝑠) 𝑏0 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏1 𝑠 𝑚−1 +. . . +𝑏𝑚

𝐺(𝑠) = = 𝑛
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 + 𝑎0 𝑠 𝑛−1 +. . . +𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛

3.3 MODELLING OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

Mechanical systems are either in translational or rotational motion or both. Mechanical elements
include inertia, spring, and damper elements for both translational and rotational motion.

3.3.1 MASS & INERTIA ELEMENT

Newton’s 2nd Law for planar motion of a rigid body can be written as;

𝐹 𝑚
o 𝑀 𝜃
𝑚𝑥̈

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑥̈ 𝑀 = 𝐼𝑂 𝜃̈

In Linear motion;

∑𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑥̈ 𝑐

∑𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑦̈𝑐

Alternatively, in Rotational motion

∑𝑀𝑜 = 𝐼𝑜 𝜃̈
...
But 𝐼𝑜 = 𝐼𝐺 + 𝑚𝑑 2

∑𝑀𝑂 = (𝐼𝐺 + 𝑚𝑑 2 )𝜃̈

22
3.3.2 SPRING ELEMENT

For a linear spring, its load is directly proportional to its deflection, 𝑥 with the stiffness
constant, k. For a linear torsional spring, the torque and the deflection angles of twist are
linearly related.
𝑥
𝐹𝑠 = 𝑘𝑥

𝑥2 𝑥1
𝐹𝑠 = 𝑘(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )

𝑇 = 𝑘𝑡 𝜃 𝜃

𝑇 = 𝑘𝑡 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) 𝜃2 𝜃1
1 1

3.3.3 DAMPER ELEMENT

A damper or dashpot, is a device that generates a force in proportion to the difference in the
two end points of the device. The elemental equation for translational and rotational dampers
can be written as;

𝐹𝑑 = 𝑐𝑥̇

𝑥2 𝑥1
𝐹𝑑 = 𝑐(𝑥̇ 2 − 𝑥̇ 1 )

𝑇𝑑 = 𝑘𝑡 𝜃̇ 𝜃

𝑇𝑑 = 𝑘𝑡 (𝜃̇2 − 𝜃̇1 ) 𝜃2 𝜃1

3.4 GEARS

Most of machines and physical systems are operate rotational mechanism and thus the development of
so called gear train to transmit energy and movement from one point to another rapidly advances to
cater and provide efficient and effective function ability of a particular system or equipment. The
concept of this gear train is quite simple and highlighted as follows;

23
 𝑑2 𝑑2
Speed ratio : 𝑛 =
𝑑1 𝑑1

+ + Tangential Velocity :
𝜃1 𝜃2
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑣 = 𝑟1 𝜃̇1 = 𝑟2 𝜃̇2
𝑇1 𝑇2
Tangential Force : 𝐹 = =
𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑑1
𝜃1 𝜃2
𝑑2

The two gears rotate opposing each other and give relationships of speed ratio, tangential velocity,
tangential force and etc.

3.4.1 EQUIVALENT SYSTEMS FOR A SYSTEM WITH GEARS

𝑇2 , 𝜃2
≈ 𝐽𝑒
𝑇1 , 𝜃1
𝐽
𝑇1 , 𝜃1

𝜃1 𝐽
𝑇2 = 𝐽𝜃̈2 𝜃2 = 𝐽 𝐽𝑒 =
𝑛 𝑛2
𝑇1 = 2 𝜃̈1 𝑇1 = 𝐽𝐸 𝜃̈1
𝐽 𝑛
𝑇2 = 𝑛𝑇1 𝑛𝑇1 = 𝜃̈1
𝑛
𝑇2 = 𝑛𝑇1

3.5 DEGREES OF FREEDOM

The number of degrees of freedom of a dynamic system is defined as the number of independent
generalized coordinates that specify the configuration of the system.

Generalized coordinates is a set of independent coordinates that completely describes the motion of a
system. For a given system, this set of coordinates is not unique.

24
3.6 DERIVATION OF MATHEMATICAL MODELS FOR MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

EXAMPLE 3.1

Consider the 2 DOF system shown below. Express the governing equations in configuration form.

𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑥2 (𝑡)

The Free body Diagram of the system

𝑘1 𝑥1 𝑘2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )

𝑐1 𝑥̇1 𝑐2 (𝑥̇ 2 − 𝑥̇ 1 )

𝑚1 𝑥̈1 𝑚2 𝑥̈ 2

Applying Newton’s 2nd Law

∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

𝑚1 𝑥̈ 1 = 𝑘2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) + 𝑐2 (𝑥̇ 2 − 𝑥̇ 1 ) − 𝑘1 𝑥1 − 𝑐1 𝑥̇ 1

𝑚2 𝑥̈ 2 = −𝑘2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) − 𝑐2 (𝑥̇ 2 − 𝑥̇ 1 )

The configuration form is

1
𝑥̈ 1 = [𝑘 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) + 𝑐2 (𝑥̇ 2 − 𝑥̇ 1 ) − 𝑘1 𝑥1 − 𝑐1 𝑥̇ 1 ]
𝑚1 2 2
1
𝑥̈ 2 = − [𝑘 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) + 𝑐2 (𝑥̇ 2 − 𝑥̇ 1 )]
𝑚2 2 2

25
EXAMPLE 3.2

Suppose the system in Example 3.1 is subjected to an applied force 𝑓(𝑡) as shown below. Express the
system’s equation of motion in second-order matrix form.

𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑥2 (𝑡)

𝑓(𝑡)

The Freebody Diagram of the system

𝑘1 𝑥1 𝑘2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )

𝑓(𝑡)

𝑐1 𝑥̇1 𝑐2 (𝑥̇ 2 − 𝑥̇ 1 )

𝑚1 𝑥̈1 𝑚2 𝑥̈ 2

The expression in second-order matrix form;

𝑚1 0 𝑥̈ 1 𝑐 +𝑐 −𝑐2 𝑥̇ 1 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 −𝑘2 𝑥1 0
[ ] [ ] + [ 1−𝑐 2 𝑐2 ] [𝑥̇ 2 ] + [ −𝑘2 ][ ] = [ ]
0 𝑚2 𝑥̈ 2 2 𝑘2 𝑥2 𝑓(𝑡)

EXAMPLE 3.3

Obtain the state-space from of the system shown in Example 3.2.

From the configuration form of;

1
𝑥̈ 1 = [𝑘 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) + 𝑐2 (𝑥̇ 2 − 𝑥̇ 1 ) − 𝑘1 𝑥1 − 𝑐1 𝑥̇ 1 ]
𝑚1 2 2
1
𝑥̈ 2 = − [𝑘 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) + 𝑐2 (𝑥̇ 2 − 𝑥̇ 1 )]
𝑚2 2 2

26
Let

State variables Derivative of State variables

𝑧1 = 𝑥1 𝑧̇1 = 𝑥̇1 = 𝑧2
1
𝑧2 = 𝑥̇1 𝑧̇2 = 𝑥̈1 = [𝑘 (𝑧 − 𝑧1 ) + 𝑐2 (𝑧4 − 𝑧2 ) − 𝑐1 𝑧2 − 𝑘1 𝑧1 ]
𝑚1 2 3
𝑧3 = 𝑥2 𝑧̇3 = 𝑥̇ 2 = 𝑧4
1
𝑧4 = 𝑥̇ 2 𝑧̇4 = 𝑥̈ 2 − [𝑘 (𝑧 − 𝑧1 ) + 𝑐2 (𝑧4 − 𝑧2 )]
𝑚2 2 3

State equation 𝑥̇ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢

0 1 0 0
𝑧̇1 (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 ) (𝑐1 + 𝑐2 ) 𝑘2 𝑐2 0
− 𝑧1 0
−
𝑧̇ 𝑚1 𝑚1 𝑚1 𝑚1 𝑧2
[ 2] = [𝑧3 ] + 0 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑧̇3 0 0 0 1 1
𝑧̇4 𝑘2 𝑐2 𝑘2 𝑐2 𝑧4
− − [𝑚2 ]
[ 𝑚2 𝑚2 𝑚2 𝑚2 ]

where
0 1 0 0
𝑧̇1 (𝑘1 +𝑘2 ) (𝑐1 +𝑐2 ) 𝑘2 𝑐2 𝑧1 0
𝑧̇ − − 𝑚1 𝑚1 𝑧2 0
𝑚1 𝑚1
𝑥̇ = [ 2 ], 𝐴= , 𝑥 = [𝑧3 ], 𝐵 = [ 0 ] and 𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑧̇3 0 0 0 1 1
𝑧̇4 𝑘2 𝑐2 𝑘 𝑐2 𝑧4
[ 𝑚2
− 2 −
𝑚2 ]
𝑚2
𝑚2 𝑚2

Output equation 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑢

𝑧1 𝑧1
1 0 0 0 𝑧2 1 0 0 0 𝑧2
𝑦=[ ] [ ], where 𝐶 = [ ], 𝑥 = [𝑧3 ] 𝐷=0
0 0 1 0 𝑧3 0 0 1 0
𝑧4 𝑧4

EXAMPLE 3.4


r
A

O
Figure 3.4

27
For the mechanism shown in figure 3.4, derive the equation of motion and obtain its natural
frequency.

Solution:

There are several methods can be used to determine the equation of motion, one of them is
Newtonian approach where;

+ M o  I o

s
ks
I G 

r
A 
G mx

fr
O

M o  I G  mxr

1 2 
 ks (2r )  mr   m(r)r
2
Defining s  2r , x  r sin   r , and x  r and we can write

3 2 
mr   4kr 2  0
2
Thus, the natural frequency is

 8k 
n   
 3m 

28
Alternatively

ks

I G 

G mx

fr
O

F x  ma

f r  ks  mx (i)

And

M G  I G

 ksr  f r (r )  I G

I G
 fr    ks (ii)
r

Substitute (ii) into (i),

I G
 mx  2ks  0
r

Defining s  2r , x  r sin   r , and x  r and we can write

1 
 mr  mr   4kr  0
2 

 8k 
n   
 3m 

29
3.7 MODELING OF ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS

Electromechanical systems are constructed by combining electrical and mechanical elements. Such
electromechanical systems include potentiometers, galvanometer, microphone and loudspeakers, and
motors and generators. They can be categorized according to the type of electrical element involved in
the coupling: mechanically varying a resistance, moving a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic
field, or varying capacitance between plates.

3.7.1 COMMON ELECTRICAL ELEMENTS

L
Inductance, L (Henry)
𝑑𝑖
𝑣=𝐿 V i
𝑑𝑡

R
Resistance, R (Ohm)
𝑉 = 𝑖𝑅
V i

Capacitance, C (Farad) C
𝑑𝑣
𝑖=𝐶
𝑑𝑡 V
i

LRC circuit
Applying Kirchoff’s Law
The rate of change at 𝑒𝑖 terminal is

𝑑𝑖 1
𝑒𝑖 = 𝑖𝑅 + 𝐿 + ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
1
𝑒𝑜 = ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶
R L
Taking Laplace Transform
1
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐼 (𝑅 + 𝐿𝑠 + )
𝐶𝑠
𝒆𝒊 i 𝒆𝒐
𝐼
𝐸𝑜 = C
𝐶𝑠
𝐸𝑜 1
=
𝐸𝑖 𝐶𝑠 (𝑅 + 𝐿𝑠 + 1 )
𝐶𝑠
𝐸𝑜 1
=
𝐸𝑖 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 + 1
1
𝐸𝑜 𝐿𝐶
=
𝐸𝑖 𝑅 1
𝑠2 + 𝑠 +
𝐿 𝐿𝐶

30
The Relationship of Voltage-Current with the major elements of electrical system, i.e. R, L and C can
be summarized as table below

Table 3.1: Voltage-current, voltage-charge, and impedance relationships for capacitors, resistors, and inductors (Nise 4th)

Passive Elements Characteristics

Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these specifications can be
important in high-frequency applications. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp, the noise characteristics
of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are
mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally
specified individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology.
A family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the
device and the position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of
circuits using them.

An inductor (also choke, coil or reactor) is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores
energy in its magnetic field. For comparison, a capacitor stores energy in an electric field, and a
resistor does not store energy but rather dissipates energy as heat.

Any conductor has inductance although the conductor is typically wound in loops to reinforce the
magnetic field.

Due to the time-varying magnetic field inside the coil, a voltage is induced, according to Faraday's law
of electromagnetic induction, which by Lenz's lawopposes the change in current that created it.
Inductors are one of the basic components used in electronics where current and voltage change with
time, due to the ability of inductors to delay and reshape alternating currents.

A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to

store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least
two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction
consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts
of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.

When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops
across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other
plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant

31
value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the
potential difference between them.

3.7.2 RESISTIVE COUPLING

A variable resistance can be controlled by mechanical motion by continuously moving an

electrical contact. One terminal is fixed and the other terminal, known as wiper, is free to slide
along the bar while maintaining a good electrical contact. The resistance between the two
terminal is

 
R x(t ) R r (t )
A A

-e+

𝜌 = resistivity 𝐴 = cross section area

Since resistors cannot store energy, this method of coupling does not involve mechanical forces
that depend on electrical variables. A very useful device known as a potentiometer is obtained
by adding a third terminal to the other end of the variable resistor. The two end terminals are
normally connected across a voltage source, and the voltage of the wiper is considered the
output. The voltage divider rule gives

 1   R2 
eo    x(t )ei (t ) eo    ei (t )
 xmax   R1  R2 

3.7.3 COUPLING BY A MAGNETIC FIELD

32
The physical laws governing the movement of current-carrying wires within a magnetic field
state that: (1) a wire in a magnetic field that carries a current will have a force exerted on it,
and (2 ) a voltage will induced in a wire that moves relative to the magnetic field.

The differential force 𝑑𝒇𝑒 on a conductor of differential length 𝑑L carrying a current, 𝑖 in a

magnetic flux density B is

𝑑𝒇𝑒 = 𝑖(𝑑𝐋x𝐁)

For straight conductors that are perpendicular to a unidirectional magnetic field, the scalar
relationship is

𝒇𝑒 = 𝑩𝑙𝑖

where the direction of the force follows the right-hand rule.

fe

B
i

𝒇𝑒 = thumb

The voltage induced a conductor of differential length 𝑑L moving with velocity v in a field
flux density B is

𝑑𝒆𝑚 = (𝐯x𝐁). 𝑑𝐋

𝒆𝑚 = induced voltage

If the three vectors are mutually perpendicular, the scalar relationship is

𝒆𝑚 = 𝐵𝑙v

+
B em

𝒆𝑚 = thumb indicate +ve direction of induced voltage

The force and the induced voltage associated with a wire moving perpendicularly to a
magnetic field can be incorporated in a schematic representation of translational

33
 electromechanical system shown below. The induced voltage is represented by a source in the
electrical circuit, while the magnetically induced force is shown acting on the mass M to
which the conductor is attached.

i v i v

+ +
em M fe em M fe
- -

3.7.4 DC MOTORS

There two common types used in almost all industries, namely direct current (dc) motors and
alternating current (ac) motors. Within the dc motor category there are the armature-
controlled motor and the field-controlled motor.

EXAMPLE 3.5

The schematic diagram shown in Figure E3.5 represents a DC servo system where ea is the input and
 L is the output. The motor drives an inertia load of JL kg-m2 through a gear train as shown below.

34
 +
ea Motor N1 = 20
-

Ja = Ja Kg-m2 JL
N2 = 100
Da = Da N-m-s/rad
θL(t)

JL = JL Kg-m2
DL = DL N-m-s/rad

Figure E3.5

The torque generated by the motor is given by

T1  K t ia

and the back electro-magnetic force (e.m.f) is related to the rotational velocity by the following
expression
Vb  K b1 .

where

K b is the electromagnetic force constant of the motor.

K t is the torque constant of the motor
T1 is the torque induced by motor
1 is the angular speed of the motor
R is the electric resistance of the motor
ea is the voltage applied to the motor
ia is the current flowing through the motor
Vb is the back e.m.f generated by the motor
J a is the moment of inertia of the motor
D a is the damping constant of the motor
N n is the number of teeth for gear train (n = 1, 2,. . .)
J L is the moment of inertia of the rotational system
DL is the damping constant of the rotational system

If ea and  L are the input and output for the system respectively,
i) Derive the mathematical representation for the system

ii) Obtain the state-space model for the system

35
Solution for (i)

From Differential equations of

ea (t )  Ria  Vb (3.5.1)

T1 (t )  J e1  De1 (3.5.2)

T1  K t ia (3.5.3)

Vb  Kb1 (3.5.4)

Substituting equations (1.2, 1.3, and 1.4) into (1.1) yields;

ea (t ) 
 
R J e1  De1  Kt Kb1
(3.5.5)
Kt

The relationship between motor and load is given by;

1 ( s) K t /( RJ e )
 (3.5.6)
Ea ( s )  1 KK 
s  s  ( De  t b )
 Je R 

The equivalent inertia, J m at input shaft is

2
N 
J m  J a  J L  1  (3.5.7)
 N2 

Similarly the equivalent viscous damping, Dm at input shaft

2
N 
Dm  Da  DL  1  (3.5.8)
 N2 

These quantities are substituted into the motor equation, yielding the transfer function of the motor
from the armature voltage to the armature displacement. The gear ratio to arrive at the transfer
function relating load displacement to armature voltage is;

 L ( s) N   m (s)
  1  (3.5.9)
E a ( s)  N 2  E a ( s)

 L ( s) 0.2 K t /( RJ m )
 (3.5.10)
E a ( s)  1 KK 
s s  ( Dm  t b ) 
 Jm R 

State-space representation
Taking inverse Laplace Transform equation (1.10) and rearrange to

36
   1 KK 
 L  ( Dm  t b )L 
ea (t )   
Jm Ra
(3.5.11)
0.2 K t /( RJ m )

0.2 K t 1 KK
ea (t )  L  ( Dm  t b )L (3.5.11)
RJ m Jm Ra

Solution for (ii)

Defining state variable as;

x1   L x1  L  x 2
Differentiating the state
x 2  L variables 0.2 K t 1 KK
x 2  L  ea  ( Dm  t b ) x 2
RJ m Jm Ra

Hence the state equation;

 x1     0 
0 1
  1 K t K b   x1    0.2 K t  e
 x  0  ( Dm  )   (3.5.13)
 2   Ra   x2   RJ m 
a
Jm
Output equation;
x 
y  1 0 1  (3.5.14)
 x2 

EXAMPLE 3.6

For the given electromechanical system shown below, obtain the transfer function.

37
 Figure 3.2: Electromechanical System taken from Control Systems Engineering, Fourth
Edition by Norman S. Nise Copyright © 2004 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.

Solution:

Referring to electromechanical system above, we know that the system is a combination of electrical
and mechanical system. So, derivation will start with DC motor and the output of this will drive the
mechanical system.

The armature voltage, ea is;

ea (t )  Ra I a  vb (t ) (3.6.1)

Back eletromagnetic field, or 𝑣𝑏 is proportional to angular speed, 𝜃(𝑡) produced by rotor,

Hence,

d m (t )
vb (t )  Kb (3.6.2)
dt

Meanwhile, the relationship between induced 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) and mechanical system (torque, 𝑡𝑚 ) is;

tm  Kt ia (t ) (3.6.3)

Where 𝐾𝑡 is torque motor constant

Rearrange Eqn (3);

tm
ia (t )  (3.6.4)
Kt

Subtituting Eqn (1) and (4) into Eqn (2);

tm d (t )
ea (t )  Ra  Kb m (3.6.5)
Kt dt

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The mechanical loading on motor is;

d 2 m (t ) d (t )
tm  J m 2
 Dm m (3.6.6)
dt dt

For rotational mechanical load, the induced angular speed is transmitted though a gear transmission
ratio where 𝑁1 is number of teeth for driver gear which torque generator (rotor) and 𝑁2 is number of
teeth for driven gear, generated torque (load).

J m is the mass moment of inertia for rotational shaft of motor and load, where the relationship is;

2
N 
J m  J a  J l  1  (3.6.7)
 N2 
2
 100 
J m  5kg.m2  700kg.m2    12kg.m
2

 1000 
Similarly, 𝐷𝑚 , is dashpot constant for electrical and mechanical system, where the relationship is;
2
N 
Dm  Da  Dl  1  (3.6.8)
 N2 
2
Nms Nms  100  Nms
Dm  2  800    10
rad rad  1000  rad

Hence, eqn (6) become;

d 2 m (t ) d (t )
tm  12  10 m (3.6.9)
dt 2 dt

Take Laplace Transform of Eqn (5) and (9);

Ra
Ea ( s )  Tm  K b s m ( s ) (3.6.10)
Kt

 
Tm ( s )  12s 2  10s  m ( s ) (3.6.11)

Substituting Eqn (11) into Eqn (10) yields;

 
Ea ( s )  12s 2  10s  m ( s )
Ra
Kt
 K b s m ( s )

R 
Ea ( s )   a 12s  10  K b  s m ( s) (3.6.12)
 Kt 
Thus, The transfer function of the system;

39
  m ( s) 1
 (3.6.13)
Ea ( s )  Ra 
 12s  10  K b  s
 Kt 

d m (t )
The Torque-speed curves gives relationship between mechanical torque, Tm and speed,
dt
From Eqn (5), the following relationship exists when the motor is operating at steady state with a dc
voltage input;

Ra
ea  Tm  K bm (3.6.14)
Kt

Solving for 𝑻𝒎 yields

Kb Kt K
Tm   m  t ea (3.6.15)
Ra Ra

Refering to Torque-speed curve, when 𝜔𝑚 is equal to zero, Torque 𝑻𝒎

Kt
Tm  ea (3.6.16)
Ra
And at this condition, 𝑻𝒎 is known as 𝑻𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍

And when torque is zero, Tm  0 the speed,  m yields

Kb Kt K
0 m  t ea
Ra Ra

Kb Kt K
m  t ea
Ra Ra

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 ea
m  (3.6.17)
Kb

And at this condition,  m is known as no load

Hence, by referring to torque-speed curve,

𝑻𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝝎𝒏𝒐−𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 = 𝟓𝟎
𝒆𝒂 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 (3.6.18)
𝑲𝒕
=𝟓
𝑹𝒂
𝑲𝒃 = 𝟐

Substituting all parameters in (18) into (13);

 m (s) 1

Ea ( s )  
 5 12s  10  2 s
1
 
5
 m (s) 12
 (3.6.19)
Ea ( s ) s  1.667s

41