Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104

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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

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A new depositional and provenance model for the Tanjung Formation, Barito Basin,
SE Kalimantan, Indonesia
Duncan Witts a,⇑, Robert Hall b, Gary Nichols b, Robert Morley c
a
Fugro NPA Limited, Crockham Park, Crockham Hill, Edenbridge, Kent. TN8 6SR, United Kingdom
b
Southeast Asia Research Group, Royal Holloway University London, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, United Kingdom
c
Palynova Limited, 1 Mow Fen Road, Littleport, Cambridgeshire CB6 1PY, United Kingdom

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Barito Basin in southeast Kalimantan contains a thick, and well exposed Cenozoic sedimentary suc-
Received 10 November 2011 cession. The Tanjung Formation represents the oldest part of the succession, and was deposited in a lar-
Received in revised form 20 March 2012 gely terrestrial setting followed by a transgression to shallow marine deposition. The formation is well
Accepted 27 April 2012
exposed along the eastern margin of the basin, and this has provided a rare opportunity to study and date
Available online 9 May 2012
the earliest stages of basin development. There has been considerable debate over the age of the forma-
tion, and most previous interpretations suggest it to be a deltaic succession. The provenance of the Tan-
Keywords:
jung Formation has never been studied. Palynomorphs and foraminifera of this study have established
Tanjung
Barito
that the Tanjung Formation was deposited from late Middle Eocene, until the late Early Oligocene.
Provenance Detailed facies and palaeocurrent analysis suggest the majority of the formation was deposited in a tid-
Tidal ally-influenced coastal plain and estuarine setting, and sediment was transported by rivers flowing
Estuarine towards the north. Heavy mineral assemblages and zircon geochronology have identified the Schwaner
Complex in west Borneo, the Karimunjawa Arch and the southern continuation of the Meratus Complex
currently submerged under the Java Sea, as the main sediment sources of the formation.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The Barito Basin is one of numerous sedimentary basins in SE
Asia which formed during the early Cenozoic (Doust and Sumner,
2007; Hall and Morley, 2004; Hamilton, 1979; Hutchison, 1989).
Initially the basin formed by rifting and subsidence from Middle
Eocene to Early Miocene. From Middle Miocene, uplift of the
basin’s eastern margin developed a foreland basin setting which
remains today. The present-day Barito Basin covers an area of
approximately 70,000 km2 of which most is onshore in southeast
Kalimantan (Fig. 1). The basin is separated from the significantly
smaller Asem–Asem Basin to the east by the Meratus Mountains.
Both basins contain a thick succession of sedimentary rocks that
are well exposed along the flanks of the Meratus Mountains.
The oldest part of the succession is assigned to the Tanjung
Formation (e.g. Siregar and Sunaryo, 1980), and is the focus of this
paper. It provides a record of the earliest stages of basin formation;
from a terrestrial setting in the Middle Eocene, to a complete
transgression by the late Early Oligocene. The formation includes
important reserves of bituminous coal, oil and gas. As a result, it
has been the subject of numerous studies from which a number
of conflicting models have been proposed (e.g. Bon et al., 1996;
Heryanto et al., 1996; Kusuma and Darin, 1989; Polhaupessy,
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 07966 039 120.
E-mail address: d.witts@fugro-npa.com (D. Witts).
1997; Rotinsulu et al., 1993; Satyana, 1995; Satyana et al., 2001;
Satyana and Silitonga, 1994; Siregar and Sunaryo, 1980). The con-
flict between models is due to a number of causes. Firstly, the pau-
city of age-diagnostic fossils in the terrestrial to marginal marine
succession means the formation (and timing of basin formation)
has never been adequately dated. Linking basin formation with
tectonic events has therefore not been possible. Secondly, the suc-
cession has been described in different ways by different people.
This has resulted in an array of informal stratigraphies and conflict-
ing nomenclature, making comparing different stratigraphies diffi-
cult. Thirdly, there have been virtually no field-based studies of the
sedimentary succession, and previous interpretations were based
predominantly on subsurface data from the northeastern corner
of the basin where most of the hydrocarbons have been discovered.
Most previous interpretations suggest a considerable part of the
Tanjung Formation was deposited in a lacustrine and fluvio-deltaic
setting (e.g. Kusuma and Darin, 1989; Rotinsulu et al., 1993; Satya-
na et al., 1999, 2001; Satyana and Silitonga, 1994; Siregar and Su-
naryo, 1980) and was sourced from areas to the northwest
(Hamilton, 1979; Siregar and Sunaryo, 1980). This paper presents
a very different interpretation of the Tanjung Formation that has
developed from field observations, facies analysis, sandstone
petrography and U–Pb ages of detrital zircons, and demonstrates
the importance of field observations in basin analysis, and the
advantage of a multidisciplinary approach to provenance analysis,
particularly in tropical settings.

1367-9120/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2012.04.022
78 D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104
Fig. 1. Simplified map of Borneo showing the main geological features discussed in the paper. The approximate position of the Karimunjawa and Bawean Arches (dashed
lines) are shown. These areas are currently submerged under the Java Sea.
2. Geological background
The Barito Basin is located on the eastern margin of Cretaceous
Sundaland (Hamilton, 1979), between two very different geologi-
cal areas (Fig. 2). To the WNW is the Schwaner Complex, composed
of regional and contact metamorphic rocks (the Pinoh Metamor-
phic Group), granitic and tonalitic plutons and volcanic rocks
(e.g. Amiruddin and Trail, 1989; Tate, 1996). To the east is the
Meratus Complex, comprising two elongate belts of uplifted ophio-
litic, subduction-related metamorphic and arc-type rocks that re-
cord collision and accretion along the eastern margin of
Sundaland in the mid-Cretaceous (Sikumbang, 1986; Wakita
et al., 1998). The complex is thought to continue offshore to the
southwest as far as Central Java (e.g. Hamilton, 1979; Metcalfe,
1996, 2009; Smyth et al., 2007) as the Bawean Arch. To the south,
the basin extends and narrows into the Java Sea. The northern limit
of the Barito Basin is less distinct. It is reported to be defined by the
onshore extension of the NW–SE-trending Paternoster Fault Zone
(e.g. Cloke et al., 1999; Wain and Berod, 1989), termed the Adang
Flexure (e.g. Heryanto et al., 1996) or Adang Fault Zone (e.g. Moss
and Chambers, 1999), and is recognised by a change in Lower Oli-
gocene lithofacies that record an abrupt increase in palaeowater
depth towards the north, suggesting some degree of fault control.
The similarity between the Eocene strata of the Barito, Asem–
Asem and Kutai Basins has lead many workers to suggest the three
basins formed a single Eocene depocentre (e.g. Heryanto, 1993;
Mason et al., 1993; Panggabean, 1991; Pieters et al., 1987; van
Bemmelen, 1949; van de Weerd and Armin, 1992), previously re-
ferred to as the ‘East Kalimantan Mega Basin’ (e.g. Heryanto
et al., 1996). The Kutai Basin became separated in the Early Oligo-
cene due to down-throw on the northern side of the Paternoster
Fault. The stratigraphic similarity between Barito and Asem–Asem
Basins however, suggests they remained connected as a single
depocentre – referred to hereafter as the ‘Proto Barito’ – until uplift
and emergence of the Meratus Mountains in the Late Miocene di-
vided the area. It is estimated that the Proto Barito covered an area
of approximately 160,000 km2. It extended from the Schwaner
Mountains in West Borneo, to the Paternoster Platform, approxi-
mately 500 km to the east; and from just north of the present-
day Barito–Kutai divide, to an area currently submerged under
the Java Sea, approximately 400 km to the south.
The present-day Barito sedimentary succession (Fig. 3a) is esti-
mated to be around 6000 m thick (Hamilton, 1979) and overlies
basement rocks unconformably. The oldest rocks above the
unconformity are assigned to the Tanjung Formation. They were
deposited from Middle Eocene to late Early Oligocene (Witts
et al., 2011) and are predominantly coal-bearing fluvio-tidal and
marginal marine strata that record the initial stages of basin for-
mation, followed by the development of a broad, flat coastal flood-
plain undergoing transgression. The Tanjung Formation is overlain
 D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104
3°S
Java Sea
110°E
Schwaner Complex
Cretaceous volcanics
Cretaceous granitic rocks
Jurassic - Cretaceous sediments
Pre-Triassic (?) metamorphic rocks
Fig. 2. Onshore distribution of basement rocks of the Schwaner and Meratus Complexes compiled from various sources (Amiruddin and Trail, 1993; de Keyser and Rustandi,
1993; Haile et al., 1977; Pieters and Sanyoto, 1993; Sikumbang, 1986; Tate, 1996; Wakita et al., 1998).
in the south by shallow marine carbonates of the Berai Formation,
and in the far north by intertidal and fluviodeltaic strata of the
Montalat Formation (e.g. Supriatna et al., 1994). These formations
were deposited from Late Oligocene to Early Miocene (Witts et al.,
2011). Marginal marine to fluvio-deltaic sedimentary rocks of the
Warukin Formation overlie these formations, and record a period
of regression and basin inversion until the Plio-Pleistocene (e.g.
Satyana et al., 1999). A westwards-thinning wedge of coarse clas-
tics assigned to the Dahor Formation interfingers the Warukin For-
mation in the east, and records the un-roofing of the Meratus
Complex in the Plio-Pleistocene (e.g. van de Weerd and Armin,
1992).
The thickness of the Tanjung Formation increases towards the
north (Hashimoto, 1973; Krol, 1925; Siregar and Sunaryo, 1980,
and references therein). Subsurface data and surface mapping
show the Tanjung Formation thins to the west, onlapping base-
ment rocks of the Schwaner Complex, and to the east across the
Asem–Asem Basin and Paternoster Platform (J. Howes, pers.
comm., 2010). These observations suggest the thickest part of the
formation was approximately in the position of the present-day
Meratus Mountains.
Following recent fieldwork conducted in the Barito Basin by the
first author, the Barito Basin stratigraphy has been revised, build-
ing on existing formation terminology. The revision was necessary
because the formation has previously been described by different
79
Kutai Basin
Barito Basin
3°S
Asem-Asem
Basin
115°E
Meratus Complex
Cretaceous sedimentary rocks.
Borneo
Cretaceous granite and granodiorite
Lower Cretaceous metamhorphic rocks
Cretaceous volcanics
Jurassic ultramafic rocks
people in different ways, creating a confusing nomenclature. For
example, part of the ‘Lower Tanjung Formation’ of Hashimoto
(1973), has subsequently been referred to as the ‘Middle Member
of the Tanjung Formation’ (Siregar and Sunaryo, 1980), ‘Stage 2
of the Lower Tanjung Formation’ by PERTAMINA and Trend Energy
(Kusuma and Darin, 1989; Satyana and Silitonga, 1994) and the
‘upper part of the Lower Tanjung Member of the Tanjung Forma-
tion’ (Satyana, 1995).
Three subdivisions of the Tanjung Formation have been identi-
fied during this study: the Mangkook, Tambak and Pagat Members.
Type sections for each member have been assigned according to
international stratigraphic procedure (see methodology below).
The full stratigraphic revision forms part of a PhD thesis by the first
author, but the main details are summarised here, in Table 1.
The Mangkook Member includes alluvial and fluvial deposits
that record the erosion of irregular basement topography and
localised deposition during the late Middle Eocene. The Tambak
Member accounts for approximately 80% of the Tanjung Forma-
tion. It records a change from localised alluvial to widespread flu-
vio-tidal and estuarine deposition in an overall transgressive
setting from Late Eocene to Early Oligocene. The Pagat Member –
essentially a thin veneer of marginal and shallow marine sedimen-
tary rocks – records the final phase of deposition of the Tanjung
Formation in the late Early Oligocene, prior to the submergence
of the basin under a shallow sea.
80 D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104

2°S

BARITO
BASIN 3°S

Meratus
Complex

Java Sea ASEM-ASEM

4°S 4°S
BASIN

112°E 113°E 114°E 115°E 116°E

Legend

Alluvium
Borneo
Dahor Fm. Study area

Warukin Fm. 0 25 50
Km
Berai Fm. Montalat Fm.
Tanjung Fm.
Basement rocks

Fig. 3a. Cenozoic geology of the Barito and Asem–Asem Basins. Modified from Supriatna et al. (1994).

3. Methods
3.1. Stratigraphy
The stratigraphy of the Barito Basin sedimentary succession was
formally defined during this study, building on existing formation
nomenclature, but revising the stratigraphic position of formation
boundaries, and defining subdivisions of each formation following
international stratigraphic procedure (e.g. Salvador, 1994). Forma-
tions were identified in the field as mappable lithological units,
with easily recognisable (and mappable) lithological boundaries.
Formations were subdivided into members when it was clear that
part of a formation was significantly different in terms of its litho-
logical properties to distinguish it from adjacent parts of the for-
mation, but not to the degree that it justified classification as a
formation. Type sections for each member of each formation were
identified (Table. 1).
3.2. Fieldwork and facies analysis
A large number of sections of the Tanjung Formation were mea-
sured along the western flank of the Meratus Mountains. Samples
were collected for biostratigraphy (palynology and marine fossil
analysis) and provenance analysis. Section and sample locations
are shown on Fig. 3b. Sample numbers define basin, formation
and sample number (e.g. BT31 = Barito Basin, Tanjung Formation,
sample number 31). Twenty lithofacies were identified on the basis
of composition, bed geometries, stratal stacking patterns, and sed-
imentary structures, fossil and trace fossil content. The lateral and
stratigraphic distribution of each facies was examined from the
measured profiles in order to establish which facies or groups of fa-
cies were genetically or environmentally associated. From this,
four facies associations were assembled (TFA1–TFA4).
3.3. Palynology
Samples of coal and fine-grained clastic sedimentary rocks were
collected from the Mangkook and Tambak Members for palynolog-
ical analysis. Samples were processed using standard methods (see
Lignum et al., 2008). Processing and analyses were undertaken
jointly by Palynova, UK and Lemigas (Eko Budi Lelono). No palyno-
logical zonation for the Eocene of the Sunda region has been pub-
lished, and so this study provided the basis for such a zonation. A
reference section was compiled on which a zonation could be
based. Due to limited exposures, several profiles from the same
area were joined to form a single reference section containing 41
samples. The palynological zones are defined in Table 2. The loca-
tions of the relevant profiles are shown in Fig. 3b.
 D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104 81

0 20 40 Km

Tanjung Fm. outcrop

City/town
Barabai
Study location (Tanjung Fm.)
Location of measured section
Palynological reference section
Kandangan

Rantau

3°S 3°S

Banjarmasin

Banjarbaru

115°E

Fig. 3b. Study locations and locations of measured sections and palynological reference sections.

3.4. Marine fossil analysis 3.5. Mineral separation

Foraminifera were analysed from thin sections at University
College London by Dr. Marcelle BouDagher-Fadel, and the associ-
ated sedimentary rocks have been dated using larger foraminifera
by reference to the Letter Stage scheme of van der Vlerk and Umb-
grove (1927) as modified by Adams (1970), BouDagher-Fadel and
Banner (1999) and BouDagher-Fadel (2008) and planktonic foram-
inifera by reference to Tourmarkine and Luterbacher (1985) for the
Eocene, and Bolli and Saunders (1985) for the post Eocene. Letter
Stages and planktonic foraminiferal zones are correlated in BouDa-
gher-Fadel (2008). Numerical ages are from GTS2004 (Gradstein
et al., 2004).
Sandstone provenance was determined from heavy minerals
and U–Pb dating of detrital zircons obtained from channel sand-
stones. Rock crushing was done on strongly consolidated sam-
ples, either using mechanical equipment (jaw crusher) or by
pestle and mortar. Samples were then washed with distilled
water and sieved. The 63–250 lm fraction was then fed through
a bulk magnetic separator. The nonmagnetic fraction was then
separated using heavy liquids (Sodium Polytungstate (SPT)) of
density 2.89 and a funnel separator. Samples were left in the
SPT for approximately 30 min and then the heavy fraction
drained off, rinsed with distilled water and oven dried at 40 °C.
82 D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104
The separated heavy mineral fraction of each sample was
mounted on glass slide in Canada balsam resin for analysis. At
least 300 translucent, non-micaceous grains per slide (sample)
were counted.
Table 1
Summary of the Barito Basin stratigraphy as defined during this study.
Formation Member Previous terminology
Tanjung Mangkook Conglomeratic SST Series, Lower
Tanjung Formation (Hashimoto, 1973);
Lower Member, Tanjung Formation
(Siregar and Sunaryo, 1980); Stage 1,
Lower Tanjung Formation (Kusuma
and Darin, 1989); Sequence 1–2 of
Supersequence-1, Lower Tanjung
Formation (Bon et al., 1996)
Tambak Part of the Lower Tanjung Formation
(Hashimoto, 1973); Middle Member,
Tanjung Formation (Siregar and
Sunaryo, 1980); Stage 2, Lower Tanjung
Formation (Kusuma and Darin, 1989);
upper part, Lower Tanjung Member,
Tanjung Formation (Satyana, 1995)
Pagat Tc and Td Formations of the Upper
Tanjung Formation (Hashimoto, 1973)
Stage 4, Upper Tanjung Formation
(Kusuma and Darin, 1989); Upper
Tanjung Member, Tanjung Formation
(Satyana, 1995)
Montalat Bentot There is no previous formal (published)
division of the Montalat Formation
Kiwa There is no previous formal (published)
division of the Montalat Formation
Berai Pangelak Berai LST (Pelton, 1974), Middle Berai
Formation (Siregar and Sunaryo, 1980),
Massive Member of the Berai
formation (Mason et al., 1993)
Wajau Clastic Member, Berai Formation
(Hashimoto, 1973); Berai Marl (Pelton,
1974); Upper Berai Formation (Siregar
and Sunaryo, 1980); Berai Marl
Member, Warukin Formation (Kusuma
and darin, 1989)
For zircon analysis, samples were processed as per mineral sep-
aration methodology described above, followed by an additional
separation using the heavy liquid Diiodomethane (DIM) of density
3.3, and a FRANTZ magnetic barrier laboratory separator in order to
Type section Boundaries
loc.
S3°160 04.300 Upper boundary exposed at type
E115°080 22.800 section as extensive flat surface
dipping 20°NW. Lower contact
obscured by vegetation and over-
burden. No reference lower boundary
type section identified
Lower part Lower boundary is not exposed at the
S3°070 26.000 type section (lower part). A reference
E115°090 00.700 lower boundary type section is located
Upper part at S3°160 04.300 E115°080 22.800 . The
S2°580 09.600 upper boundary is not exposed. No
E115°150 48.200 reference upper boundary type section
has been formally identified for this
member
S2°580 09.600 Lower boundary: unexposed. Thus no
E115°150 48.200 reference lower boundary type section
has been identified for this member.
Upper boundary located at type
section, defined by the sharp transition
from calcareous mudstones and thin
beds of packstone into massive LSTs
(Berai Fm.)
S1°580 24.700 Lower boundary not exposed at this,
E115°200 20.000 nor any other location visited. Thus, no
reference lower boundary type section
has been identified for this member.
Upper boundary clearly defined at the
type section by a lithological change
from brown calcareous siltstone into
light tan-coloured, cross-bedded
sandstone of the overlying Kiwa
Member
S1°580 12.800 Lower boundary not exposed at the
E115°200 52.800 type section. A reference lower
boundary type section is located at
S1°580 24.700 , E115°200 20.000 (at the top
of the Bentot Member type section)
S2°040 18.800 Lower and upper boundaries not
E115°370 35.600 exposed at type section. Reference
lower boundary type section:
S2°580 09.600 , E115°150 48.200 (upper
boundary type section, Pagat Member).
Reference upper boundary type section
located at S2°030 11.700 , E115°220 04.700
S2°560 33.700 Lower boundary not exposed at this
E115°160 07.500 location. Reference lower boundary
type section at S2°030 11.700
E115°220 04.700 (see reference upper
boundary type section, Pangelak
Member). No reference upper
boundary type section assigned to this
member
Age
Middle Eocene: Palynomorphs:
Beaupreadites matsuokae and
Polygalacidites clarus in an ‘Indian’
assemblage (Palmaepollenites spp.,
Lanagiopollis spp., Lakiapollis ovatus and
Retistephanocolpites williamsi
Base of member: Late Eocene, based on
Palynomorphs: Magnastriatites howardi
and Proxapertites operculatus. Top of
member: upper Tb (P16–P17) based on
foram-infera: Turborotalia pomeroli,
Globigerinatheka sp., Subbotina
eocaenica, Hantkenina sp. and bounding
strata
Base of the member: planktonic zone
P16–P17 (see above). Top of the
member: Td Letter Stage (planktonic
zone lower P19-mid. P21) due to
overlap of Nummulites fichteli and
Eulepidina spp.
Base of the member not observed, so
has not been dated. The top of the
member: planktonic zone N4 (earliest
Miocene), based on the presence of
Globorotalia kugleri
Early Miocene based on the presence of
Globorotalia kugleri at the top of the
underlying member, and N6–N8
marker taxa in overlying strata of the
Warukin Formation
Base of the member: upper Td-lower
Te5 (P21–N4), based on the presence of
Heterostegina borneensis and association
with bounding strata. Top of member:
upper Te5 (N6) – Overlap of Miogypsina
sp., Lepidocyclina (N) sumatrensis,
Miogypsinoides spp., and Eulepidina sp.
Base of the member: upper Te5
(planktonic zone N6) – see above. Top
of the member: upper Te5 – middle Tf1
(planktonic zone N6–N8), based on
overlying strata from the base of the
Warukin Formation (see below)
 D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104 83

Table 1 (continued)

Formation Member Previous terminology Type section Boundaries Age

loc.

Warukin Barabai Lower Warukin Formation (Kusuma Lower part No lower or upper boundary type Base of member: upper lower-middle
and Darin, 1989; Mason et al., 1993; S2°320 46.800 sections assigned to this member Tf1 (N7–N8), from overlap of
Rotinsulu et al., 1993; Heryanto et al., E115°310 10.600 Miogypsinodella sp., Miogypsina spp.,
1996) Upper part and Lepidocyclina (N) brouweri and
S2°510 35.600 bounding strata. Top of member:
E115°170 29.900 middle to upper Tf1 (N8–N9), based on
over-lying strata of the Tapin Member

Tapin Coal Bearing Series (Hashimoto, 1973),
‘syn-inversion’ sequence (Satyana and
Silitonga, 1994), Middle and Upper
Warukin Formation (Rotinsulu et al.,
1993), Upper Warukin Formation
(Siregar and Sunaryo, 1980)
Lower part No lower or upper boundary type Base of member: between 16 Ma and
S2°580 21.600 sections have been identified for the 14 Ma, based on underlying strata and
E115°130 07.200 Tapin Member presence Florschuetzia. levipoli but
Upper part absence of Florschuetzia semilobata and
S2°570 00.800 Campstotemon in strata just above the
E115°130 51.500 base of the member. Top of member:
older than 7.4 Ma (within the
F.meridionalis zone based on the
absence of Stenochlaena milnei type
spores (7.4 Ma datum) and F.
semilobata (top at 16 Ma), and the
presence of Florschuetzia levipoli

Table 2
Eocene palynlogical zonation of this study.

Palynological Age Characteristics/marker taxa

zone
Zone E9 Late Characterised by the overlap of Magnastriatites howardi and the Eocene marker Proxapertites operculatus, which has its top at topmost
Eocene Eocene in Southeast Asia, India and Africa (Morley, 2000)
Zone E8 Late Based on the regular presence of Meyeripollis nayarkotensis and the absence of Magnastriatites howardi, which ranges from the base of
Eocene the overlying zone
Zone E7 Late Characterised by the first consistent occurrence of Cicatricosisporites dorogensis, and by the absence of Meyeripollis nayarkotensis which
Eocene ranges from the base of the overlying zone
Zone E6 Middle Characterised by the presence of Middle Eocene markers: Beaupreadites matsuokae and Polygalacidites clarus in an assemblage
Eocene dominated by ‘Indian’ taxa such as Palmaepollenites spp., Lanagiopollis spp., Lakiapollis ovatus and Retistephanocolpites williamsi. All are
common to abundant in the Middle Eocene Nanggulan Formation (Lelono, 2000)

maximise the concentration of zircons per sample. A 15° forward
slope angle and 25° side tilt at 1.7 amps was used. Zircon concen-
trations were mounted on glass slides in AralditeÒ adhesive and
polished prior to analysis. All processing was conducted by the first
author at Royal Holloway University London.
3.6. U–Pb analysis (LA-ICPMS) of zircon
3.7. Palaeocurrent data
The true dip and dip azimuth of cross-bed foresets from channel
sand bars were measured. The data were corrected manually for
structural dip and then scrutinised statistically using the Raleigh’s
Test for a preferred trend. Critical values are given by Mardia
(1972). The data were then plotted on rose diagrams using Stere-
onet for Windows V1.2Ó 2002–2003 software.

Detrital zircons were dated at University College London, using
LA-ICPMS under the guidance of Dr. Andrew Carter. The New Wave
213 aperture-imaged, frequency-quintupled laser ablation system
(213 nm) was used, coupled to an Agilent 750 quadrupole-based
ICP-MS. Real time data were processed using GLITTER™. Repeated
measurements of external zircon standard Plesovic (reference age
determined by thermal ionisation mass spectrometry (TIMS) of
337.13 ± 0.37 Ma (Sláma et al., 2008)) and NIST 612 silicate glass
(Pearce et al., 1997) were used to correct for instrumental mass
bias and depth-dependent inter-element fractionation of Pb, Th
and U. Data were filtered using standard discordance tests with a
10% cut-off. The 206Pb/238U ratio was used to determine ages less
than 1000 Ma and the 207Pb/206Pb ratio for grains older than
1000 Ma. Data were processed using Isoplot™. At least 120 grains
per slide (sample) were analysed. LA-ICPMS results are available as
Supplementary Data.
4. The age of the Tanjung Formation
A chronostratigraphy for the Barito Basin is presented in Fig. 4.
The oldest rocks of the Tanjung Formation are late Middle Eocene,
based on the palynomorph marker taxa Beaupreadites matsuokae
and Polygalacidites clarus in an assemblage dominated by ‘Indian’
taxa such as Palmaepollenites spp., Lanagiopollis spp., Lakiapollis
ovatus and Retistephanocolpites williamsi that relate to the dispersal
of flora from India to SE Asia during the Middle Eocene (Morley,
1998). The assemblage was recorded from mudstones intercalated
with alluvial conglomerates of the Mangkook Member. The top of
the formation is late Early Oligocene, based on the overlap of the
larger foraminifera Eulepidina spp., and Nummulites fichteli. This
overlap ranges from 33.5 Ma to 28.4 Ma (BouDagher-Fadel, 2008;
Gradstein et al., 2004). These data were compiled from the central
part of the field area (Fig. 3b), thus it is possible that deposition of
84 D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104
Fig. 4. Generalised stratigraphy of the Barito Basin (from south to north) modified from Witts et al. (2011). Age diagnostic fauna and flora are indicated (foraminiferal and
palynomorph assemblages).
the Tanjung Formation was diachronous, beginning slightly earlier
in the north of the basin where the formation is thickest. However,
it seems unlikely that the formation extends into the Palaeocene
(e.g. Campbell and Ardhana, 1988; Kusuma and Darin, 1989) or
Maastrichtian (Bon et al., 1996) as previously suggested. Unfortu-
nately, no age-diagnostic fauna were included in the Campbell
and Ardhana (1988) or Kusuma and Darin (1989) publications.
The Maastrichtian age suggested by Bon et al. (1996) was based
on a review of three wells from the southern part of the Barito Ba-
sin which contain Late Cretaceous and Palaeocene nannofossils.
Prior to the review, the nannofossils were thought to be reworked.
However, Bon et al. (1996) correlated the stratigraphic distribution
of the fossils with interpreted flooding surfaces, leading them to
suggest that the fossils were in situ, and the lower part of the for-
mation was mainly Palaeocene. Unfortunately, the recorded fauna
were not included in the publication.
We disagree with these interpretations for a number of reasons.
Firstly, the nannofossils are reported in ‘‘alluvial to lacustrinal’’
sedimentary rocks, which is inconsistent with the types of rocks
in which nannofossils occur. Secondly, intervals of the Tanjung For-
mation which are definitely marine did not yield nannofossils,
emphasising the anomalous nature of occurrences in the ‘lacustrin-
al’ rocks. Thirdly, the coal-rich part of the succession examined
during the present study contains abundant palynomorphs associ-
ated with the migration of ‘Indian’ taxa into the Sunda region.
These include Palmaepollenites spp., Lanagiopollis spp., L. ovatus
and R. williamsi. The dispersal has often been linked with the colli-
sion between India and Asia, partly because the prolific nature of
the Indian floral invasion is thought to have required a terrestrial
migratory corridor. The India-Asia collision is widely considered
to have occurred in the Eocene (e.g. Ali and Aitchison, 2008; Leech
et al., 2005; Morley, 2000; Najman, 2006; Rowley, 1996). Sedimen-
tary rocks of Palaeocene age are rare in most of Sundaland, but
have been reported from the Manunggul Group in the Meratus
Mountains, southeast Kalimantan (Sikumbang, 1986); the Kayan
Formation (previously assigned to the Plateau Sandstone) in Sara-
wak (Muller, 1968); the Sapulut Formation in Sabah (Collenette,
1965; Hutchison, 2005); the Jatibungkus Limestone of East Java
(Paltrinieri et al., 1976), and from the Pre-Ngimbang of the Java
Sea. Most of these examples have been dated using palynology
and foraminifera, and missing from all of the assemblages are ‘In-
dian’ palynomorphs (Morley, 2000). Most of the sedimentary ba-
sins in the Sunda region began to form in the early Cenozoic
(Doust and Sumner, 2007; Hall and Morley, 2004; Hamilton,
1979; Hutchison, 1989). The development of these basins allowed
many lowland floral communities to flourish, resulting in wide-
spread peat (and subsequent coal) development in numerous sed-
imentary successions that contain similar lithofacies to the
Tanjung Formation. These include the Nanggulan and Ngimbang
Formations on and offshore Java, and the Mallawa Formation in
southwest Sulawesi. All of these successions contain common ele-
ments associated with dispersal from India that are present in the
oldest coals of the Tanjung Formation.
5. Depositional environment
Twenty lithofacies were identified in the Tanjung Formation
(summarised in Table 3), which have been assembled into four
 D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104
facies associations (TFA1–TFA4). The approximate relative abun-
dance of each lithofacies involved in each association is given in
Table 4). Stratigraphic logs giving examples of TFA1–TFA4 are pre-
sented in Fig. 5a. Stratigraphic symbols used in the logs are given in
Fig. 5b. The changes record an overall transgressive trend, from a
terrestrial alluvial, to a shallow marine setting. This trend is illus-
trated in Figs. 6a and 6b. The occurrence of tidal facies in most of
the formation reveals that tidal processes were influencing sedi-
mentation at a very early stage. The facies involved in each associ-
ation are listed below in order of decreasing abundance. Some of
the key tidal indicators (sedimentary structures and trace fossils)
are shown in Figs. 7a and 7b respectively.
5.1. TFA1: Alluvial braid-plain
This association records the initial stages of basin development,
and the erosion of, and deposition upon, irregular basement topog-
raphy. The lateral distribution and thickness of this association var-
ies considerably, and is often absent from the Tanjung succession.
When facies T1–T3 are present, T2 always occurs stratigraphically
above T1, and T3 above T2. This indicates an up-section change
from poorly organised alluvial, to structurally ordered fluvial sedi-
mentation, combined with a marked reduction in grain size. This
interpretation of alluvial to fluvial deposition is consistent with
previous interpretations (e.g. Kusuma and Darin, 1989; Siregar
and Sunaryo, 1980).
5.2. TFA2: Fluvio-tidal coastal floodplain and estuarine setting
This association is largely composed of floodplain deposits of fa-
cies T6, that occasionally contain evidence of tidal reworking; flu-
vial channel sandstones (T4); heterolithic fluvio-tidal channel
point bars (T7); small lenses of channel sandstones (T5); and silic-
iclastic mudstone (T15). These are commonly interbedded with
current-rippled sandstone sheets, lenticular, wavy and flaser-bed-
ded sand- silt- or mudstones (T9, T11–T14); all of which contain
features suggestive of tidal influence. These include bi-polar palae-
ocurrents, mud drapes, synaeresis cracks, and a restricted trace fos-
sil assemblage limited to Palaeophycus heberti, Psilonichnus upsilon
and Skolithos (G. Pemberton, pers. comm., 2010) suggesting
stressed conditions (Zonneveld et al., 2001) such as shifting salinity
levels and/or variable sedimentation rates.
The association also includes laterally extensive planar coals
(T17), shale (T16), minor calcareous channel sandstones (T8) and
rare beds of hummocky cross-stratified sandstones (T10). The
organisation of these lithofacies suggests the development of a lat-
erally extensive, poorly-drained fluvio-tidal floodplain and estua-
rine setting. The packages of T4, comprising stacked sets (up to
14 m thickness) of medium-grained cross-bedded channel sand-
stone were deposited by channels flowing towards the north, as
indicated by palaeocurrents (Fig. 8). In contrast, heterolithic point
bars (T7) rarely exceed four or five metres thickness, and are
invariably composed of coarse- and fine-grained couplets, indicat-
ing that the channels that formed them were relatively small (up to
50 m across (Leeder, 1973)), sinuous and tidal.
The presence of tidal indicators intercalated with fluvial facies
clearly indicates that tidal processes were influencing sedimenta-
tion. This is also suggested by the presence of freshwater swamp
(palm) pollen, especially of the genus Palmaepollenites, in associa-
tion with regular mangrove elements, especially Florschuetzia trilo-
bata and Nypa; and the presence of hummocky cross stratification
(HCS). Although HCS is generally thought of as an indicator of off-
shore storm deposition, numerous occurrences have been reported
within shallow (<5 m) water settings (e.g. Greenwood and Sher-
man, 1986; Nouidar and Chellaï, 2002; Reineck and Singh, 1986).
The stratigraphic position of this facies (essentially occurring be-
85
tween floodplain deposits) suggests this facies was deposited with-
in shallow marine inlets or estuaries (e.g. Nouidar and Chellaï,
2002), implying the coastline was relatively complex.
This interpretation of a fluvio-tidal coastal plain setting is
inconsistent with the lacustrine deltaic setting proposed by Kusu-
ma and Darin (1989). No evidence of deltaic deposition (such as
large scale progradation) was observed in this, or any other facies
association of the Tanjung Formation. In addition, the thick and lat-
erally extensive planar coals of this association are not typical of a
deltaic depositional setting. Peat accumulation in environments
characterised by high rates of clastic sediment input tend to pro-
duce laterally discontinuous coals that vary in thickness and are of-
ten split by fluvial facies (McCabe, 1984).
5.3. TFA3: Lower coastal plain and estuarine setting (strong tidal
influence)
Crevasse splays and overbank fines (T6), mudstone (T15), sand-
silt- and mudstones of facies T9, T11–T14 and T17 (all containing
abundant tidal signatures), fluvial (T5) and tidal (T7) channel
deposits dominate this facies association, followed by channel
sandstones of T4; coal (T17); shale (T16); and calcareous channel
deposits (T8). This association has many similarities to TFA2, but
the relative abundance, stratigraphic organisation and thicknesses
of particular facies suggest a more transitional, tidal-dominant
depositional environment (see Table 4). The sandstone–mudstone
ratio of T6 is typically lower than recorded in TFA2, and tidal indi-
cators within T4 and T11–T15 are in significantly greater abun-
dance. These include bi-polar palaeocurrent indicators, synaeresis
cracks, and a restricted trace fossil assemblage, limited to Teichich-
nus and P. heberti. Coals of this association are laterally non-exten-
sive and typically <0.25 m thick and are invariably overlain by
mudstone, sometimes rhythmically interlaminated with siltstone,
and containing Late Eocene foraminifera such as Turborotaila
pomeroli, Globigerinatheka sp., Subbotina eocaenica, Hantkenina sp.
Biplanispira, Pellatispira, Turborotalia increbescens, Globigerina vene-
zuelana, and Hantkenina alabamensis and reworked Loftusia sp. and
Orbitoides sp., indicating deepening conditions (this assemblage
suggests inner neritic or middle neritic water depths) and mire ter-
mination thus probably resulted from transgression (Chakraborty
et al., 2003; Diessel, 1992). This facies association is interpreted
to represent deposition in an intertidal lower coastal plain and
estuarine setting. This conflicts with some previous interpretations
that describe floodplain to shallow lacustrine, fluvio-deltaic chan-
nels with an upward transition to marine barrier and intertidal
bar sands (Kusuma and Darin, 1989; Siregar and Sunaryo, 1980).
5.4. TFA4: Marginal to shallow marine
This association is dominated by mudstone (T15); sand- silt-
and mudstones of T9 and T11, T13 and T14, containing Teichichnus
and P. heberti; coal (T17); shelf sand- and siltstones, the latter con-
taining shallow marine Scolicia (R.G. Bromley, pers. comm., 2010);
and limestone (T18–T20). Beds of coal are rare in this association,
only occurring as streaks of coal or shaly (muddy, friable) coal
within units of mudstone, the latter becoming increasingly calcar-
eous up-section. This suggests an increase in (marine) flooding
frequency, and the biodegradation of organic material in the more
neutral pH conditions of brackish waters (McCabe, 1984).
Intertidal/marginal facies contain an abundance of tidal signatures
and inner neritic fossil assemblages (e.g. fragments of echinoids,
ostracods, shell material, benthic foraminifera Cibicidoides spp.,
Quinqueloculina spp., Polymorphina spp., Anomalinoides spp., Nonion
communis, Nonionella spp., and the planktonic foraminifera Acarin-
ina pentacamerata), and are invariably overlain by calcareous shelf
siltstones, calcareous mudstones and limestones – the latter
Table 3a
Lithofacies T1–T7 of the Tanjung Formation.
Facies Associated G. size Description
facies
T1 T15 gr. – cob. Matrix-supported conglomerate. Rounded to sub-rounded qtz, chert, SST,
mudst, basic igneous rock fragments. Matrix: mudstone. Sorting: poor.
Grading: none. Colour: yellow to deep rust orange. Bed thicknesses: from
0.4 m to 2 m. Bed bases: erosive. Conglomerate beds separated by grey
mudstone partings
T2 T3, T4 v.c. – Grain-supported pebbly SST. Similar composition to facies T1. Sorting:
peb. moderate to good. Grading: normal or inverse. Crude cross-bedding. Clast
morphologies: rounded to well-rounded. Colour: near white, grey to deep rust
orange. Beds: diffuse lenses <1.5 m thick or thin pebble stringers. Lower
boundaries: sharp, erosive and undulated
T3 T5 m. – c. Grain-supported trough cross-bedded, qtz-rich SST. Granules and small
pebbles occur locally. Moderately sorted, normally graded. Grains: angular -
sub-angular. Colour: almost white to deep rust orange. Stacked interlocking
lenses separated by mm. clay/mud partings. W/H ratios of lenses >8. Lens
heights: 0.5–1.5 m. Lower boundaries: erosive. Upper boundaries: flat,
current-rippled. Cross-bed set heights: 0.1–0.5 m, reducing up-section
T4 T5, T11, m. – gr. Grain-supported planar cross-bedded qtz-rich SST. Sorting: good. Grading:
T12, T13, normal. Grains: angular to sub-angular. Colour: near white to yellow-orange.
T15 Single or stacked sheets. Sheet thicknesses: from 0.4 m to 2.0 m. Stacked
successions may be up to 14 m thick. Lower boundaries: sharp, flat and
erosional. Upper boundaries: sharp and may be current-rippled. Cross-bed set
heights: from 50 mm to 500 mm, typically reducing up-section. When stacked
sets, the height of each set varies along its length due to truncation by the
overriding set. Herringbone cross-stratification constitutes <10% of this facies
T5 T4, T9, c. – gr. Grain-supported cross-bedded qtz-rich SST. Sorting: good. Grading: normal.
T11, T12, Pebbles occur locally. Grains: angular to sub-round. Colour: medium grey-
T13, T15 green to yellow-tan. Beds: isolated lenses (W/H ration <20). Lens heights:
<0.5 m, commonly <0.1 m. Lower boundaries: concave-up, erosive. Upper
boundaries: flat/current-rippled. Cross-bed set heights: 50–500 mm. Current-
ripples occasionally show opposing flow direction to internal cross-bedding.
Teichichnus recorded on upper boundaries of some lenses
T6 T11, T12, m. – gr. Alternating qtz-rich SST and mudst. beds. SST: normally graded, grain-
T13, T15, supported, well-sorted. Grains: sub-angular. Colour: pale grey to yellow-tan.
T17 Mudst: medium grey. Stacked units of SST lenses (W/H ratios >30) with
mudstone partings. Lens heights: 10–500 mm. Mudst partings range: 5–
200 mm thick. Lower boundaries of lenses: sharp, generally flat. Upper
boundaries: sharp, current rippled. Lenses: cross-bedded/structureless. Cross-
bed set thickness: 100–500 mm. Current ripples may show opposing flow
direction (180°) to internal cross-beds. Desiccation, synaeresis cracks
relatively common. Palaeophycus heberti recorded in mudst. partings
T7 T6, T11, m. – gr. Composition is essentially the same as T6. SST and mudst. beds develop as
12, T13, coarse (SST) and fine grained (mudst.) couplets at an incline to vertically
T15, T17 adjacent strata, forming packages of inclined heterolithic stratification (IHS).
Upper terminations of inclined beds are offlapped to overriding strata, and
lower terminations downlap onto underlying strata. IHS packages: 2–6 m
high, although truncation by the overriding beds suggests this may be a
conservative figure in some cases. Internal bed thicknesses: 10–150 mm,
thinning and fining up-section. Lower boundaries of IHS packages: sharp.
Upper boundaries: gradational or truncated
86
Process of formation Interpreted environment
of deposition
High energy, erosive, sub-aerial flow. High sediment–water ratio. Clast Alluvial fan
morphologies: abrasive transport and/or sediment reworking. Variation in conglomerates/debris
bed thickness: deposition was restricted by, and possible derived from, local flows
topography and de-posited as valley fill or lobate masses. Mudstone partings:
intermittent deposition
Composition: mixed provenance. Varied grain size, level of sorting and Vertically-accreted pebbly
grading: deposition from variable flow energies. Clast morphologies: fluvial bars deposited by
sediment reworking. Lens geometry, erosive lower boundaries and crude braided channels
cross-beds: channelized, unidirectional flow
Lens geometry indicates channelized fluvial flow. Trough cross-bedding Sandy fluvial sand bars
produced by migration of sinuous bedforms in unidirectional current. Up- deposited by an
section reduction in cross-bed set height indicates deposition by bedforms of established fluvial system
decreasing size in shallowing conditions or increasing rates of erosion of the
D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104
top of the bedforms. Clay/mud partings deposited from slack water
Sheet geometry: non-confined flow. Planar cross-bedding: down-flow Sandy fluvial bars with
migration of straight-crested ripples or dunes. Up-section decrease in set minor tidal influence
height: decreasing water depth/increased rates of erosion of underlying cross-
bed set. Stacked cross-bed sets: vertical accretion of bedforms produced by
established fluvial system. Herringbone cross-stratification: tidal reworking
or vertical stacking of dunes from channels with complex migration histories
(e.g. migrating sinuous channels)
Cross-bedding: migration of bedforms in unidirectional flow. Normal grading Sandy channel fill by small
and current-rippled upper boundaries: deposition from waning flow. subsidiary channels of the
Opposing flow on upper boundaries: tidal reworking. Bed geometry: lower floodplain
channelized deposition. Teichichnus: thin, stacked tongues of sediment
produced by deposit feeders, e.g. annelids or arthropods associated with
estuarine, supratidal, brackish lagoon/bay marginal marine, shelfal and deep
marine settings
Bend geometry and sedimentary structures: unconfined unidirectional flow. Crevasse splays and
Alternations of SST and mudst.: intermittent deposition. Up-section shift from overbank fines
cross-bedding to current ripples to mudst.: deposition from waning flow
velocities. Desiccation cracks: subaerial exposure, dehydration of wet
sediment. Synaeresis: earthquake-induced dewatering, sediment compaction,
or changes in salinity. Opposing flow indicators: tidal reworking of the top of
the cross-bedded SST beds. P. heberti is constructed by suspension-feeding or
predaceous invertebrates. Burrows are open, and in-filled by passive
sedimentation (Pemberton and Frey, 1982) associated with near-shore
lacustrine to intertidal or storm-influenced shelf
The inclined bedding: depositional dip, forming on inner bends of meandering Point bars constructed by
channels as point bars, dipping into the channel. The heterolithic composition meandering fluvio-tidal
(couplets) formed by interaction between fluvial and tidal currents. During channels
tidal ebb, the channel is fluvial dominant, and SST is deposited. deposited.
During tidal flood, fluvial energy is removed and the finer material is
deposited from suspension. The thicknesses of the IHS packages suggest they
developed in channels developed in channels 50 m wide; based on
w = 1.5  h/tanb, where w = width of channel, h = depth of channel (the
thickness of the IHS), and b = dip angle of the IHS (Leeder, 1973). IHS is typical
of highly sinuous tidal and estuarine channels
Table 3b
Lithofacies T8–T13 of the Tanjung Formation.
Facies Associated G. size Description
facies
T8 T11, T14, c. – peb. Grain-supported conglomerate of qtz. and siltst. fragments and woody plant
T15 debris cemented with calcite. Grading: none. Sorting: poor. Clasts: sub-
angular (qtz.) to rounded (siltst., plant debris). Colour: very pale grey with
dark brown intraclasts. Beds: isolated lenses (W/H ratios >10). Lens heights:
<150 mm, varying along the length of the lens. Lower boundaries: erosive.
Upper boundaries: sharp and current-rippled
T9 T6, T11, v.f. – f. Grain-supported, current-rippled qtz. and mica-rich SST sheets. Sorting: good.
T12, T13, Grading: normal or ungraded. Mica: small flakes oriented parallel to bedding.
T15 Plant flecks occur locally within ripple troughs. Clasts: sub-angular. Colour:
pale grey to medium grey-blue. Beds: thin sheets and lenses. Bed thicknesses:
from 10 mm to 50 mm, decreasing up-section. Beds separated by mm-thick
mudst. partings/drapes. Upper and lower boundaries: sharp. Successions of
beds up to 3.5 m thick. Current ripples: ubiquitous. Amplitudes: <50 mm.
Wavelengths: <300 mm. Ripple forms: straight, sinuous, linguoid. Orientation
of ripple crests and ripple asymmetry indicate widely dispersed or opposing
(180°) flow. The latter often represented in successive beds. Skolithos and P.
heberti. Skolithos: characterised by straight to gently curved, non-branching
vertical shafts of uniform diameter (8 mm). Shaft lengths: >30 mm
T10 T15 v.f. – f. Qtz and organic-rich hummocky cross-stratified SST. Sorting: good. Grading:
ungraded. Colour: medium grey. A pebble bed (one clast thick) was recorded
immediately underlying this facies, consisting of well rounded to angular
pebbles. Beds: laterally extensive sheets ranging from 300 mm to 500 mm
thick. Beds separated by mudst. Lower and upper boundaries: sharp lower.
Hummocks: 30 mm high and 250 mm long to 50 mm high and 500 mm
long. Bedforms show slight deformation as a result of post-depositional
compaction
T11 T6, T12, m. – c. Lenses/starved ripples of grain-supported, qtz and mica-rich SST within
T13 mudst. Grading: normal. Sorting: good. Colour (mudst.): medium to dark grey,
(SST): pale grey to yellowy-grey. Grains: sub-angular to angular. Beds:
laterally persistent or nonpersistent, a few mm up to 2 m in thickness. Lower
boundaries: gradational or sharp. Lenses (ripples): may be cross-laminated
(W/H ratios of lenses range: 10 – 100; the maximum being associated with
pin-stripe bedding). Lens/Ripple heights: <10 mm. Soft sediment deformation
(convolute lamination and dewatering structures): common. Psilonichnus
upsilon and P. heberti occur locally. P. upsilon: vertical or slightly inclined
cylindrical, sparsely branched to un-branched shafts, typically straight to
slightly arcuate. Shaft diameters: 7 mm. Lengths: 30 mm to 200 mm
T12 T6, T11, f. Broadly equal amounts of grain-supported qtz and mica-rich wavy-bedded
T13 SST and mudst. Grading (SST): normal. Sorting (SST): good. Colour (SST): med.
grey to light tan, (mudst.): medium grey. Beds: laterally persistent or non-
persistent, ranging from 10 mm to 300 mm thick. Lower boundaries: sharp or
gradational. Ripple amplitudes: 10–30 mm. Lengths: 50–150 mm. Ripples:
asymmetric and cross-laminated with organic material or mud drapes. Soft-
sediment deformation common (dewatering structures)
T13 T11, T12, f. Flaser-bedded, grain-supported qtz- and mica-rich SST and organic-rich
T14, T15 mudst. Grading (SST): normal. Sorting: good. Colour (SST): medium grey -
light tan. Mudstone: organic-rich, medium to dark grey. Beds: laterally
persistent or non-persistent, from 5 mm to 20 mm thick. May comprise large
(amplitudes: 10–20 mm) or small (amplitudes:<10 mm) asymmetric ripples.
Successions of beds: up to 7 m thick. Lower and upper boundaries: sharp or
gradational. Cross-laminated asymmetric ripples: ubiquitous. Soft sediment
deformation: common (slump and dewatering structures). Rare, currently
unidentified vertical burrows
Process of formation Interpreted environment
of deposition
Composition and clast morphology: mixed provenance. Rounded clasts and Small, isolated fluvial
plant debris: erosion of a lithified silty and organic-rich substrate. Calcite: channel deposits within
organic or marine origin, circulated as carbonate-rich fluid through the mud-flats
permeable conglomeratic material. Bed geometry: confined (channelized)
flow
Facies produced by non-confined, rhythmic, shallow water deposition. Ripple Laterally extensive, sandy
forms, opposing and widely dispersed palaeocurrent directions: often tidal flat deposits
produced in marginal/tidal settings, e.g. interdistributary areas of deltas,
estuaries, sub-tidal sand flats. Although palaeocurrents are widely dispersed,
when grouped, they show a preferred trend towards the southwest. This is in
contrast to the north-directed palaeocurrents recorded from T4, and may
indicate tidal flood towards the southwest. Skolithos: considered a dwelling
burrow produced and inhabited by a variety of animals, e.g. spiders, crabs and
D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104
suspension feeders, and is attributed to various depositional settings ranging
from intertidal to continental. Therefore, Skolithos cannot be regarded as
diagnostic of a particular depositional setting. However, its association with P.
heberti suggest marginal marine or intertidal deposition
HCS: combined effects of oscillatory flow from waves and uni-directional Storm deposition within
current. Experimental studies show that HCS forms just above storm-wave shallow marine inlets or
base when rates of sediment accumulation are sufficient to develop and estuaries
preserve hummocks, and uni-directional current strength is low enough to
generate low-angle cross-stratification (Dumas and Arnott, 2006). HCS is
commonly used as a diagnostic feature of shallow marine storm deposits,
occurring in water depths >3 m
Lenticular bedding: intermittent or alternating flow regime. Isolated Overbank fines or tidal
sandstone lenses (starved ripples) form when amount of sand being deposited sand/mud-flat deposition
is fixed, and the erosion of the stoss side of each ripple matches the rate of (depending on associated
deposition on the lee slope (the ripple simply migrates over the bed surface). facies)
Mud-rich sediment is de-posited from suspension when the depositing
current pauses, blanketing (thus preserving) the ripples (Reineck and Singh,
1986). Soft sediment deformation: differences in cohesive character, water
content and densities of the interbedded lithologies. These may develop from
different rates of sediment accumulation and are common within tidal
sedimentary environments (Klein, 1977). P. upsilon is diagnostic of intertidal/
estuarine deposition
Wavy bedding: similar processes/under similar conditions to that described Overbank fines or tidal
for T11 (lenticular bedding). The difference in sedimentary structure arises sand/mud-flat deposition
from an increase in the sandstone to mudstone ratio (depending on associated
facies)
Flaser bedding: alternating periods of relatively rapid flow that promotes the Overbank fines or tidal
formation of sand ripples, and slack water when discontinuous mud drapes sand/mud-flat deposition
are deposited from suspension. Although flaser bedding has been reported (depending on associated
from fluvial (e.g. Terwindt and Breusers, 1972; Martin, 2000) and lacustrine facies)
deltaic (e.g. Pollard et al., 1982; Temane et al., 1989) settings, the intermittent
and bidirectional flow that formed the sedimentary structures of this facies
suggests intertidal deposition e.g. intertidal and subtidal flats and tidal
channels (e.g. Reineck and Singh, 1986; Dalrymple and Choi, 2007), Soft-
sediment deformation: as described for facies T11
87
Table 3c
Lithofacies T14–T20 of the Tanjung Formation.
Facies Associated G. size Description
facies
T14 T6, T11, sil. – v.f. Grain-supported qtz and mica-rich siltst., either clean, organic-rich or
T12, T13, calcareous. Grading: normal or ungraded. Sorting: good. Colour: pale grey
T15 to locally deep pink-orange. Beds: laterally persistent sheets: tens of
millimetres up to 7 m thick. Upper and lower boundaries: mostly
gradational but may be sharp. Siltst., either structureless, parallel-
laminated or current-rippled. Sedimentary structures highlighted by
differing concentrations of organic material (mm-scale plant fragments). P.
upsilon, Skolithos recorded
T15 T6, T11, cl. – sil. Siliciclastic to slightly calcareous structureless or parallel laminated
T12, T13, mudstone Either clean or organic-rich (plant debris) or slightly calcareous.
T14 Colour: medium to dark grey. Beds: from 0.3 m to >5 m. May contain thin
(<100 mm), laterally discontinuous streaks of coal. Lower and upper
boundaries: gradational or sharp. Shell fragments, small gastropods,
ostracods, and foraminifera: Cibicidoides spp., Quinqueloculina spp.,
Polymorphina spp., Anomalinoides spp., Nonion communis, Nonionella spp.,
Acarinina pentacamerata, Loftusia sp. and Orbitoides sp. recorded within
calcareous horizons, plus various currently unidentified burrows
T16 T15, T17 cl. – sil. Organic-rich shale: muddy to coaly shale, occasionally parallel-laminated.
Colour: very dark grey or black. Occurs as laterally non-persistent beds,
tens of mm thick. Lower and upper boundaries: gradational. Rootlets,
pollen and spores (mixed freshwater and brackish assemblage) are
abundant
T17 T6, T15, n/a Shiny, brittle coal. Colour: jet black. Beds: laterally persistent for several
T16 tens of kilometres (exposure limited), or non-persistent lenses and streaks.
Bed thicknesses: 0.05 m and 3 m. Lens and streak thicknesses: 1–200 mm
and lengths up to 10 m. In general, all bed dimensions and abundance
decrease up-section. Rootlets and mixed freshwater (palm) and brackish
(e.g. Nypa, Florchuetzia spp.) pollen and spores assemblage
T18 T15 f. – m. Ca-cemented, quartzose SST. Grading: normal or un-graded. Sorting: good.
Grains: sub-angular. Colour: medium grey. Beds: isolated lenses (W/H
ratios >20, lens height: 10–120 mm) or ribbons. Lower boundaries: sharp,
concave-up and undulated. Top surfaces: sharp. Ribbons: highly sinuous in
plan form with current-rippled upper boundaries
T19 T20 cl. – sil Calcareous siltst. and mudst. Grading: normal. Grains: sub-angular. Colour:
medium grey/blue-grey. Relatively monotonous units of rippled or parallel-
laminated siltst. Rippled draped with thin lamina of calcareous mudst.
Successions of this facies extend laterally for several hundred metres and
may reach several tens of metres in thickness. Lower and upper boundaries:
sharp or slightly gradational. Due to intense bioturbation, specific ripple
forms are difficult to identify. Scolicia (echinoid) burrows, and various,
currently unidentified burrows and trails are abundant
T20 T19 wacke – Sparitic and micritic wackestone and packstone. Colour: med. grey. Bed
pack geometry is unknown due to limited exposure. Beds: less than 2 m thick.
Bed boundaries: sharp. Marine bioclasts abundant: foraminifera:
Planostegina spp. Sphaerogypsina sp., Paleomiogypsina sp., Planorbulinella
solida, Lepidocyclina sp., Operculina sp., Heterostegina spp., Cycloclypeus spp.,
Textularia spp., frags. of Eulepidina, Globorotalia sp., Quinqueloculina sp.,
Planostegina sp., Nummulites fichteli, Sphaerogypsina spp., Discogypsina
discus, Austrotrillina striata, Borelis pygmaeus, Heterostegina (Vlerkina)
borneensis, Lepidocyclina isolepidinoides, Paleomiogypsina sp., Globoquadrina
altispira, Spiroclypeus sp. and small miliolids, fragments of echinoid,
rodophyte, corals and bryozoa
88
Process of formation Interpreted environment of
deposition
Grain size and bedforms: deposition from intermittent flow, also suggested Medial to distal part of
by the coexistence of siltstone and organic-rich material. Bed geometry: crevasse splay or terminal
non-confined deposition. Soft sediment deformation: as described for T11. splay deposited within the
The stratigraphic relationship with facies T6 indicates decreasing flow, intertidal zone of the lower
forming the distal part of crevasse splays or terminal splays. P. upsilon: floodplain
deposition was likely within the intertidal zone
Mudstone: deposition of clay and silt from suspension. Absence of Within the Mangkook and
stratification: fluid-mud deposition or intense bioturbation. Presence of Tambak Members, this facies
stratification: intermittent deposition. Coal streaks: allochthonous (e.g. records predominantly
peat mats/fragments). Foraminiferal assemblages: inner neritic deposition. floodplain and estuarine
Loftusia sp. and Orbitoides sp.: reworking of Late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) deposition. In the Pagat
marine strata Member, it records inner
D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104
neritic deposition
This facies was formed by the combined deposition of very fine-grained Association with mudstone
clastic sediment with plant matter in consistently waterlogged and coal: floodplain
environments deposition. Palynomorphs:
near-coastal setting, e.g. lower
coastal floodplain
Coal: accumulation of peat within a constantly waterlogged environment, Coastal floodplain mires
rates of subsidence in equilibrium with peat accumulation, clastic input is
minimal. Coal bed geometry: largely controlled by topography and
environment of deposition. Beds of this facies: laterally extensive mires
close to the coastline, laterally stable fluvial system, held away from the
mires that were raised relative to the floodplain. Thinner, less extensive
beds: localised mires, subject to regular flooding
Grain size: relatively low energy deposition. Bed geometries: relatively Small, isolated streams
confined, erosive flow. Current ripples on upper boundaries: waning, dissecting intertidal mudflats
unidirectional current. Ca composition: marine deposition or circulation of
marine water after deposition
Grain size and presence of ripples and carbonate: deposition in a relatively Shallow shelf deposition
low energy marine setting. Bed geometries: relatively unconfined
deposition over large areas for sustained periods. Scolicia trails: produced
by sea urchins, normally associated with marginal marine environments.
The abundance of trace fossils: sedimentation rates generally low and
salinity levels near normal
Wackestones and packstones: cementation of calcareous or siliceous Restricted to open marine
skeletal fragments and siliciclastic material, suggesting shallow marine carbonate deposition, with
deposition. The source of the calcareous cement: calcite-secreting marine both in situ sediment and a
organisms. Wackestones: matrix supported, packstones: grain-supported. component transported in,
The matrix in both is calcareous mudstone: deposition from suspension in perhaps from nearby reef
relatively low energy environments. The change from wackestone to environments
packstone: slight increase in depositional energy. The fossil assemblage:
shallow marine carbonate environments. These range in habitat from back
reef and reef top to fore-reef. However, packstones and wackestones are
more typical of relatively low energy settings, e.g. near shore (inner
carbonate ramp), or flat top platform interior lagoon settings. This implies
the marine fossils recorded from this facies are most likely not in situ
 D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104 89

Table 4
Approximate relative abundance of each lithofacies in each facies association.

Facies association Associated facies (given in order of abundance) Approx. abundance (%) Interpreted environment
TFA1 T3: Trough cross-bedded fluvial sand bars 40 Alluvial to fluvial (alluvial braidplain)
T1: Alluvial conglomerates 30
T2: Fluvial pebbly sandstones 20
T14: Siltstone 5
T15: Siliciclastic mudstone 5
TFA2 T6: Crevasse splays and overbank fines 50 Fluvio-tidal coastal floodplain and estuarine setting
T4: Fluvial channel sandstones 10
T15: Siliciclastic mudstone 10
T13: Flaser-bedded sandstone and mudstone 5
T11: Lenticular-bedded sandstone and mudstone 5
T14: Siltstone 5
T7: Fluvio-tidal channel point bars 5
T12: Wavy-bedded sandstone and mudstone 1–5
T9: Current-rippled sandstone sheets 1–5
T17: Coal 1–5
T5: Small lenses of channel sandstones 1–5
T18: Organic-rich shale 1–5
T8: Calcareous channel conglomeratic sandstones <1
T10: Hummocky cross-stratified sandstone <1
TFA3 T6: Crevasse splays and overbank fines 40 Lower coastal plain
T15: Siliciclastic mudstone 30
T11: Lenticular-bedded sandstone and mudstone 10
T13: Flaser-bedded sandstone and mudstone 5
T9: Current-rippled sandstone sheets 1–5
T14: Siltstone 1–5
T12: Wavy-bedded sandstone and mudstone 1–5
T4: Fluvial channel sandstones 1–5
T17: Coal 1–5
T8: Calcareous channel conglomeratic sandstones 1–5
T7: Fluvio-tidal channel point bars <1
T5: Small lenses of channel sandstones <1
TFA4 T15: Mudstone (siliciclastic and calcareous) 30 Marginal to shallow marine
T19: Calcareous siltstone and mudstone 20
T11: Lenticular-bedded sandstone and mudstone 10–20
T13: Flaser-bedded sandstone and mudstone 10–20
T20: Limestone 10
T18: Calcareous cemented quartzose sandstone 5
T8: Calcareous channel conglomeratic sandstones 1–5
T17: Coal 1–5

deposited in a near shore (inner carbonate ramp), or flat top plat-
form interior lagoon setting (Nichols, 1999) at times when clastic
sedimentation was minimal. This clearly signals a change from a
marginal to a shallow marine setting.
This association is interpreted to represent marginal to shallow
marine deposition. The overall up-section transition from TFA1 to
TFA4 indicates a transgressive setting. Previous interpretations of
this part of the succession include paralic (Siregar and Sunaryo,
1980), low energy, mid-sublittoral marine (Kusuma and Darin,
1989) and inner neritic (Satyana and Silitonga, 1994).
6. Provenance
Heavy mineral assemblages and zircon geochronology have
been used to determine the provenance of sandstones of the Tan-
jung Formation. Although detrital modes of light minerals and
lithic fragments are widely used in provenance analysis (e.g. Anani,
1999; Dickinson et al., 1983; Dickinson and Lawton, 2001; Ghazi
and Mounteny, 2011; Sun et al., 2008), the method – which was
developed in non-tropical settings (Dickinson, 1970; Dickinson
and Suczek, 1979) – is insensitive to some important provenance
information, such as quartz type, grain morphology and the effects
of diagenesis and sediment recycling (e.g. Mack, 1981; Smyth et al.,
2008; Suttner et al., 1981). This is especially pertinent when inter-
preting provenance of tropical sandstones because tropical weath-
ering can strongly alter sandstone composition. Consequently, this
method can produce misleading interpretations, so has not been
employed here.
6.1. Heavy mineral analysis
Heavy minerals from seven samples of fluvial sandstones were
analysed from the Mangkook and Tambak Members. Heavy miner-
als (HM) from possible source areas were also examined. These in-
clude the Schwaner Complex (igneous and metamorphic rocks and
modern river sands), Karimunjawa Arch (metasedimentary rocks)
and the Meratus Complex (igneous and metamorphic rocks). These
source areas were selected because they are located adjacent to the
present-day Barito Basin, and the textural character of the sand-
stones (Witts et al., 2011) suggests the material has not travelled
very far.
All the HM data were grouped according to associated parent
rock and are summarised in Fig. 9. Lithologically, the Meratus
Complex is extremely heterogeneous (Sikumbang, 1986) and only
a small number of lithologies were sampled. Therefore, an ‘ex-
pected’ HM assemblage for the Meratus Complex is also included
in the figure.
The HM assemblages from the Mangkook and Tambak Members
typically comprise less than 1% of the total sandstone composition,
and are dominated by zircon (63.3%), of which 3.6% are coloured
(pink, pink-brown or purple). Zircon morphologies include euhe-
dral with sharp terminations interpreted as first cycle grains, sub-
hedral with rounded terminations interpreted as moderately
90 D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104

Fig. 5a. Selected measured sections showing distribution of facies and facies associations TFA1–TFA4.

recycled grains, and well-rounded and often pitted forms, inter- Mangkook and Tambak Member samples. Other species include
preted as grains that have undergone multiple recycling. The latter brookite (6.6%), diaspore (1.8%), sub-rounded tourmaline (1.5%),
include all coloured zircons. Rutile constitutes 25.5% of the total angular staurolite (<1%), sub-angular andalusite (<1%), angular au-
assemblage and occurs as rounded and angular grains in both the gite (<1%), sub-rounded apatite (<1%) and angular garnet (<1%) –
 D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104
Mudstone
Siltstone
Sandstone
Conglomerate
Synaerisis cracks
Concretions
Rootlets
Fig. 5b. Key to symbols used in stratigraphic logs presented in Fig. 5a.
all of which occur in both the Mangkook and Tambak Members.
Monazite (<1%), angular kyanite (<1%), sub-rounded hypersthene
(<1%) and sub-angular diopside (<1%) only occur in the Tambak
Member.
The HM assemblage of the Tanjung Formation contains many
species that are considered stable and ultra-stable during deep
burial and acid leaching (Mange and Maurer, 1992). These include
zircon, rutile, tourmaline, andalusite, staurolite, and kyanite. Zir-
cons include first or moderately recycled and multiple recycled
grains, suggesting a mixed provenance. Zircon is commonly a prod-
uct of acid igneous rocks, and the first cycle grains observed in the
Tanjung sandstones are thought to be derived from plutonic rocks
of the Schwaner Complex. Plutonic rocks also occur in the Meratus
Complex, but they are uncommon, and the outcrops are relatively
small (e.g. Sikumbang, 1986).
The presence of first cycle and multiple recycled rutile in the
Tanjung Formation probably indicates a mixed provenance. Rocks
containing first cycle rutile are present in the Schwaner and Mera-
tus Complexes, and recycled rutile is present in metasedimentary
rocks of the Karimunjawa Arch.
Brookite occurs in igneous and metamorphic rocks and hydro-
thermal veins, but also forms authigenically in sediments at the
expense of unstable Ti-bearing minerals such as sphene (Mange
and Maurer, 1992). Much of the brookite within the Tanjung sam-
ples occurs as thin blade-like crystals and is absent from all the
samples analysed from possible source rocks. Therefore, it is inter-
preted as authigenic. Tourmaline, apatite and monazite are typical
of acid to intermediate igneous rocks, and were most likely derived
from nearby plutonic rocks of the Schwaner Complex. This is also
inferred from grain morphologies that indicate minimal recycling
or sediment transport. The low abundance of apatite is interpreted
to reflect its instability during acid leaching.
Andalusite probably indicates a contact metamorphic source,
and staurolite is indicative of regional metamorphic rocks. Rocks
of this character are abundant in the Schwaner Complex (L. Davies,
pers. comm., 2010). The presence of angular (first cycle) kyanite in
the Mangkook Member sample suggests a Meratus origin. Kyanite
has not been reported from the Schwaner Complex, and recent
fieldwork indicates the rocks of the Pinoh Metemorphic Group
are essentially low to medium-grade (L. Davies, pers. comm.,
2010), thus are unlikely to be kyanite-bearing, although it is possi-
ble that small areas of kyanite-bearing metamorphic rocks may be
91
Limestone Trough cross-bedding
Packstone Planar cross-bedding
Coal Flaser bedding/current ripple
Shale Horizontal lamination
Horizontal burrows Foraminifera
Vertical burrows Shells / shell fragments
present in remote and understudied areas. The kyanite–quartz–
phengite–chloritoid schists of the Hauran Schist, Meratus Complex
are the most likely source of kyanite in the Tanjung sandstones. A
Meratus source would also explain the presence of first cycle
ortho- and clinopyroxenes. These are characteristic of intermediate
to basic igneous rocks that are common throughout the Meratus
Complex. Their low abundance is interpreted to reflect their insta-
bility during transport and diagenesis (Mange and Maurer, 1992).
6.2. Zircon geochronology and morphology
U–Pb ages and textural characteristics of detrital zircons from
the Tanjung Formation have previously been reported by Witts
et al. (2011), and are summarised here (Fig. 10). The data were ob-
tained from seven sandstone samples of lithofacies T3 and T4, and
represent the lowest 200 m of the Tanjung Formation (the Mang-
kook Member and lower part of the Tambak Member). In addition,
U–Pb ages and textural characteristics of zircons analysed from
quartz-rich metasedimentary rocks of the Karimunjawa Arch
(Fig. 11), and previously reported K–Ar ages of igneous and meta-
morphic rocks from circum-Barito areas (Fig. 12) are also pre-
sented. The preliminary interpretations of Witts et al. (2011)
have been built on and slightly modified in light of new HM data
presented in this paper.
Zircons analysed from the two members are characterised by
four main age groups: Cretaceous, Permian–Triassic, Devonian–
Carboniferous and Proterozoic. Cretaceous (mostly mid-Creta-
ceous) zircons are present in all the samples analysed. Permian–
Triassic zircons only form a significant population in the youngest
sample analysed. Devonian–Carboniferous zircons are relatively
uncommon in the Mangkook Member, but abundant in the Tambak
Member. Proterozoic zircons are most abundant in the youngest
sample analysed from the Tambak Member. Zircons of other ages
are uncommon. Possible source areas for the Mangkook and Tam-
bak Members include the Schwaner Complex (van Hattum, 2005),
the Meratus Complex (Sikumbang, 1986), and basement rocks to
the south of the basin that are considered as Meratus equivalents
(e.g. the Bawean Arch), and the Karimunjawa Arch (Bishop, 1980;
Smyth et al., 2005).
The Karimunjawa Arch is approximately 65,000 km2 in area and
forms the southern part of the Southwest Borneo Block, thought to
have rifted from the NW Australian-Gondwana margin in the
92 D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104

Fig. 6a. Summary log and field photos of the Tanjung Formation showing the stratigraphic distribution of facies associations TFA1–TFA4.
 D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104 93

Alluvial plain Braided

channels

Upper coastal
plain

Splays
Splays

Lower coastal
plain

Lower coastal plain

Sinuous tidal Estuarine

channels
Shallow marine

Patch reefs

Fig. 6b. Interpreted model showing the various depositional settings described by facies associations TFA1–TFA4.

(A)

3m

(B) (B)

(C) (D)

Fig. 7a. Sedimentary structures formed in intertidal settings of the Tanjung Formation. (A) Tidal channel point bar – arrows mark the base of the deposit, (B) flaser-bedded
sand- and siltstone with bi-directional flow indicators, (C) pin-stripe bedded mudstone, and (D) synaeresis cracks.

Jurassic and added to the Sundaland margin in the Early Cretaceous seismic data (Granath et al., 2011) suggest the EJT contains thick
(Hall, 2009). To the east is the East Java Terrane (EJT). Interpreta- and deformed sedimentary successions of Mesozoic and possibly
tions of recently acquired long-offset, long-record crustal-scale older age, sourced by the Australian-Gondwana continent and
94 D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104

(A) (B)

2cm

mm

(C) (D) (E)

1cm 2cm 2cm

(F) (G)

Fig. 7b. Trace fossils from the Tanjung Formation. (A) Teichichnus (rectus?), (B) Psilonichnus upsilon, (C) Echinoid fragment (D) Skolithos, (E) Palaeophycus heberti, (F and G)
Spatangoid Scolicia.

Tanjung Formation

Fig. 8. Palaeocurrents recorded from channel sand bars of the Tambak Member of the Tanjung Formation.
 D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104 95

Fig. 9. Heavy mineral species present in sandstones of the Tanjung Formation and in rocks from the Schwaner Complex, Karimunjawa Arch and the Meratus Complex. The top
histogram shows relative abundance of HM species in the Tanjung Formation. NOTE: an expected heavy mineral assemblage for the Meratus Complex is presented, based on
lithological descriptions of Sikumbang (1986) and Wakita (2000). Data have been grouped with respect to associated parent rock.

truncated by a Cretaceous angular unconformity. These overlie
basement rocks that zircon studies have shown to have an Austra-
lian origin (Smyth et al., 2007). We propose the Karimunjawa Arch
is similar in composition and provenance to the EJT, the sedimen-
tary succession having been deposited prior to the break-up of
Gondwana, and later uplifted/deformed when SW Borneo arrived
at the Sundaland Margin in the mid-Cretaceous. This suggestion
is supported by the absence of Jurassic and younger zircons ana-
lysed from the Karimunjawa Arch during this study.
Zircons analysed from the Mangkook Member were from peb-
bly sandstones (facies T2) towards the top of the member, inter-
preted as braided channel deposits. Mesoproterozoic–
Carboniferous zircons are all moderately recycled or have under-
gone multiple recycling, so are most likely reworked from clastic
sedimentary or metasedimentary rocks. The only rocks of this type
currently known to contain Mesoproterozoic–Carboniferous zir-
cons that could have been supplying sediment during the Eocene
are from the Karimunjawa Arch, located approximately 300 km
to the southwest of where the Tambak Member samples were col-
lected. This distance is not very great, and a Karimunjawa source is
suggested. The Karimunjawa samples also contain a significant
population of Permian–Triassic zircons which are essentially miss-
ing from the Mangkook Member samples. The two Karimunjawa
samples analysed during this study represent only a fraction of this
large, and probably complex Mesozoic succession, parts of which
may not contain Permian–Triassic zircons, and were being eroded
during the Middle Eocene.
Cretaceous zircons from the Mangkook Member are abundant.
They are mostly mid-Cretaceous first cycle followed by moderately
recycled grains. Multiple-recycled Cretaceous zircons are uncom-
96 D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104

Fig. 10. All concordant U–Pb ages of zircons from the Tanjung Formation displayed as histograms and Gaussian probability curves (left and centre histograms). Left
histograms show the complete range of ages (bin width = 50 Ma). The total number of concordant ages and the total number of grains analysed is given for each sample (e.g.
BT321 n = 88/122). The centre histograms are an expanded view of Palaeozoic and younger ages (bin width = 10 Ma). T = Cenozoic, K = Cretaceous, J = Jurassic, T/P = Triassic
and Permian, C/D = Carboniferous and Devonian, S = Silurian, O = Ordovician, C = Cambrian. BT303 = sample number. Right histograms show the relative abundance of
interpreted first cycle, moderately and multiple recycled zircons with respect to age. K = Cretaceous, J = Jurassic, T/P = Triassic and Permian, C/D = Carboniferous and
Devonian, S = Silurian, O = Ordovician, C = Cambrian, Pr = Proterozoic, A = Archaean. All samples/histograms are displayed in stratigraphic order, and represent the lowest
200 m of the Tanjung Formation. Samples from the Mangkook and Tambak Members are indicated.
 D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104
mon. The first cycle zircons are interpreted to have been derived
directly from Cretaceous granitic rocks. Such rocks form a signifi-
cant part of the Schwaner Complex, approximately 300 km to the
northwest of where the samples were collected, and from small
granitic bodies in the Meratus Complex, adjacent to the sample
locations. Discriminating between these two areas on the basis of
age alone is difficult, and it is possible that both the Schwaner
and Meratus may have contributed to the Cretaceous zircon popu-
lation. The moderately recycled grains may have been transported
from the Schwaner Mountains, or were reworked from Upper Cre-
taceous sedimentary rocks (e.g. the Manunggul Group) within the
Meratus Complex (in agreement with lithofacies interpretations
presented earlier).
In summary, the zircons of the Mangkook Member are thought
to have a number of sources. These include the Meratus and
Schwaner Complexes and the Karimunjawa Arch. Distinguishing
between the two complexes with the available data is difficult.
The Tambak Member records widespread deposition across an
extensive fluvio-tidal coastal plain during the Late Eocene. Palaeo-
current data indicate sediment was being transported by rivers to-
wards the north along the present western flank of the Meratus
Mountains. By the Late Eocene, we suggest that much of the Mera-
tus Complex in the Proto Barito had been eroded and subsided, and
was a site of deposition, as indicated by the thickness distribution
of the Tanjung Formation. Zircons from the Tambak Member range
in age from Neoarchean to Cretaceous. Mesoproterozoic, Devo-
nian–Carboniferous and Permian–Triassic zircons are mostly mod-
erately recycled or have undergone multiple recycling, indicating
they were most likely reworked from clastic sedimentary or
metasedimentary rocks. Mesoproterozoic, Devonian–Carbonifer-
ous and Cretaceous zircons are abundant in all the samples,
whereas Permian–Triassic zircons are rare in the older Tambak
Member samples, but are significant in the stratigraphically youn-
gest sample analysed (BT321). Sedimentary and metasedimentary
rocks known to contain Mesoproterozoic, Devonian–Carboniferous
and Permian–Triassic zircons are known from the Karimunjawa
Arch. The Pinoh Metamorphic Group in the Schwaner Complex
could potentially yield recycled zircons of this age range, but the
age of the metamorphic rocks is unknown, and they are typically
zircon deficient (L. Davies, pers. comm., 2010). A Karimunjawa
provenance would be broadly consistent with north-directed pal-
aeocurrents and heavy mineral assemblages of this study, and pre-
vious provenance work conducted in West and East Java (Clements
and Hall, 2011; Smyth, 2005). Clements and Hall (2011) demon-
strated that sediment was being transported into West Java from
Fig. 11. All concordant U–Pb ages, and relative abundance of first cycle, moderately and multiple recycled zircons from the Karimunjawa Arch samples (displayed as per
Fig. 10).
97
mainland Sundaland and the Schwaner Complex during the Late
Eocene, whereas in East Java this material is essentially missing
(Smyth 2005). This lead to the interpretation that the Karimunjawa
Arch was most likely elevated during this time, acting as a NE-SW-
oriented topographic barrier to detritus from southeast Sundaland,
and was therefore likely an important source of sediment for the
Proto Barito and the Tanjung Formation.
The provenance of first cycle Permian–Triassic zircons is un-
clear. Igneous rocks capable of supplying zircons of this age are
present in the Siluas and Sanggau areas, northwest of the main
Schwaner Complex (Fig. 12), but material derived from these areas
would require a complicated drainage pattern. A more likely
source is the Karimunjawa Arch. Samples analysed from the arch
contain approximately 20% first cycle Permian–Triassic zircons
(similar to the proportion of Permian–Triassic zircons recorded in
the Tanjung Formation samples), and it is quite possible that zir-
cons from the arch would not have undergone any significant
rounding during transportation to the Proto Barito.
Cretaceous zircons from the Tambak Member are abundant.
They are mostly mid-Cretaceous first cycle grains, but also include
a small number of moderately recycled grains. The plutonic rocks
of the Schwaner Complex are the most likely source of Cretaceous
zircons. Granites have been penetrated by two wells offshore to the
south of the basin (Bishop, 1980; J. Howes, pers. comm., 2010), and
are considered here as part of the offshore continuation of the
Meratus Complex. Therefore they are probably not laterally exten-
sive. The Schwaner plutons on the other hand are extensive and are
known to have supplied a significant amount of sediment to the
turbidites of the Rajang Group in northwest Borneo from Late Cre-
taceous (van Hattum, 2005), and to the Crocker Fan (van Hattum
et al., 2006) and West Java (Clements and Hall, 2011). The age
range (Fig. 11) of the Schwaner plutons (77.4 ± 1.7 Ma to
130.2 ± 2.8 Ma) is comparable to the Cretaceous population of
the Tambak Member (70.7 ± 5 Ma to 140 ± 5.7 Ma), and zircons
are mostly first cycle, indicating a predominantly igneous source.
The provenance of moderately recycled Cretaceous zircons in the
Tambak Member is not so easy to explain. It is possible that they
were derived from granitic rocks of the Schwaner Complex before
the Late Eocene and deposited in areas between Borneo and Java
that were later uplifted (along with the Karimunjawa Arch) during
the Late Eocene, and the sediments reworked into the Barito Basin
(Tambak Member) and surrounding areas. This suggestion would
also explain why Schwaner-derived material does not appear in
the sedimentary successions of West Java until the Late Eocene
(Clements and Hall, 2011).
98 D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104

Fig. 12. Published K–Ar age ranges (Cretaceous and older) obtained from igneous and metamorphic rocks in Kalimantan and Java. Ages compiled from a number of sources
(Haile et al., 1977; JICA, 1982; Sikumbang, 1986; Williams et al., 1988; Yuwono et al., 1988; Bladon et al., 1989; Heryanto et al., 1994; Parkinson et al., 1998; Wakita et al.,
1998). Each boxed area represents a specific 1:250,00 Sheet of published geological maps (GRDC).

To summarise, the zircons analysed from the Tambak Member Arch and equivalent rocks in the southwest and Meratus equiva-
of the Tanjung Formation are thought to have been predominantly lent basement rocks currently offshore to the south, such as the Ba-
derived from the Schwaner Complex in the west, the Karimunjawa wean Arch.
 D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104
7. Discussion
This is the first detailed facies and provenance analysis of the
Tanjung Formation. It has provided an improved understanding
of the depositional history of the Proto Barito from late Middle Eo-
cene to Early Oligocene.
Some of the changes observed in the Tanjung Formation may
reflect eustatic sea level changes. There has been considerable dis-
cussion about the meaning of global sea level curves (e.g. Haq et al.,
1987; Miller et al., 2005), and in a region such as Southeast Asia,
which has a complicated history of deformation, uplift and subsi-
dence, correlating sedimentary successions with global sea-level
curves is problematical (e.g. Clements et al., 2011). For example,
in Central Kalimantan during a major mid-Oligocene (30–
29.5 Ma) sea-level fall reported by Haq et al. (1987), platform car-
bonates were drowned during tectonically-driven subsidence (Sal-
ler et al., 1992). Oxygen isotope (d18O) curves (e.g. Zachos et al.,
2001, 2008) have often been used as a proxy for global sea level
independent of tectonics, and thus may provide a more accurate
account of sea level change than traditional sea level curves (e.g.
Haq et al., 1987). For example, the significant sea level fall at the
start of the Oligocene interpreted from the d18O curve is not shown
on the eustatic curve of Haq et al. (1987). During the following dis-
cussion, any stratigraphic-eustatic correlations proposed are
tentative.
7.1. Middle Eocene
During the Middle Eocene most of southern Sundaland was
experiencing a tropical, moist and warm climate following the Eo-
cene thermal maximum (Morley, 2000). Global sea levels are re-
ported to have been falling (Haq et al., 1987; Miller et al., 2005),
and the Proto Barito was subsiding. Irregular basement topogra-
phy, such as rift shoulders and basement highs were being eroded,
and the material was being deposited into local terrestrial depo-
centres throughout the Proto Barito area as alluvial fans or lobate
masses. This is indicated by the significant thickness variations of
the alluvial conglomerates of the Mangkook Member, which in-
clude material likely derived from the Meratus Complex, such as
fragments of radiolaria-bearing chert, and first cycle garnet, augite,
apatite and rutile. As the topography was reduced, some of the
small alluvial drainage systems coalesced to form a network of
braided rivers. These reworked the alluvial deposits as well as
transporting material from basement areas to the south. These in-
cluded the pre-Cenozoic metasedimentary rocks of the Karimunja-
wa Arch and equivalents (e.g. EJT), and the offshore continuation of
the Meratus Complex. These alluvial and fluvial deposits are repre-
sented by facies association TFA1, and were deposited during the
late Middle Eocene. This age is based on palynomorph-bearing
mudstones interbedded with the alluvial conglomerates that con-
tain age-diagnostic palynomorphs in an assemblage dominated
by ‘Indian’ taxa thought to have migrated to Sundaland in the Mid-
dle Eocene (e.g. Morley, 2000). In the north of the basin, where the
Tanjung Formation is thickest, this phase of deposition may have
begun slightly earlier. For reasons discussed above however, it
seems unlikely that the Mangkook Member extends into the Palae-
ocene or Late Cretaceous as has been previously suggested, and
reassessment of the well data used in those particular studies
(for example, by using palynology to analyse the coal and shale
horizons) is needed.
7.2. Late Eocene
By the start of the Late Eocene most of the Proto Barito was
relatively flat and more or less at sea level, which according to
99
Miller et al. (2005) and Zachos et al. (2001, 2008), had fallen since
the Middle Eocene. This suggests the basin had subsided signifi-
cantly. A broad and relatively flat, heavily vegetated coastal
floodplain had become established, dissected by a network of tid-
ally-influenced fluvial and estuarine channels. The floodplain
extended from the Schwaner Mountains in the west, to the Pater-
noster Platform in the east, and as far north as the Barito–Kutai
divide (Fig. 13). The climate and tectonic setting had changed little,
but relative sea level had risen. The Proto Barito was now a large
area of fluvial sedimentation strongly influenced by tidal pro-
cesses. These changes are recorded in the Tambak Member of the
Tanjung Formation, and are represented by facies associations
TFA2, followed (up-section) by TFA3. Thick and laterally extensive
coals of the Tambak Member immediately overlie pebbly sand-
stones and conglomerates of the Mangkook Member. The coals
are laterally extensive, planar, and contain mixed fresh- and brack-
ish water palynomorph assemblages (e.g. Facies T16, T17, Table 2),
which indicates large areas of the basin were flat and essentially at
sea level, and the fluvial system was relatively stable.
This conglomerate-coal transition is relatively unusual,
although it has been reported from coastal plain settings in New
Zealand (Diessel, 1992) and New South Wales, Australia (Diessel,
1992; Herbert, 1997; Lindsay and Herbert, 2002). In both these
examples, the association records alluvial/fluvial abandonment,
sea-level rise and subsequent peat development. The conglomer-
ate-coal transition observed in the Tanjung Formation (from
TFA1 to TFA2) is also interpreted to record a transgression. The
transition occurred prior to a significant fall in global sea level
(e.g. Haq et al., 1987; Miller et al. 2005) and at a time of regional
extension and subsidence. Therefore, the relative rise in sea level
indicated by the change from alluvial to brackish conditions is
interpreted as being initially driven by tectonics.
The change from an alluvial-fluvial to fluvio-tidal floodplain set-
ting is also indicated by tidal indicators present throughout much
of the Tambak Member. These include an assortment of sedimen-
tary features such as lenticular, wavy and flaser-bedded facies
(commonly containing bi-directional flow indicators), heterolithic
tidal channel point bars, convolute bedding, desiccation cracks,
synaeresis cracks, mud drapes, and varied ripple forms. The pres-
ence of P. heberti, Teichichnus, P. upsilon and Skolithos further sup-
ports this interpretation. When considered in isolation these
indicators are not wholly diagnostic of an intertidal setting, with
many occurring in a number of different settings (e.g. Allen and
Fielding, 2007; Frey and Howard, 1985; Gingras et al., 1999; Klein,
1977; MacEachern and Hobbs, 2004; McIlroy, 2007; Malpas et al.,
2005; Narbonne, 1984; Nichols, 1999). However, the coexistence of
these features within the largely fluvial succession provides a ro-
bust argument for a fluvial floodplain influenced by tidal processes.
According to Haq et al. (1987) and Miller et al. (2005), global sea
levels were relatively stable throughout the Late Eocene, yet sev-
eral hundred metres of sediment accumulated in the Proto Barito.
This suggests that deposition was dominantly controlled by tecton-
ics. Rivers were flowing into, and regularly flooding the coastal
floodplain from the south and west. They included laterally stable
fluvial channels flowing towards the north and smaller, sinuous ti-
dal channels. Flooding of the fluvial system generated thick succes-
sions of flood deposits that were often reworked by tidal processes,
although the zone of transition between fluvial and tidal processes
constantly varied in space and time. This is indicated by the com-
mon intercalation of tidal facies with fluvial facies, and is sug-
gested by the changing ratios of mangrove and freshwater pollen
(Section 5.2).
The rivers entering and dissecting the coastal plain were trans-
porting sediment from a number of emergent areas that have been
identified from zircon geochronology and heavy minerals. They in-
clude the Schwaner Complex, which was also supplying sediment
100 D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104
Fig. 13. Suggested palaeogeography of southern Sundaland during the Late Eocene, modified from Hall (2008). The proposed aerial extent of the Proto Barito is indicated.
Rivers are purely schematic. NOTE: Borneo is rotated approximately 45° clockwise of its present position (Hall, 2002).
to the Crocker Fan in northwest Borneo (van Hattum, 2005) and to
West Java (Clements and Hall, 2011); and from the Karimunjawa
Arch and Meratus equivalent rocks to the southwest and south of
the basin respectively. Sediment derived from Upper Cretaceous
(Maastrichtian) shallow marine carbonate rocks was also being re-
worked and transported into the Proto Barito, as indicated by the
presence of Loftusia sp. and Orbitoides sp (T15, Table 2) within
mudstones of the Tambak Member (BouDagher-Fadel, 2008). The
only Maastrichtian sedimentary rocks presently close to the Barito
Basin are non-marine and volcanic rocks in the Meratus Complex
(Sikumbang, 1986); marine forearc sedimentary rocks in the Luk
Ulo Basement Complex, Central Java; and in the Latimojong Forma-
tion in northern West Sulawesi (van Leeuwen and Muhardjo,
2005), but these are not typically foraminifera-bearing. However,
they do indicate a marine setting, and suggest that foram-bearing,
shallow water sedimentary rocks were deposited in the area, but
have since been eroded.
Sedimentary rocks assigned to the Tambak Member have previ-
ously been interpreted as deltaic (e.g. Kusuma and Darin, 1989;
Rotinsulu et al., 1993; Satyana et al., 1999, 2001; Satyana and Sil-
itonga, 1994; Siregar and Sunaryo, 1980). In the sections recorded
during this study, we found no evidence – such as significant (hun-
dreds of stratigraphic metres) shallowing-up sequences and pro-
gradation – to suggest the Tambak Member is a deltaic
succession, and is not observed in the subsurface data made avail-
able to the authors. In contrast, the Tambak Member is character-
ised by thick, relatively monotonous successions of floodplain and
tidal facies and an overall up-section tendency towards deeper
water facies (TFA2–TFA3), that suggest floodplain aggradation
and retrogradation, not progradation. This indicates accommoda-
tion space was generally exceeding sediment supply, and the
shoreline was shifting landward and a tidally influenced coastal
plain undergoing slow transgression is interpreted here. It is possi-
ble that the transition from alluvial to fluvial deposition in the
Mangkook Member of the Tanjung Formation (e.g. TFA1) involved
an element of progradation, but until this can be demonstrated
with evidence, such an interpretation will remain speculation.
In sedimentological terms, lithofacies of the Tambak Member
resemble those described from tide-dominated estuarine succes-
sions (e.g. Boyd et al., 1992). Estuaries are transgressive, coastal
sites of combined fluvial and marine sedimentation, and contain
facies that have been influenced by fluvial, tidal and wave pro-
cesses (Dalrymple, 2006), and the sedimentary features that have
resulted from them are recognised in the Tambak Member succes-
sion. In particular, there are fining-upwards successions of fluvio-
tidal facies, inclined heterolithic stratification, Teichichnus, P. upsi-
lon and P. heberti traces, and evidence of synaeresis. However estu-
aries are commonly thought of as trumpet- or funnel-shaped
coastal embayments – typically drowned river valleys (Dalrymple
et al., 1992; Diessel, 1992) – no such geomorphology has been
recognised in the Tambak Member, either in outcrop or in the sub-
surface (J. Howes, pers. comm., 2010). Dalrymple (2006) however,
argues that estuarine processes operating in valley-confined sys-
tems also operate in other settings where valleys are absent, such
as abandoned delta plains undergoing transgression. We propose
that parts of the Tambak Member that represent the transgressive
parts of regressive–transgressive cycles were deposited in estua-
rine settings, indicating the coastline was most likely sinuous,
and comprised a number of marine inlets.
7.3. Early Oligocene
The Eocene–Oligocene transition was a time of global cooling
and the start of Antarctic glaciation (Houben et al., 2011). Conse-
quently, global sea levels fell and climatic cooling saw tempera-
tures fall by an average of 4–6 °F (Liu et al., 2009) and moisture
levels in the tropics dropped considerably (Morley, 2000). Follow-
ing the Eocene–Oligocene transition, sea levels rose (e.g. Haq et al.,
 D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104
Fig. 14. Suggested palaeogeography of southern Sundaland during the Early Oligocene, modified from Hall (2008). The proposed aerial extent of the Proto Barito is indicated.
The Proto Barito coastline has shifted towards the southwest. Rivers are purely schematic.
1987; Miller et al., 2005) causing deepening conditions and the
systematic drowning of the coastal plain (Fig. 14). This is evidenced
by the up-section evolution of facies association TFA3 into TFA4,
and the transition from the Tambak Member to the Pagat Member.
The Pagat Member includes shelf sandstones, thin beds of lime-
stone containing forereef and backreef foraminiferal assemblages,
and siliciclastic- and bioturbated calcareous mudstones that record
the final stages of deposition of the Tanjung Formation, prior to ba-
sin flooding.
8. Conclusions
This study has integrated a number of different analytical tech-
niques which have enabled the age, depositional setting and prov-
enance of the Tanjung Formation to be determined. The formation
was deposited in the Proto Barito over approximately 10 million
years, from late Middle Eocene. The formation records an up-sec-
tion transition from alluvial to shallow marine deposition, with
approximately 80% of the formation being deposited in a fluvio-ti-
dal coastal floodplain setting undergoing transgression. We see no
field evidence of deltaic deposition as has been previously sug-
gested. Features commonly associated with tide-dominated estua-
rine successions are abundant in the Tambak Member, yet
evidence of valley-confined deposition commonly used to define
estuaries is lacking, both at outcrop and in the subsurface. From
this example it is clear that the successions which exhibit charac-
teristics of estuarine facies can occur in non-confined coastal set-
tings and that modification to current definitions may be required.
The transgression recorded in the Proto Barito initially occurred
during a fall in global sea level followed by a period of relative
eustatic stability. This implies that deposition of the Tanjung For-
mation was predominantly controlled by tectonic processes. The
floodplain extended from the Schwaner Complex in the west, to
the Paternoster Platform in the east, indicating the initial topogra-
101
phy of much of the Meratus had been eroded and subsided. The
floodplain was constructed and dissected by fluvial channels flow-
ing towards the north (along the present western flank of the
Meratus Mountains), and smaller sinuous tidal channels. The prov-
enance of the Tanjung Formation has until now been speculation.
Heavy mineral assemblages and zircon geochronology of this study
have indicated the rivers were bringing sediment from the Schwa-
ner Complex to the west, the Karimunjawa Arch and equivalent
rocks to the southwest, and Meratus equivalent rocks to the south
of the Proto Barito throughout the Late Eocene. The identification
of these source areas and sediment transport direction changes
our previous understanding of the palaeogeography of this part
of Southeast Asia during the Late Eocene.
Acknowledgements
We thank the following people for their assistance and contri-
bution to this study: B. Sapiie from the Institut Teknologi Banding
for his support and help in organising fieldwork; A. Rudyawan and
Y. Sindhu for their valued assistance in the field; Marcelle K. Bou-
Dagher-Fadel for her contribution to the biostratigraphy of this
study, and I. Sevastjanova for her advice and assistance with heavy
mineral identification and interpretation. We are very grateful to J.
Howes, D. Le Heron, M. Cottam, I.Watkinson, J.T. van Gorsel, B. Cle-
ments, Y. Kusnandar, S. Pollis and E. Deman for numerous discus-
sions on the Barito Basin and regional geology of SE Asia. This
research was funded by the SEARG.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2012.04.
022.
102 D. Witts et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 77–104

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