‘Seen Byers, aaa Cafrence ats 08 anya (612000 American institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics or published with permission of author(s) andlor author(s)" sponsoring organization. A00-24546 Effects of Dent Removal on the Design Properties of Fuselage Skin Material Frank Simmons I, P.-E. Gulfstream Aerospace Corp., Savannah GA. 31402 Jose Veciama Gulfstream Aerospace Corp., Savannah GA. 31402 John Wallace, P.E. Georgia Southern Ui Introduction: Fuselage design and construction of large cabin ansport aircraft have undergone relatively litle ‘change over the past 40 years. The designs of today still utilize @ thin, lightweight luni skin stabilized by stringers and longerons. These skins ‘re designed to carry transverse shear loading and torsional loading as well as maintain intemal pressure for the passengers and crew at an acceptable level of comfort at high altitude. ‘Therefore, itis of primary importance to ensure that the levels of quality of materials and repair processes are such that the structural integrity and durability ate not compromised for the life of the aireraf. ‘The typical fuselage skin of a commercial aircraft is ‘made of an aluminum alloy (Alclad 2024-73) that combines the properties of damage tolerance, static strength, fatigue durability and corrosion resistance. This alloy has been used for fuselage skins for 40 years by airtrame manufactures and is still the alloy of choice of most airframers today. The aircraft is designed and sized based on the ‘mechanical design properties provided in MIL- HDBK-5 (Ref. 1) for the various structural alloys. MILAIDBK-5 provides the statistically besed mechanical property database used by the structural analyst to size the airframe structure In the process of servicing the fuselage structure there is the potential for damage to the skin. A typical example is the dropping of a tool by a mechanic that results in a dent in the skin. The motivation for this smudy was the need to have data for the structural repair engineer to make the decision on whether to repair a dent or replace the Copyright © 200 by the American Insti of Aernaute and ersity, Statesboro, GA. 30460 skin, The cost of replacing a skin on a sub- assembled section of fuselage is quite significant. In addition, during the replacement procedure other damage may occur. It should be nored that Non- Destructive Evaluation (NDE) methods are used to Ucteriine if die stuctute is cracked. Cracks i irframe structure are not allowed and are removed iff present. ‘Thie project was undertaken to quantify the impact ‘on mechanical properties of removing a dent from a fiselage skin. There was a need at GAC to develop a controlled "cold working” or planishing practice to remove dents from the fuselage skin and to know ‘what the resulting mechanical properties of this repaired area are. Planishing is defined in ASM Glossary of Metallurgical terms as the "deforming of metal plastically under conditions of temperature and strain rate that induce strain hardening”. Herein, the term cold working is used to represent the removal of a dent and producing a smooth surface on the metal by a succession of controlled blows using a ie or hammer at room temperature. ‘A standard repair procedure was developed 10 provide limits on the cold working of minor dlents/prouusivus in ait passage skius w9 within blue print contour limits. To provide engineering. with some data that could be used to assess a potential repair atest was conducted to generate this needed data, “This tet data characterizes the impact of the dent and the cold working of the dent on the engineering properties of Alclad 2024-73 sheot (ef. 2). Further, the use of a surface enhancing process known as “rotary pening" and the impact of this 1 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics AIAA 2000-1467process on the fatigue life of this material is also an issue that is addressed in this report. Rotary pening is a process similar to shot peening, only using a different method of impinging the shot onto the ‘metal surface. The resulting layer of compressive residual stress on the surface is the same as obtained with shot pening, Rotary peening allows for surface enhancement to be done with a controlled rill motor so itis useful in field repairs. Literature Review: ‘There is much data in literature on the physical and mechanical properties of metallic alloys that are used for airframe construction. There are various handbooks that are filled with statistical data characterizing these commonly used metals. The primary example is the previously mentioned MIL- HDBK-5, which contains the design allowable properties for most alloys used by airframers However, not much is available in terms of damagedirepaired structure and the effect of ddamage/repair on the properties of such materials. The literature that is available on damaged structure has to do with damage in the form of a stress concentration, such as a hole or a crack. Since the ‘Aloha Airlines incident in 1988 where it was found that multiple small fatigue cracks joined together to form a large crack that led to catastrophic consequences, the issue of multi-site damage (MSD) has been a popular, well-developed topic. ‘Much of the research that was done involved the probability of detection of MSD in fuselage lap Joints and models that predict the crack propagation. ‘The FAA sponsored much of this work in efforts 10 keep an aging fleet of commercial aircraft from being grounded. (Ref. 3) ‘The issue of MSD also led material producers to look for ways to improve the damage tolerant propertics of 2024-T3. This lead Alcoa working in conjunction with Boeing, to develop a new alloy, 2524, that ie equal to 2024 in terme of static Properties, but has greater toughness and crack growth resistance. (Ref. 4) Other issues that are well covered in literanire include the improvement of fatigue properties by ‘means of shot peening. Numerous studies have been conducted that indicate that shot peening induces favorable compressive residual stresses on the 2 (612000 American institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics or published with permission of author(s) andlor author(s) sponsoring organization ATAA 2000-1467 surface of metallic materials and thus improves fatigue life. (Ref. 5-8) Lyst (Ref. 9) at Alcoa did some work (1968) in establishing the effect of cold work on fatigue strength of heat-treated aluminum alloys. Lyst was not looking at damage and repair but instead at forming and stretching operations and their impact (on fatigue properties. He concluded that for small amounts of stretching the results were inconsistent. However, he found that moderate stretching after solution heat treat and prior to aging did lower the fatigue strength slightly. Stretching prior to solution heat treatment is known to increase the tendency for recrystallzation and will have an impact on the fatigue properties. In his final remarks, Lyst concludes that moderate amounts of cold working due to deforming procedures have insignificant effects on the fatigue suengths of heat cated aluminum alloys. He also states that extensive cold ‘working (just short of fracturing the metal) may have a very deleterious effect on the fatigue strength ‘because of the advanced development of slip planes, A review of the literature indicated a lack of data addressing the specific condition of plastic deformation damage and repair on fuselage skin material. Therefore, the subject testing was deemed necessary to fill this void of information. Experimental Procedure: ‘The objective of the testing was to form a consistent dentin the three gages of sheet material then remove the dent and test the properties inthis area. ‘The dent ‘was placed in the sheet by dropping a steel rod from ‘a known distance. A one-inch thick rubber mat was placed on the backside of the sheet to absorb some of the euergy aud provide 4 uifoun area of plastic deformation. The depth of each dent was measured and recorded. The target was a dent depth of 0.030 +/-0.00S” in depth. This target was achieved for the 0.050 (0.032" average dent) and 0.063 (0.034" average dent) thick material but the 0.040 thick ‘material was dented deeper than the target, that is, an average depth of 0.042". No dents below 0.025 were included. All of the dents were non- destructively evaluated and none were cracked. The same test matrix was conducted on the sinafferted ‘material to establish the baseline. The purpose was to determine if a reduction factor should be applied to static and fatigue design properties for aluminum alloy sheet. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics‘The test material was Alclad aluminum alloy 2024- TS sheet meeting the requirements of SAE-AMS- QQ-A.250/5 (Ref. 2) material specification. Each of the three thicknesses tested (Le, 0.040", 0.050” and 0.063"), were taken from one material lot, to minimize chemistry variations, Dents were made on sheets that were 24" long (grain direction) X 48" wide. Dents were made with an eight-inch separation in the length direction and a four-inch separation in the width direction. Each dent in a pane! was repaired by cold-working the metal. ‘The dents were removed as much as possible and the panels returned to a flat condition. ‘The dents were removed by craftsmen at Gulfstream Aerospace who perform this operation when needed fon actual aireran. ‘After deuting and cold working, the panels were rnon-destructively inspected (ie., eddy current) to insure that no cracks were present. After the cold working and inspection, the “dog-bone” coupons ‘were cut out of the panele. The coupons were the standard 0.50" wide coupon per ASTM-E-557 (Ref. 10). The compan configuration was the same for static testing and fatigue testing. ‘Therefore, in all cases the gage area of the coupons. where the fracture occurs, has seen the plastic deformation of denting and the cold work to correct the dent. The coupons were tested in the long transverse (LT) grain direction, Subsequent to this, some of the coupons to be fatigue tested were rotary peened. None of the static test coupons were rotary pened. The peening process was pertormed to the requirements ot MIL R-81841 (Ref. 11) with the intensities as shown in Table | ‘To properly assess the effects of cold-working and potential field-level standard repairs, static and fatigue tests were peiformed. These tests were divided into three categories: (1) baseline material or control group, (2) dented and then cold-worked ‘material and finally (3) dented, cold-worked and rotary pened material, For static testing, a total of 90 coupons including both the baseline configuration and the dent and repaired configuration were tested, From the static testing, Fry (ultimate tensile strength), Fry (tensile Yield strength) and elongation data were recorded 3 ()2000 American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics or published with permission of author(s) andlor author(s) sponsoring organization ATAA 7000-1467 For the fatigue testing, a total of 135 coupons were tested, There were three data sets for each thickness, tha is, the baseline configuration; the dent and repaired configuration; and the dent, repaired and peened configuration. Five coupons were tested at each stress level and three stress levels. were selected. The testing was a constant amplitude fatigue test in accordance with ASTM-E-466 (Ref. 12), with an R ratio of 0.1. Thus, the specimen was always in tension and the minimum load was ten percent ofthe maximum load. Discussion of Results: Static Mechanical Properties The static mechanical propertics did not show 2 significant change from the unaffected material to the donted and cold worked material. In general, the dented and cold worked coupons show a minor increase in yield strength and ultimate tensile strength and a minor reduction in the elongation. ‘The average values and calculated Typ values from the data are summarized in the Table 2. ‘The Tay of B-basis number is a number that states that 90% of the data is above this value with a statistical confidence of 95%. It is a mumber that is used to design redundant structure on an aircraft The B-basis is calculated per MIL-HDBK-5 procedures assuming a normal distribution and using the AVG-K(STD DEV) equation. “k” is a factor, from MIL-HDBK-5, that is based on the number of specimens tested. | This numerical analysis is performed to provide a number that can be compared diseclly the MIL-HDBK-5 number The values presented in MIL-HDBK-5 for clongation are not D-basis but arc instead S-basis, ‘This means that the statistical basis to support this, number ie not known. Fatigue Test Results: ‘The fatigue results are presented in Figure 1. This includes the data from all three thicknesses. No attempt was made to normalize the data based on thickness or dent depth. The fatigue data were fitted with a "best fit" power curve formula, The ‘equations and the correlation factor are provided for ceach dataset. American Institute of Aeronautics and AstronauticsFigure 2 contains the same data that is shown in Figure 1 but separated for each of different gages. Reviewing the data from each gage separately, the 0,040” gage and the 0.063” gage both indicate the trend that the combined data revealed. The 0.050" gage data, however, do not exhibit the tend. With the 0.050” gage all of the points were together and neither the baseline data, the cold worked data nor the cold worked and peened data looked different. The baseline data tor this gage did not extubit fatigue life as good as the 0.040” or the 0.063” data. (Other observations were that with the 0.063” gage data the pening had a more significant effect than it id uu the 0.040" gaye data drvugh out the range of applied stresses. Microstructural Aspects: Cross sections were made of three fatigue specimens to determine if the difference in the fatigue response could be explained by examining the microstructure. ‘Mounts were made of the grip area of the specimen and of the gage area. All three gages had fine grain recrystallized grain structure typical of thin sheet 2024-T3. The 0.050 gage may have the finest grain size of the three but all have the typical recrystallized grain of thin sheet 2024-73. There was also no difference observed between the tab ofthe specimen and the gage section of the specimen Fracture Surface Examinatt Thirteen fatigue fracture specimens were submitted to the University of South Carolina Microscopy Center for evaluation of the fracture curfaces with a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). In general, the high stress fatigue specimens (SOksi) thal single initiation sites where the lower stress (20 & 30ksi) had multiple initiation sites. Some of the 0.050” specimens had unique looking fracture surface that appeared more ductile in the center than the surface through the thickness. See Figure 3 showing two SOksi, baseline specimens one 0.040 gage and one 0.050 gage. Note thatthe 0.040 specimen has a more uniform, flat fracture surface whereas the 0,050 has a more curved fracture surface looking more ductile in the center of the specimen. 4 (c)2000 American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics or published with permission of author(s) andlor author(s)’ sponsoring organization. AIAA 2000-1467 Modeling Aspects: Modeling ofthe denting process is useful to obtain a further understanding of what is happening to the metal. The combination of applied bending and net- section tension stresses are causing some resulting residual stresses in the plastically deformed metal Straightening the metal back to its original shape will “induce different residual stresses. These residual stresses will affect how the metal responds when cyclically loaded. Modeling allows for a better understanding of what happens to the metal and may provide guidance as to why the metal responds as it does when tested ‘The modeling of the dent and the dent removal process was considered for three reasons: 1) to obtain a method of normalizing dent depths in various thicknesses; 2) to determine the extent of plasticity and residual stress due to the dent/repair process and 3) to relate the residual stress predicted in the model to the fatigue test results and to help explain the disparity inthe 0.050 data ‘The modeling software used was STAGS (Ref 12). STAGS (Structural Analysis of General Shells) is a non-linear structural analysis program that was used {fo provide an approximation of the dent and the repair procedure ‘A simple model was created of a flat sheet having the dimensions of 8 X 8 inches. The overall grid elements were 0.25 X 0.25", with a finer grid (0.125 X/U.125) for a2 X 2 inch center area where the dent was located. The flat sheet is simply supported on the ends so the constraint in moving the material comes simply from the surrounding material. The Toad was distibuted equally over ive points in circular pattern within a one-inch diameter similar to the tool end used to create the actual dents. For the plastic deformation response a typical stess strain curve from the test material was used. Initially, experimentation was done with load levels to obtain a dent depth similar to what was actually obtained. ‘The load was applied and then removed and the resulting deformation was similar to. actual dents ‘There was no impact or dynamic factor added to the load. For the dent removal process, the same loading pattern was simply reversed and applied to the dented skin, This is probably not the best pattern for removing the dent but in the interest of time no other load distribution was evaluated. American Institute of Aeronautics and AstronauticsModeling Results: Normalization: For the normalization process, numerous trials were conducted, and the peak displacement plotted versus the applied load. Only the denting process was examined not the dent removal process. The results are presented in Figure 6. The STAGS model indicates that a load of 490 pounds applied will result in a depth of 0.045” in the 0.040 sheet, a depth of 0.030 in the 0.050" sheet and a depth of 0.016" in the 0.063” sheet. Plasticity and Residual Stresses: In other tials, loads were applied to a level that replicated the average dont observed on cach particular sheet thickness. Removing the dent from the dented sheet was a livle more difficult than patting in the dent. In none of the cases did the Sheet reach a flat condition and there was mare instability in the thinnest gage. The load required to approach the flat condition was between 75-80% of the original dent load. The thicknesses of 0,050 and 0.063 reached a level that closely approximated a flat sheet, but the 0.040 did not reach a fat level The reason for this is not known but is suspected that the lack of stifiness in the 0.040 sheet led to this result ‘The residual strains on both the inside and outside surfaces were determned im the model. An interesting result of the model is that both the inside surface and the outside surface resulted in a tensile residual strain, The inner surface is lower due to @ compression component due w bending. Typical ‘outputs from the STAGS model are shown in Figure s. Relating to the Fatigue Data: ‘The peak residual strains were converted to residual stresses using the typical stress strain curve. The results are presented in Table The results indicate that the 0.040 thick sheet has the highest residual stress duc to the depth it was dented. Its interesting to note that the 0,063” sheet is close to the 0.040 sheet result in terms of residual stress even though it was dented only 75% as deep as the .040 sheet was dented. ‘The usefulness of these predicted residual stresses would be to input them into an equation for 5 (c)2000 American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics or published with permission of author(s) andlor author(s)’ sponsoring organization. AIAA 2000-1467 determining a stress versus cycles fatigue curve, then compare the reduction that this equation gave with the results of the actual test data The peak of the residual stress in the model may not be the best number to enter into the equation predicting the reduction in fatigue life. The most significant residual stress number is the amount of residual stress at the point of fatigue crack initiation. Since the peak residual tensile stress is at the center ot the test specimen wrdth, ths may not be the most likely place of fatigue crack initiation. ‘The corer of the specimen is a stress concentration point and 2 high tensile residual stress at this point would presumably be more detrimental than @ high tensile residual stress in the center of the specimen, Thus, for this approach to be validated it should be Tinked with detailed specimen failure analysis. Conclusion 1 static mechanical property data indicate that both the baseline material and the cold worked ‘material meet the requirements of MIL-HDBK-S for B-basis values. ‘The reduction in the elongation on the cold worked data is noted but since the clongation is not a B-basis, in MIL-HDBK-5, there is no statistically sound number to compare this test data, The interesting aspect of the reduction in the clongation is that clongation is considered a representation ofthe ductity of the material. ‘Thus, a loss in some of the ductility of the metal may represent a reduction in the toughness or the ability to resist crack groweh after it has initiated The fatigue data of the three thicknesses combined, indicate a reduction of -20% in the low stress levels and a reduction of ~5% in the high stress levels due to the denting and cold working, These data indicate ‘that the rotary peening brings the fatigue life back to at the lower applied stresses. At the higher applied stresses the rotary peening does not improve the fatigue life ‘The intensities that were used in the rotary peening were very light due to the fact that this is thin skin aluminum. Thus. the depth of the compressive residual stresses is not very deep. The hypothesis is that for lower applied stresses, this thin layer of compressive residual stresses on the surface plays a more significant role in resisting the initiation ofa fatigue crack on the surface. At higher applied stresses, the thin compressive stress layer becomes less significant American Institute of Aeronautics and AstronauticsIn looking at the fatigue data from cach gage separately, the 0.040 gage and the 0.063 gage both indicate the trend that the combined data revealed. The 0.050 gage data, however, do not exhibit the trend. In comparing the as-received fatigue data of the 0.050 to the 0.040 and the 0.063 it is apparent that the 0.050 had a lower fatigue life at the stress Tevels tested than the other two gages. Also the cold worked data showed less of a reduction in this gage than the other two. The reason for this is not fully known, The modeling does indicate that the 0.030 thick shect had the lowest level of detrimental residual tensile stress, It is suspected that the 0.050 gage may have had a more unfavorable residual stress distribution fiom the material supplier t lead to premature fatigue failure. ‘These data provide a basis for structures engineering to evaluate a dent, consider these data and make an. engineering judgment as to whether the potential change in properties will have an impact on the functionality of a discrepant part ‘The essence of this study is that denting Alclad 2024-T3 thin sheet (0.040-0.063") to a depth of 0.035” and removing such a dent by planishing the ‘metal will result in some level of strain hardening. the metal. The denting and the repairing processes ‘will change the distribution and the magnitude of the residual stresses in the metal, The amount of working may also to be a source for the advanced development of slip planes. These effects are evident in the mechanical properties as a minor reduction in tensile elongation and a reduction in fatigue life on un-notched specimens at lower applied stresses. Modlling has been shown to be a cost effective and useful tool for approximating the effects of a dent and the removal a dent on sheet metal structure by ‘cold working. Non-linear modeling of a dent with the STAGS software has the potential determining the residual stress profile and providing data for the development of the optimum repair. for Further Studies: ‘A number of technical issues came up after analyzing these test data and should be addressed with follow-on testing and analysis. These include: ‘The data presented herein is limited. There are only three chemistries and three heat lots. The population, of data needs to be expanded to include mote melts 6 (612000 American institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics or published with permission of author(s) andior author(s) sponsoring organization. AIAA 2000-1467 ‘and heat lots, Issues such as variations in chemistry and in microstructure have not been adequately addressed. Expanding the database would also determine if the results of the 0.050 material were anomalous or typical. ‘The impact on the fatigue life of a stress concentration, i¢., a rivet hole or a formed radius within or near an area that has been plastically deformed and subsequently repaired should be investigated ‘The impact on other properties such as fracture toughness or fatigue crack growth should be investigated. Establishing the cause leading to the change in properties remains unanswered. Is it unfavorable residual etrzees or ie it the “advanced development of slip planes?” Methods of analysis such as transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray defraction and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) could be used to establish the addition of slip systems and the state of residual stresses, ‘A detailed failure analysis should be conducted on the fatigue specimens. ‘The fatigue fracture initiation sites and crack growth rates should be determined. Knowledge of where fatigue fractures initiate might provide data for knowing how to optimize shot pening intensities to provide sufficient compressive layer to improve the fatigue life. Whether the failures are initiation dependent or crack growth dependent would also help to establish the impact of surface residual stresses. Expanding the modeling of the dent and repair process (0 include youmeuit aourlineatily, vibes materials and product forms would be useful. Taking residual stress from the dentrepair model and predicting the fatigue or crack-growth response would be ideal. Validating such a model with teat data on specific materials would also be recommended. Az advanced materials become more integrated into airframe structures; their ability to be manufactured and repaired is sometimes averlanked Acknowledgements: ‘The authors would like to thank Mr. Robert Potts and Mr. Wilber Kidd for their skillful work in putting in and taking out dents; Ms. Vicki Britt for her help with the STAGS model; Mr. Paul Taylor for his many draft reviews; Mr. Lee Tithman for American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronauticsconducting the static and fatigue testing; and Dr. Dana Dunkelberger for the SEM work. References: 1) MIL-HDBK-SH "Military Handbook, Metallic Materials and Elements for Aerospace Vehicle Structures,” December 1998, 2) SAB-AMS-QQ-A-250/5 “Alclad 2024, Sheet and Plate,” June 1998. 3) Sampath, S, Brock, D., “Estimation of Requirements on’ Inspection Intervals for Pancle Susceptible to Multiple Site Damage,” Structural Integrity of Aging Airplanes, Springer Series in ‘Computational Mechanics, 1991. 4) Bray, GH, Bucci, RJ, Kulak, M. Warren, CJ., Grandt AF., Golden, P.J., Sexton, D.G., “Renefits of Improved Fuselage Skin Sheet Alloy 2524-13 in Multisite Damage Scenarios.” Light Metal Age. December 1998, 5) Was, GS. & Pelloux, RM., "The Effect of Shot Peening on the Fatigue Behavior of Alloy 7075-16," AMS International, May 1979 6) AlHassani, S.TS., "The Shot Peening of Metals ~ Mechanies and Structures,” The University of ‘Manchester Institute ot Science and Lechnology, ()2000 American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics or published with permission of author(s) andlor author(s) sponsoring organization AIAA 2000-1467 7) Mutoh, Y., Fair, GH. Noble, B. & Waterhouls, R.B., "The Effect of Residual Stresses Induced by Shot Peening on Fatigue Crack Propagation in Two High Strength Aluminum Alloys," Fatigue of Engineering Materials Ltd., March 30 1097, 8) Piascik, RS, Willard S.A., "The Growth o Small Corrosion Fatigue Cracks in Alloy 2024, Mechanics ot | Materials Branch Lockheed Engineering & Sciences Co, NASA-Langley Research Center. 9) Lyst, 1.0, “The Effects of Cold Working on the Fatigue Strength of Heat-Treated Aluminum Alloys: ‘A Review of ARL Data and the Literature,” Journal of Materials, Vol. No. 4, American Society for Testing and Matcrels, 1968. 10) ASTM B 557, "Tension Testing Wrought and Cast Aluminum and Magnesium-Alloy Products", May 1904, 11) MIL-R-81841, “Military Specification, Rotary Flap Peening of Metal Parts,” February 1972. 12) ASTM-E-466, Standard Practice for Conducting Force Controlled Constant Amplitude Axial Fatigue Tests of Metallic Materials”, 1996 13) Chen, CS., Wawrzynek, P.A., Ingraffea, AR, "Residual Strength Prediction of Fuselage Structures with Multiple Site Damage," ‘The Second Joint NASA/FAA/DoD Aging Aircraft Conference, 1998 ‘Specimen Thickness | Feeniag tavensiny (Inches) (Almen) 0000 0.003 0.006 0.050 (0.004 - 0,008N 0.063 0.006 -0.010N Table 1. The Kotary Peening Intensities Used on the Ditlerent Ihicknesses Tested. 7 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics(612000 American institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics or published with permission of author(s) andlor author(s) sponsoring organization AIAA 2000-1467 Data ID Yield] Ultimate | Elongation Strength | Tensile | (%) (Ks) | (KsD Bareline 0,040 -AVG a8 06 182 Cold Work 0.040-AVG | 42.9 612 165 Raceline 0.040-B-Basie | 41.2 60.0 15.0 Cold Work 0.040- B-Basis | 41.9 60.2 140 Mil HDBK 5 B Bacis 10.0 60.0 15) Baseline 0.050-AVG | 435 as Tes Cold Work 0.050-AVG | 438 618 169 Baseline 0,050-B-Basis | 43.0 o12 170 Cold Work 0.050-B-Basis| 42.9 61.0 140 MI-HDBK-5 B-Basls 40.0 90.0 1a) ‘Baseline 0.005 AVG a6 ey Tht Cold Work 0.063-AVG | 453 0 18.5 Baseline 0.063 - B-Basis | 44.3, 620 160 Cold Work 0.063-B-Basis | 44.5, 21 10 Mil-HDBK-5 B-Basis 20 62.0. 159) Notes: (1) The elongation value (15%) from MIL-HDBK-S is an S-Basis nota B-Basis Table 2. Summary of Static Mechanical Properties S-N Curve of Clad 2024-T3 All of the Data (0.040, 0.050 &0.063) 60 % ] sof _/ Baseline Mat! oe) R= 0.971 (epee arte 40 S onan 30 20 + Cold Worked Matt Best Ft- Peened | | 10 ye s13pe4)_ RES u.ytB | | ° ‘900 ‘0000 ‘190000 ‘00000 ‘19000000 | Cycles | ‘Baseline Mati —— Best Fit Baseline Cold Worked ] | Best Ft- CW. L sure 1. S-N Curves for the Combined Data Sets. 8 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics()2000 American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics or published with permission of author(s) andlor author(s) sponsoring organization ALAA 2000-1467 S-N Curves for 0.040 2024-T3 Best Fit Baseline © Baseline Mati | ‘4 Cold Worked | Best Fit Cold Worked | x Peened | Bost Fit Peened Stress {KSI) 4000 10000 100000 1000000 1000000 | ° | Cycles a | S-N Curves for 0.050 2024-T3 60 5 © Baseline Mati a Best Fit Baseline an | a Cola Worked 3 | cc++: BestFitCold Worked | | E 2 6 x Peoned 0 — —-—BestFitPeened ° 4900 4090 4nn9nn 9onn9A sannAo | ° Cycles S-N Curve for 0.063 2024-T3 60 . Stress (KSI) I fren 1000000 1000000 0 1000 10000 100000 Cycles Figure 2. The Same Data Presented in Figure 1 but Separated According to Gage. 9 Baseline Material Bost Fit Baseline Cola Worked Bost Fit Cold Worked Peened Rast Fit Paaned American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics(612000 American institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics or published with permission of author(s) andlor author(s)" sponsoring organization. AIAA 2000-1467 A B Figure 3. These fractographs are of SOksi, baseline material fatigue specimens. A is 0.040 gage specimen and B is a 0.050 gage specimen. Note the unique central fracture area of the 0.050 specimen. This look was unique to the 0.050 specimens. Model of Load vs Dent Depth 700 600 a (04 sheet a s paid —=—.05 sheet § = 063 shoot 200 100 0 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 Dent Depth, in. ‘Figure 6. Graph of load versus dent depth from STAGS model. 10 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics()2000 American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics or published with permission of author(s) andlor author(s) sponsoring organization. AIAA 2000-1467 Figure 7. Some typical STAGS model out puts. A is the dimensions of the average dent in 0.050 and Bis the resulting dimensions after dent removal. C is the tension side residual strains with the dent and D is the tension side residual strains with the dent removed. 10.040 Gage 10.050 Gage 0.063 Cage Residual | Residual | Residual | Residual | Residual | Residual Strain_| Stross | Stroin_| Stross | Strain | Stross [Outside Surface =| 0.0040 | 339 | 0.0033 | 30.0 | 0.0036 | 314 inside Surface =| 0.0024 | 23.4 | 0.0017 | 177 | 0.0015 | 158 [Avg of Both 287 23.9 236 ‘Table 3. The table of modeled residual strains and stresses after dent removal. nN American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics