1/16/2008

Definition
Dams - Temples of modern India-Nehru
According to the International Commission on
Large Dams (ICOLD), a dam is classified large
Debate on Small vrs Big when:

— It is higher than 15 m
dams
— It is between 10 and 15 m high and:

a) has a crest length exceeding 500 m, OR

b) its spillway capacity is in excess of 2,000
cubic meters per second, OR
By
c) its reservoir capacity exceeds 1,000,000 cubic

Dr.S.S.Rao meters, OR

d) has unusual characteristics

Purpose of Dams
Another Classification Most (48% approx.) dams with single purpose are for
irrigation

(15%) of those dams serve for domestic and industrial water
Sr.No Categor Storage in Height Command supply.
y HaM (m) Area (ha)
Nearly 20% of dams generate electricity..
1 Minor 6- 125 8-12 <2000
Other purposes include flood control (8%), recreation
(4%) and to a lesser degree, inland navigation and fish
farming.
2 Medium 125 -6250 12 -30 2000-10000
Multi--purpose dams account for a large proportion of the
Multi
total – 7400 out of the 25,400 reported (nearly 30% of
the total).
3 Major >6250 >30 >10000
Irrigation comes first in this category also, followed by
flood control, hydro power, domestic and industrial water
supply and recreation, with fish farming and navigation.

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Men have built dams for thousands of

years for Conversion of available water Major investments … 6 000
Number Of Dams

to useable water.

Reducing variability in seasons of low flow in 4 000

rivers
45,000 large dams worldwide

Water storage to provide insurance against
2 dams commissioned 2 000

uncertainty in natural water availability due to per day in1970s

climatic variability. 0

total investment exceeds 1900 1990s

Regulating release of water to various users. $2 trillion

Safety from social and economic upheavals due

$40 billion expenditure
to flood and drought conditions
per year at peak

Sustainable energy generation

The role of dams
The oldest dams about which there is

documented evidence were located in Jordan

19 percent of electricity around 3000 BC
from hydropower
Several hundred dams, more than 10 m high,
– more than 50% in 63 countries were built before 1800 in about ten Asian
countries, around the Mediterranean and in

dams support 30-
30-40% of Central America.
irrigated area & 12
12--16% of
Many ancient dams have disappeared, but some
global food production are still operational 500 or 1000 years after
being built.

12% of all dams have a water
supply function

By 1930, more than 2000 large dams had been
built around the world. 75% of them were in

75 countries have dams for Japan, Great Britain and USA.
flood control
Dams and Development - Report of the World Commiss
ommission on Dams

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Funding Scenario
World bank share as of March 1999

World Bank US$800,000
WWF US$ 10,000

Norway US$750,000
Mott Foun. US$ 25,000

Japan US$500,000
UK US$675,000

Sweden US$490,000
Alsthom US$ 50,000

ABB US$200,000
Enron US$100,000

Switzerland US$650,000
Atlas Copco US$ 50,000

Germany US$850,000
Rockefeller BF US$ 50,000

NWF/USA US$ 2,000
Harza US$ 10,000

Skanska US$ 50,000
Tractebel US$ 5,000

China US$ 20,000
Coyne&Bellier US$ 5,000

South Africa US$ 10,000
Denmark US$ 50,000

Siemens US$ 65,000
Canada US$ 65,000

US B R US$ 50,000
Hydro Quebec U S$ 135,000

World Commission on Dams

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India

since 1951, 246 big surface irrigation projects have
been initiated. Only 65 out of these have been
completed. One hundred and eighty-
eighty-one are still
under construction.

no benefit has come to the people from these
projects.

According to the 7th Plan document, the additional
potential created by the M& M sector in the 35
years between 1950 to 1990 was 25.1 million
hectares (mh
(mh).
).

an outlay of INR 11,207 crore had been utilised by
the sector during these years.

Design, Construction and Operations

Procedure of Large Dams Reconnaissance Stage II
Reconnaissance Stage I

Topographical survey.



1. Preliminary reconnaissance survey of the project area and collection
of field data. • Geological and foundation investigation
2. Hydrological investigations, collection of flow data of the river


flows, peak flood details, dependability of water yield over a period of • Hydrological and meteorological studies
time. • Pre-
Pre-irrigation soil survey and drainage.

3. Area to be benefited by the dam with the water availability,
nature of crops to be cultivated, additional food • Special survey for hydroelectric projects
production/cultivation aspects like stabilisation of existing irrigated
area, increase in irrigation utility, crop yields and so on. • Construction material investigation

4. Material survey, its availability and cost with lead particulars. • Communication investigation
5. Details of submergence of land due to storage created and


the cost of lands to be acquired both for the canal and storage and • Collection of relevant data for drawing up
the quantum of compensation to be paid. programme for construction including coffer

6. Displacement of human habitats and displaced persons due to the dam construction.
reservoir and the rehabilitation and re- re-settlement aspects.

7. Environmental impact of losing rich forestlands like plantations, • Hydraulic model studies for setting up important
affected flora and fauna, rare wild species of animals and birds etc, features

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Project Clearance
Stage I :
1. The Feasibility Study Report will be scrutinised in the
Chief Engineer.s Office by the Technical cell for its
Technical Competence in all aspects concerned.
2. Similarly the proposals will be examined for their
economic viability aspects by the Commissioner of Land
Revenue (Formerly The Board of Revenue) and the
comments will be forwarded to the Chief Engineer.
3. Re-
Re-formulate the proposal based on the comments of
Items 1 and 2 above.
4. The Proposal will then be cleared by the
Government after consulting the State Planning
Commission and its Finance Wing.
5. Forward the proposal to the Government of India
for Scrutiny, Approval and Allotment of Funds.
Construction
Most of the projects suffer from inordinate delays during
construction. Projects are seldom completed in time as
programmed. This is an indication of cost and time
overruns over successive plan periods in the completion
of Irrigation Projects in India.
Factors contributory to delay as experienced :
1. Delay in land acquisition and handing over site for taking
up construction activity.
2. Delay in construction of coffer dams and diversion of
river flows.
3. Delay in tackling foundations owing to lack of
equipment, design finalisations for treatment of
foundation rocks due to rock characteristics.
4. Delay in getting HT Power supply at construction site.
5. Delay due to lack of co-
co-ordination between various
Departments and agencies associated with the Project
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Stage II :
1. (a) The State Proposal will be taken up for technical
examination by the Technical Advisory Committee (TAC)
and by the Project Preparation Cell of the Central Water
Commission (CWC) for according technical clearance for
the Proposal.
(b) Technical clearance of the Proposal by the CWC
paves the way for administrative clearance by the
Central Planning Commission.
2. Clearance of the Project by the Central Planning
Commission is subjected to various considerations
other than the technical such as socio-
socio-economical,
Inter--State, Regional and other aspects. Clearance of
Inter
the Proposal by the Planning Commission qualifies for
funding.
3. Inclusion of the Project Proposal under Plan
schemes for funding by the Central Planning
Commission.
6. Delay in manufacture of spillway gates.
7. Time delay in erection of spillways and sluice gates due
to lack of skilled labour and technical expertise.
8. Inadequate funding by the Government and delay in
allotting funds which makes the Project Managers unable to
act with vision and conviction.
9. Wilful suppression of the Project cost for getting Project
clearance throwing the project out of gear because funds have
to be obtained during execution.
10. Awarding work to incompetent contractors who lack
financial strength and technical competence for extraneous
reasons.
11. Unforeseen natural calamities like unprecedented flood
damage, break out of epidemic in the Project site during the
construction period.
12. Though trivial, a few more items may also be contributory for
the delay other than the above, such as pump repairs, power
failures, labour unrest, non-
non-availability of adequate
construction materials in time.
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Management
Rules of regulation, generally, address the following
aspects:

The period or duration the reservoir will be thrown open
for irrigation.

The mode of impounding river flows in the reservoir
during normal and monsoon seasons

considering the riparian rights prior to the construction
of the dam. Minimum storage to be maintained to
safeguard the riparian interests, to protect the fish life in
the reservoir and soon.

Rules for operating the spillway gates to modulate the
flood flows and to dispose the floods so as to maintain
flood peaks downstream of the reservoir on
manageable levels to ensure safety standards already
set forth.
Narmada--bad
Narmada

So far 245 villages have been submerged and
more than a million people displaced. And now
the plan is to raise the dam even higher, which
will displace yet more communities.

Those displaced by the dam were mainly small
farmers. Now for most of them, the only work
available is on the dam itself – at least until it is
completed in three years time
1/16/2008
Narmada-
Narmada- Narmada, India
Good

The creation of the reservoir will allow water to be
diverted north through a vast system of canals
which will provide drinking and irrigation water to
40 million people in three Indian States.

It will supply drinking and irrigation water to more
than 3.5 thousand villages and 1.9 million hectare
of agricultural land. Put quite simply, it's massive.

When completed in 2005 it will produce 1450
megawatts of electrical power - that's about 1.5
percent of India's total electrical power
production. The reservoir behind it stretches back
more than 200 kilometres.
kilometres.
TEHRI HYDRO-
HYDRO-ELECTRIC
PROJECT

Displacement / resettlement / rehabilitation
work is unsatisfactory; 15 years after
displacement, the original PAPs still not properly
rehabilitated and are living in very difficult
conditions.

Widespread and persistent complaints of
corruption

Study of impacts on flora and fauna inadequate

Water quality, rim stability, etc., need more
study

On seismicity aspect, continuing differences
among experts

'Compensatory' afforestation done far away, in a
different zone
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EXPERIENCE OF NARMADA /
China
TEHRI REVIEWS

Non-compliance / delayed compliance with conditions
Non-
China is the world's most 'dammed'
laid down at the time of conditional clearance of project.
country with around 19,000 large dams.

Despite claims of extensive studies, there are many
gaps; for instance, impacts of reduced flows The United States comes second with
downstream of dam (fisheries, boatmen, agriculture, around 5,500 large dams, followed by the
industry, estuarine conditions) not fully known former USSR, Japan and India. Most large
Inadequate preparatory work on reducing distress to


wildlife.
dams have been built since 1950, during

Seismicity aspect may have to be re-
re-studied in the light the post-
post-war development era when large
large--
of changed perceptions following the Latur earthquake. scale infrastructure such as dams were
seen as symbols of patriotic pride and
technological progress.

The dam will control flooding, produce vast

amounts of electricity - equivalent to18 nuclear
Three Gorges, China power stations - and allow a five
shipping.
five--fold increase in

But to do all this, the dam's reservoir will

1. The dam takes it's name from the three submerge many towns and even whole cities,
spectacular gorges, which occur roughly two-
two- displacing more than a million people. Allegations
thirds of the way down the Yangzte's journey of corruption have also plagued construction, not
to the sea. an uncommon occurrence in big dam projects.
2. It will be the biggest hydroelectric dam in the
In this case officials from the Three Gorges
world, stretching almost two kilometres across Resettlement Bureau were caught embezzling 58
the river and towering 185 metres above the million dollars of resettlement money in January
waters. 2000.

Even sophisticated resettlement policies run the
3. Its reservoir will extend back more than 600 risk of improper implementation.
kilometres upstream.

But in spite of the problems the Chinese
Government is pressing ahead with the dam and
plans to finish it in 2009.

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Supporters of large-
large-dam projects Opponents of large dams

Benefits of large dams overstated, costs understated

They do far more harm than good

Large dams confer many benefits

Their impacts and consequences cannot be fully foreseen,

They do more good than harm much less remedied; many adverse impacts irremediable

The harm they do can be remedied
They do more harm than good, they simply have to be

In any case, we do need large dams - without them ruled out, and needs managed through alternative means
growing needs of food, water and energy cannot
Projecting ever-
ever-higher demands of various kinds and using
science and technology to raid nature to meet them is the
be met road to disaster - to humanity, to planet earth itself - this

In particular, they are needed for hydro-
hydro-electric is totally unsustainable: 'development' needs to be re-re-
power (crucial for peaking needs and for balancing defined
system; 'clean' power)
Future needs can be met through a combination of
demand management, economy in water use,

Needs of big metropolitan centres cannot be met


increased efficiency in all uses, resource conservation and
without water from large projects
extensive local water harvesting and watershed development

Opposition to large dams is opposition to
There are several striking instances of local watershed
development development and management, and social transformation
these need to be replicated in thousands

Rejoinder by supporters of dams Effect of dams

No quarrel with these ideas; they are not 'alternatives' to
large dams; there is no conflict between the two 1. Responses of river
approaches - both are needed ecosystems to dams
are multiple, varied and

Local watershed development, water harvesting, etc can complex.
only be a small part of overall planning - they cannot
2. Dams cause changes in
make a significant contribution to water availability - they a biotic steering
are not substitutes for large projects variables related to
hydrology,

Answer by opponents geomorphology and

In any case, large dams do so much harm that they have water quality. These
changes impact on the
to be ruled out - we simply have to manage without biotic components
them (including people) of

Not true that 'alternatives' can only make a small river ecosystems.
contribution -this is an a-
a-priori statement not based on
examination
3. The impacts of a dam may occur a
great distance from where it is
built.
4. it is in many cases impossible to
predict, even with site specific
studies, what the precise impacts
of a dam will be.
5. There is a need for fundamental
research linking abiotic processes
to changes in ecology, particularly
in tropical environments,
6. There is a need for long term
datasets from around the around
the world . Such studies must
collect pre and post dam data

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7 There is a need for more comprehensive

methods of economic analysis which
incorporate a measure of all costs and
benefits, including all positive and negative
externalities from non marketed ecological
services.
8 For sustainability to be achieved in its
fullest sense, social impacts should be
given the same weighting as economic and
environmental impacts, subject to the
maintenance of ecosystem integrity.
9. There is a need for more equitable
distribution of the benefits gained from a
dam. It is essential that those people
directly affected by its construction benefit

Engineer’s view _water Engineer’s view-

view- Power

Reliable grid supply to consumers all over the

Premise 1: Variability of water availability country at the least cost. To achieve this, Large

Over space: areas of heavy, moderate or Hydro projects are required.
poor rainfall, and arid or drought-
drought-prone areas

Large hydro are said to be advantageous for

Over time: concentration of rainfall during a
few months or weeks of the year following reasons. They are:

Premise 2: Precipitation runs off in rivers to
Clean (low social and environmental costs),
sea; this has to be used; whatever goes to the
sea is 'wasted'
Renewable source of energy,

Conclusion: Store river waters in large
Having high untapped potential (estimated at 60
reservoirs behind dams, and use this storage to GW in the country) and cheap.
transfer water from water-
water-surplus to deficit
areas, and from wet to dry seasons

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Anti--project movements in several

Anti REASONS FOR
countries Examples: DISENCHANTMENT

India - Sardar Sarovar (Narmada) Project in DIVERSE CONCERNS:

Gujarat
Tehri Hydro-
Hydro-Electric Project in the Himalaya 1. Financial / Economic
Both stalled by anti-
anti-project movements: Cases
Massive time and cost over-
over-runs
pending in the Supreme Court of India
Insatiable demand for resources - imposing
Northeast of India: Dihang,
Dihang, Subansiri,
Subansiri, and severe strains on government budget; crowding
Tipaimukh -projects making no headway: facing out other necessary activities
opposition
Increasingly unaffordable capital cost per

Pakistan - Controversy surrounding the Kalabagh hectare of irrigation
Project
Failure to achieve projected benefits fully

Nepal -Arun III-
III- World Bank's withdrawal
Failure to generate revenues for reinvestment or

China - Some muted dissidence on the Three even for proper maintenance
Gorges Project

2.'Political Economy' Aspects 3. ENVIRONMENTAL AND

RELATED IMPACTS

Widespread prevalence of corruption I. Project construction in remote 3. Stilling of flowing water
and pristine areas
Changes in morphology

collusions in some cases between politicians / Tremendous upheaval in the lives and water quality:
of local communities, often temperature stratification,
bureaucrats and consultants / contractors tribal settlements.
variations in nutrient
2. Submergence / acquisition of content and dissolved

Serious inequities in incidence of costs and land for reservoir, canals,
oxygen at different levels
construction colonies
benefits Loss of agricultural land and
Grave consequences for
forests; submergence of aquatic and riparian life

-hardship inflicted on people (mostly poor or towns and villages
Emission of greenhouse
disadvantaged) in the submergence area, benefits going Displacement of people and their gases from decaying
livestock, loss of occupations organic matter
to people in the command area (primary, secondary)
4. Impact on fish
Possible submergence of places /

-benefits mostly going to the richer people
people-- structures of religious,
Movement impeded, spawning
historical or cultural hindered

-canal water going mostly to head
head--reach importance - loss of heritage

-farmers; tail
tail--enders put to hardship

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5. Impact on flora, fauna

Danger to wildlife through
possibilities of drowning or
marooning; habitats and
movement routes disrupted;
inter--related species split;
inter
food--chains broken; some
food
species could disappear
6. Public health aspects

Reservoir and canals: possible
spread of disease vectors –
malaria, filaria,
filaria,
7. Climate

Large water-
water-body -
possible climatological
changes
8. Seismic aspects

Possible reactivation of old
and dormant faults

Possibilities of reservoir-
reservoir-
induced seismicity
9. Downstream impacts Why is there so much opposition to

Reduced flows, silt load and
nutrient content downstream large dams?
of dam - river regime affected,
also aquatic and riparian life;
Large dams have provoked opposition for
adverse impact on lives and
occupations downstream numerous social, environmental, economic and
(fisheries, boat-
boat-plying,
agriculture, industries ) safety reasons. The main reason for opposition

Decline in groundwater worldwide is the huge number of people that
recharge
10. Impacts of canals have been evicted from their lands and homes

Disruption of natural drainage; to make way for reservoirs..
possible drainage congestion

Canal irrigation-
irrigation- possibilities of
Dam reservoirs can also become breeding
water--logging and salinity
water
conditions in command area, grounds for waterborne diseases such as
leading to loss of valuable malaria, leishmaniasis and schistosomiasis.
schistosomiasis.
agricultural land

How many people have been
displaced by dams?

Between 30 and 60 million people - the majority
of them in China and India - have been displaced
by large dams. At present, perhaps 2 million
people are displaced every year by large dams.

Where compensation is given, cash payments are
very rarely enough to compensate for the loss of
land, homes, jobs and businesses. Where
compensation is in the form of land, it is usually
of poorer quality and smaller than the original
holdings.

How much land has been flooded under
reservoirs?

More than 400,000 square kilometres -
representing have been inundated by reservoirs
worldwide.

Have many people been killed in dam
collapses?

More than 13,500 people have been swept to
their deaths by the roughly 200 dams outside
China which have collapsed or been overtopped
during the 20th century.

People have also died in earthquakes caused by
the great weight of water in large reservoirs. A
magnitude 6.3 earthquake caused by Koyna
Dam in India in 1967 killed around 180 people.

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World commission on dams

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A Change in Paradigm and Practice

Design Team Era

Engineers Pre-
Pre-WWII

Engineers + Economists Post--WWII
Post

Engineers + Economists + EIS at end Late 1970s

Engineers + Economists + Environ & Sociologists Late 1980s

Eng. + Econ.. + Evt & Soc. + Affected People Early 1990s

Eng. + Econ. + Evt & Soc. + AP + NGOs Mid 1990s

Eng. + Econ. + Evt & Soc. + AP + NGOs + Public Acceptance
Early 2000s?

World Commission on Dams

15

Alternatives
Solutions
1. Treat mega-
mega-projects as a last
resort only after considering
other possibilities such as local
water conservation, watershed
development, small projects
etc., after making a careful
evaluation of all options.
2. Move from isolated planning to
integrated and holistic planning
for a basin or sub-
sub-basin.
3. Subject "mega" projects to the
most rigorous scrutiny and
clear them only after fully
establishing techno-
techno-economic
viability, environmental and
social acceptability. Reject a
project if it fails to qualify
according to these norms.

A process for dialogue

Open, fair and transparent

Inclusive of public sector,

A Commission composed of
4. Examine carefully if adequate
financial resources will be
forthcoming for the timely
completion of the project,
without imposing crippling
burdens on the State budget.
5. Insist that the necessary
studies and surveys, action
plans on environmental and
re-
re- settlement aspects be
completed before project
approval.
6. Ensure and institutionalise
fullest consultation and
collaboration between people
and NGO organisations
representing them from the
earlier stages of planning till
its completion and operation
1/16/2008
A NEW APPROACH

Insist on Environmental
established by all stakeholders Impact Assessment (EIA)
and interest groups studies

Quantify direct and indirect
costs and benefits (financial,
private sector and civil society economic, environmental,
social and human), and base
individuals reflecting different project decision on a
perspectives thorough--going cost-
thorough cost-benefit
analysis

For all adverse impacts, take
appropriate counter-
counter-measures
- remedial, mitigatory or
compensatory
7. Ensure imaginative humane implementation
approach through appropriate training,
orientation and monitoring. Establish a
credible responsive and effective grievance
redressal machinery.
8 Keep equity and social justice in all facets of
the project, say from Planning to implementation.
9. Keep the Project under constant review
and institute corrective actions and remedial
measures wherever necessary
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Communities do have an answer Drought Proofing

Barmer district in Rajasthan, one of India’s
driest places, receives 100 mm of water in the
year. If this rain falls on one hectare of land,
the total rainwater received is as much as one
million litres - enough to meet drinking and
cooking water needs of 182 people at a liberal
15 litres per day.

Cherrapunji which gets 11,000 mm annual
rainfall, still suffers from serious drinking water
shortage.

The strategy for drought-
drought-proofing should
be to ensure that every village captures all
the runoff resulting from the rain falling
over its entire land and storing it in tanks
or ponds or using it to recharge the
depleting groundwater.

It would then have enough water in its
tanks or in its wells to cultivate substantial
lands with water-
water-saving crops like millets
and maize.

While a 1 hectare (ha) of watershed in the

Negev yielded as much as 95 cubic metres
(cum) of water per ha per year, a 345 ha
watershed yielded only 24 cum/ha/year. In
other words, as much as 75 per cent of the
water that could be collected was lost

in a drought-
drought-prone area where water is scarce,
10 tiny dams with a catchment of 1 ha each will
collect much more water than one larger dam
with a catchment of 10 ha.

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End

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