Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
25
Series of' 2007
WIIEIIEAS, as past of tlie Rules and Regulations o f thc Boarcl. L iolalion ol'ali!;
~ ) r o v i s i o of
~ ~ this Codc is a grocl~icl
- To1 discil>lin;~ry;1clio11 agui~lst :I ~ ~ ~ . o f e s s i o ~ ~ : ~ l
~i~echanical engineer, registcsed ~~leclianical
e~~g,i~iecr,
ant1 ccrti ficcl pI;11it I I I C C ~ I : I I ~ ~ C ; n /
I
I II
V
P. PAREDES ST., CORNER MORAYTA STREET, SAMPALOC, MANILA, PIIILIPPINES
PO. BOX 2038, MAN1I.A
NOW, TkIEREPOIIII:,tllc Uoal.cl 12csolvcs. as il is Ilclcby I<csol\~ctl,
lo i~cloplallcl
promulgate the Rcviscd I'hilippinc Mecl~a~lical (lode, 2007 Etlilio~l,sul>millctl by lllc
Philippine Society of Mccl~arlicalf'nginecl-s, Inc. (I'SMf<),A N N E X "A", as inlegt-al pal[
of the hercin Resolutiot~.
This Code shall lake erfecl after liflcc~l( 1.54 (lays l i ~ l l o w its
i ~ h~ll
~ ~ :111tl co~nl)lclc
publication i n the Official Gazcllc or i l l n 1iewsl)apcl. o f gclicl.nl ci~-c\~lalio~l ill lllc
Philippj nes.
Secretary, Professiollal
Regt~latoryBoards
PADILLA -
RUTH R A ~ A
Coinmissioner
PRB-MEFjII-SRB
AY P/CGA/o fie
a: revised m e code 2007
CODE COMMITTEE 2008
EDUARDO P. MENCIAS
CHAIRMAN
MEMBERS
PACIFIC0 0.ORTALIZA
CARMELITO A. ALUNAN
CIPRIANO A. MARCEL0
pepublic of the Fbilippinee
~rofeeeiunalpdlegulnfion Mommieeion
@anila
MESSAGE
This publication is an effective research and resources material, not only for
mechanical engineers but also for those who seek relevant information to guide
the general public on efficiency and quality performance. It sets forth the stan-
dards of professional conduct thereby ensuring that if faithfully conforms to the
implementation of Republic Act No. 8495, otherwise known as the " Philippine
Mechanical Engineering Act of 1998", and provides for the remedial measures
or sanctions for any violation.
This contribution to the society epitomizes your earnest desire to harmonize and
unite all mechanical engineers and provide a guiding path in achieving profes-
sional excellence, integrity, humility and s&-vice.This worthy project of PSME
will surely mark another milestone of success, as you continue to broaden the
horizon and expand the boundaries of Filipino mechanical engineers.
LEONOR TRIPON-ROSERO
Secretary August 1,2008
It is the dream of many, if not all to become experts in their chosen fields of
endeavor, and this Code is symbolical of the Society's commitment to make
sure that the professionals remain true to their sworn duty to serve and
contribute to the progress of our nation, and improve quality of life.
August 1,2008
-
RUTH RANA-PADlLLA
Commissioner
N I L 0 L. ROSAS
Commissioner
August 1,2008
MESSAGE
This vital reference book puts together expertise of private practitioners and
various references for mechanical engineers to continuously cope up with
the advancement of technology, formulating and adopting techniques and
systems relevant in the Philippine condition and to constantly uphold the
ideals of integrity, spiritual values, and commitment to serve the nation.
This effort of the men and women of the PSME functions greatly in the
administrative supervision of the Board over its professionals. Your
invaluable role in providing this reference reflects your commitment to
professionalism. I believe that only through this comprehensive information
campaign that we will be able to observe, implement and uphold
professional excellence.
P
Chairman
LEONOR TRIPON-ROSERO
Chairperson
BOARD OF MECHANICA!
b I
- -
Tobias P. Marcelo Luis A. Flores * Victor A. Lim Domingo S. Mendoza, Sr. Pedro B. Manayon -Adelf0 D. Urtula RodolfoA. Vales Urbano J.
Pobre Ceferino L. Follosco Pedro F. Loresco Cesar B. Lopez Clodoveo V. Soriano, Jr. Ernesto B. Marcelo Pedro Ma. Carino Damaso
--
C. Tria Luisito M. Reyes Roberto G. Abiera Eduardo P. Mencias *Armando C. Pascual Julio F. Abarquez Arnaldo P. Baldonado Victorino
Z. Sianghio, Jr. -Antonio Ro. Herrera Emesto V. Villanueva Gemeliano F. Calinawan Danilo 0. ~ulanadi-Alfred0 Y. Po -Albert0 D. Dosayla
-
- - -
Romeo A. Perlado -August0 C. Soliman Gerardo C. Hernandez Expedito S. Bollozos Sergio C. Balolong Juan C. Cabanayan Gaudencio
R. de Guzman Emesto J. Casis RobertoA. Lozada Ramon C. Maniago Danilo P. Hernandez Vicente V, de Guzman Edimar V. Salcedo
Ramon F. Solis * Vicente B. Vosotros
This code undertakes a significant change for an advanced study of certain provisions of Mechani-
cal Engineering in the realization of our Global climate change and trends, to address relevant
needs of the future. A11 PSME Chapters have given their contributions to uplift the standards of our
Code to a more mermingful practice of the Mechanical Engineering Profession.
Our present trend is to venture into a cleaner and greener. environmental field. For and in consi-
derations of these fields, we adopted the latest revision of the American, European and Japanese
Mechanical Codes which were deemed applicable and relevant to Philippine Conditions, the as-
pects of which were clearly defined and illustrated. Moreover, prevailing Philippine conditions has
greatly affected and influenced, with the end in view, such that private practitioners' inputs were
solicited, reviewed and included in many chapters.
All changes, additions and amendments came about after careful and thorough deliberations and
evaluations by the code committee resulting in simple clarifications and explanations
In case of conflicts in the Interpretation of the provisions of this code, the Board of Mechanical
Engineering, Professional Regulation Commission, shall be the arbiter whose decision shall be
final and unappealable.
The Code and Standards Committee welcomes comments, inputs and suggestions for the improve-
ment of this code especially on omissions, errors, conflicts, etc ... arising from the final printing of
this code, All suggestions 1 comments shall then be reviewed +-., and deliberated upon for possible
inclusion in the next edition, LIS this is a continuing process for evaluation, advancement and prog-
ress.
EDUARDO P. MENCI~S
PSME National President 1979, 1980
Chairman, 2008 Code & Standards Committee
CHAPTER TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE
1 GENERAL ...................................................................................................................
Scope Definitions General Requirements for Cranes Boom Type Mobile Cranes
Hoists Derricks in Permanent Location Auxiliary Hoisting Equipment Operating
Rules lnspection
Definitions General Requirements for Boiler and Pressure Vessel Installation Specific
Requirements for Fired Tube Boilers Specific Requirements for Miniature Boilers
.
Specific Requirements for Low Pressure Heating Boilers Unfired Pressure Vessels
Test and lnspection Boiler lnspection Blow-Offs, Pressure Reduction, Fire Explosion
Devices Other Testing Methods
Definitions Air Conditioning and Ventilation Standards Duct System and Accessories
Heat Gain Calculations Refrigeration System Air Intakes and Outlets *Air Filters
Noise Abatement Cold Storage and Refrigeration *Refrigerant Piping, Valves,
Fittings and Related Parts Pressure Relief Valve Discharge from Pressure Relief
Devices Pressure Limiting Devices Test of Refrigerant Containing Vessels
Instructions Helmets Refrigerant Storage The Fundamentals in Vapor-Compre331~1 I
PUMPS........................................................................................................................................................
195
PIPING.........................................................................................................................................................
213
Scope Definitions General Requirements Identification Colors for Pipes Fluid Flow
Velocities Power Piping System Design Industrial Gas and Air Piping System
Refrigerator Piping Systems
METROLOGY.............................................................................................................................................
.241
Purpose and Scope Standard Machine Special Tools and Machinery in Machine Shop
of a Manufacturing Plant Sizes of Motors for Machine Shop Equipment and Forging
Machinery Machine Screws Gearing Guarding of Point of Operating in Turning,
Drilling, Shaping, Milling And Grinding Operations
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES..............................................................................................................
282
.
Definitions Classification of Manufacturing Processes Processes Shielded Metal Arc
Welding Safety Precautions Pollution Control Anti- Pollution for Manufacturing Processes
GENERAL
This chapter provides the general requirements for (b) Complete individual piping system,
works involving machinery design, installations and indicating terminal to terminal valves,
operations. fittings, size and color code.
As used in this code, and as defined in Article I 2.4 Separate plan for the different store rooms, fuel
Section 3 Paragraph (b) Republic Act No. 8495, tanks, fire extinguishing equipment, fire fighting
otherwise known as The New Mechanical Engineering tools, fire doors, fire escape ladders, etc., which
Law, mechanical equipmentlmachinery or process were not incorporated in Section 2.1.
shall include steam engines, internal combustion
engines, boilers, turbines, crushers, mills, mixers, 2.5 For air conditioning and refrigeration installation
compressors, cranes, conveyors, hoists elevators, or ventilation, plans for supply and return
pipelines, line shafting, etc.; and the term "mechanical ductwork should indicate the location of outlet
works, plant," shall include steam plants, internal dampers, controls, filters, fire proofing, sound
combustion engine plant, hydraulic power plants, insulators.
pumping plants, refrigerating plants, air-conditioning
plants, mill shops, factories, shipyards, etc. containing 2.6 Detailed plans of foundations and supports.
any mechanical equipment, machinery or process.
2.7 Detailed construction and working plans of
boilers and pressure vessels, if any.
Section 2.0 Requirements for Permit
Application 2.8 Location plan preferably drawn to scale.
All proposed installations, additions or alterations 2.9 Complete list of machineries showing:
involving machinery, mechanical equipment or
process shall be covered by the following plans and (a) Machinery namh.
specifications prepared by or under the supervision of
a Professional Mechanical Engineer signed and (b) Catalogue number, size, model, serial
sealed by same. Such plans in triplicate shall number
! accompany applications for installation and operation
permit. (c) Rated capacity (Ex. Boiler Steam capacity in
KgIHr, kW, kJ)
2.1 General layout plan for each floor drawn to scale
not less than 1:200, in heavy lines the (d) Drive and Revolutions per minute
equipment with super-imposed building outline
in light or suppressed lines. All names of (1) Direct
machinery and brake horsepower or kilowatt
rating should be noted on plan. (2) V-belt or flat belt
2.2 Plan elevation at least one longitudinal and on-e (3) Gear reducer
traverse to show inner floor relations indicating
how machines are supported whether through (4) Hydraulic
building structure, separate staging or by
foundations from the ground. (5) Magnetic
(e) Motor or Prime Mover Showing: Cast and malleable iron Electrical windings
( Also for general use electro-magnets,
of all materials) resistance etc.
(1) kW for each machine
2 - - - - - - - - - - -MEDIUM
----- MIDDEN LINE 2- - - - - - - - - - -- ----
MEDIUM
THlN THlN
3 SECTION LlNE 3
4- CENTERLINE 4 -- THlN
Extension Une
DimensionUne
VIEWING-PLANE
11
THICK
THlN
BREAK LINES
10
11
- T
THICK
THIN A
T
150 rnrn
L I
drawn by Title drwng. no.
0
In -
checked by scale sheet no.
p. rn. e. owner
20 20
I
Fig. 1-8 Title Block
CHAPTER 2 - COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL BUILDING
Chapter 2
e. Railing of the following types of construction Where the slope would be less than 20°, a
shall be deemed satisfactory: ramp should be installed, and where the
slope is more than 45", a fixed ladder should
For Wood Railings: Top rails and be provided.
posts of at least 50 mm x 100 mm
stock and intermediate rails of at No stairway shall have a height of more than
least 50 mrn x 50 mm x 20 mm x 2 750 mm between landings, and
100 mm stock. All such railings intermediate landings shall have dimensions
shall be smooth and free from large of not less than 1 120 mm measured in the
or loose knots, protruding nails or direction of the run.
bolts, splinters, fine slivers or
cracks. Headroom shall be provided at all points in
the stairwell. The vertical clearance shall not
2. For Pipe Railings: Top rails and be less than 2 200 mm from the top of the
posts of metal pipe of at least 30 tread in line with the face of the riser.
mrn diameter. And intermediate rails
of metal pipe of at least 25 mm Except for service stairs, the treads,
diameter. exclusive of noosing or projections, shall not
be less than 230 mm in width and the risers
-or Structural Metal Railings: Top shall not be more than 200 mm or less than
ails 'and posts of angle iron at least 130 mm in height.
38 mm x 38 mm x 5 mm and
intermediate rails of angle iron of at There shall be no variation in the width of
least 32 mm x 32 mm x 3 mm. the treads and the heights of the risers in
any flight; the top and bottom treads of any
All railin!3s shall be of sound material free flight should be clearl! distinguishable.
from defcects and all sharp corners shall be
.nArrA A
...-
IU 3 1 11~0thed. All stairways hav~ngfour or more risers shall
r-. em..
IUIJI IUCU
i. Toe boards shall be securely fastened in Enclosed stairways less than 1 120 mm in
place with not more than 6-mm clearance width shall be equipped with at least one
above floor level. handrail, preferably on the right side
descending.
3.8 Stairs
Stairways 1 120 mm or more in width shall
a. All stairs, platforms, and landings shall be of be equipped with one stair railing on each
sufficient strength to sustain safely a live open side and one handrail on each
load of not less than 500 kg with a factor of enclosed side.
safety of four (4)
CHAPTER 2 - COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL BUILDING
m. In addition to the railings provided for in slats, or grill work to prevent persons from
Section 3.8, stairways 2 250 mm or more in falling through.
width shall be equipped with an intermediate
handrail located approximately midway of x. Ramps used by persons for ascent or
the width. descent from one level to another shall be
limited to a slope of not more than 1 in 10
n. Stair railings shall be constructed in a and shall conform to all relevant
permanent and substantial manner of wood, requirements for construction width,
pipe, structural metal or other material of enclosures and railings applying to
sufficient strength. stairways.
o. The height of stair railings, from the upper y. Where railings for ramps may be subjected
surface of the top rail to the surface of the to heavy stresses, from trucking or handling
tread in line with the face of the riser at the materials, additional strength shall be
forward edge of the tread, shall not be more provided by use of heavier stock, close
than 860 mm nor less than 760 mm. spacing of posts, bracing, etc.
p. Handrails shall be continuous throughout a 3.9 Fixed Ladders, Catwalks, Runways and
flight of stairs and at landings and without Platforms:
obstructions other than those intended to
prevent persons from sliding. a. All metal parts or fittings of ladders shall be
made of structural steel.
q. If made of wood, handrails shall be at least
50 mm x 50 mm in cross section and if of b. Fixed ladders shall be so installed that:
metal pipe, at least 40 mm in diameter.
1. The distance from the front of the
r. Handrails mounted directly on walls or rungs to the nearest fixed object on
partitions shall be fixed by means of the climbing side of the ladder is at
brackets attached to the lower side of the least 760 mm.
rails, so as not to interface with the
smoothness of the top and side surfaces of 2. The distance from the back of the
the rails. rungs to the nearest fixed object is
at least 160 mm.
s. Brackets shall be spaced not more than
2 000 mm apart and shall be of sufficient 3. Except in the case of ladders
strength to provide a clearance of at least 40 equipped with cages, baskets or
m betwee6,;tb rails and walls or any equivalent devices, there should be
Dstruction 6ri the .walls. a clearance of at least 380 mm from
..... ..... ,
. . ..,....
' . .
. . .. ... the center line of the ladder on
t. The completed.sthkture shall be capable of either side across the front of the
withstanding. a .:'load of at least 100 kg ladder.
applied in a.nydirection
. .. at any point on the
rail. .
. .. . .. . c. If fixed ladders are used to ascent height
. ..
. .._.,. :,
..
. ,... ~
exceeding 9 000 mm.
u. The clear width./$f.#service stairs, such as
stairs in engine and boiler rooms or stairs 1. Landing platforms should be
leading to service platforms around provided for each 9 000 mm or a
machinery, shall be at least 560 mm. fraction thereof.
v. The pitch of service stairs shall not be more 2. The sections of the ladder should be
than 60" and the width of the treads shall staggered.
not be less than 150 mm.
d. Catwalks, working platforms or open sided
w. Window openings at stair landings, where floors 2 000 mm or more above floor or
the opening is more than 300 mm in width ground level, except platforms used for
and the sill is less than 900 mm above the loading and unloading of height, and small
landing shall be guarded securely by bars, platforms used for motors or similar
CHAPTER 2 - COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL BUILDING
equipment which cannot afford standing bridges or under pass should be provided,
space for persons, shall be guarded on all and the track or roadway should be fenced
open sides by standard railing and toe so as to prevent direct crossing at such
boards. points.
e. Catwalks used for filling of thanks, cars or j. Walking along railway tracks by
for oiling may have the railing on one side unauthorized persons should be prohibited.
omitted, if necessary, subject to the hazard
of falling being reduced by the use of k. Railings should be installed along walkways
runways not less than 560 mm in width. on bridges, on steep slopes, at slippery
places and at places where pedestrians are
f. All runways or platforms constructed over liable to injury by passing vehicles.
conveyors or machinery shall be guarded on
all open sides by standard railings and toe I. Roadways for automobiles, tractors or other
boards. vehicles should be soundly constructed with
surfaces made of good working materials.
3.10 Yards, Gates, Roadways, Walkway
m. Roadways should be of adequate width, and
a. Plant yards shall be properly drained and where used by two way traffic, shall be at
graded in order to facilitate safe access to least twice the width of the widest vehicle
buildings and safe handling of material and normally used, plus 1,2500 mm. Sufficient
equipment. clearance from overhead structure should
be provided.
b. Drain pools and catch basins shall be
provided where necessary, and be properly n. Where the establishment of grade or level
covered or enclosed. crossings cannot be avoided, such
crossings should be protected by watchman,
c. Ditches, pits and other hazardous openings gates or automatic signals.
shall be provided with substantial covers,
enclosed, or surrounded by substantial o. Substantial railings or walls should be
guards. provided along bridges, slopes and sharp
curves.
d. Walkways, roadways and tracks for plant
railways should be carefully laid out in such Section 4.0 Machinery & Equipment
a manner as to avoid dangerous grade
crossings. 4.1 General Requirements
Where the premises are surrounded by a. All heavy machinery should be supported on
fences or walls, separate entrance and exit solid foundations of sufficient mass and
gates should be provided for pedestrians, base area to prevent or minimize the
vehicular and railroad traffic. transmission of objectionable vibration to the
building and occupied space and to maintain
f. Gates for pedestrian traffic should be the supported machine at its proper
located at a safe distance from those for elevation and alignment.
vehicular and railroad traffic and should be
of sufficient width to permit passage of b. Foundation mass should be from 3 to 5
employees at rush hours. times the weight of the machinery it is
supposed to support, or may be designated
g. Safe walkways should be constructed along in conformance with Section 2.4..2.
the shortest lines between important points.
If the unbalanced inertial forces produced by
h. Walkways should not be located under the the machine can be calculated, a mass of
eaves of buildings where they may become weight equal to 10 to 20 times the forces
slippery. should be used to dampen vibration.
i. Where it is necessary for pedestrians to For stability, the total combined engine,
cross railroad tracks or vehicular roadways, driven equipment, and foundation center of
CHAPTER 2 - COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL BUILDING
Chapter 3
-
Machine Parts as used in this code shall mean all Section 3.0 Guards
moving parts of the machine, except those forming
part of the point of operation. 3.1 General Requirements
-
Nip-Point Belt and Pulley Guard a device which a. Type of Guarding Required. Where
encloses the pulley and is provided with rounded or guards are required, they shall be of proper
rolled edge slots through which the belt passes. design, constructed of materials as listed in
Table 3.1, adequately rigid and secured in
-
Pneumatic Motor a type of prime mover utilizing the place, and shall shield, fence, rail, enclose,
potential energy guard or otherwise protect the employee
against accidental contact with the
Point of Operation - the part of the machine which dangerous moving parts of prime movers,
performs an operation on the stock or materials and/ power transmission equipment, machine
or that point of location where stock or material is fed and machine parts.
to the machine. A machine may have more than one
point of operation. b. Guards may be provided with hinges or
removable mechanisms whenever it may be
Power Transmission Equipment - all mechanical necessary to change belts, make
means of transmitting power from a prime mover to a adjustments or apply lubrication to the
machine. guarded parts.
are used, the width of the opening shall be e. Machine Flywheels. Machine flywheels
not greater than 25 mm. having spokes (or parts equivalent to
spokes), or projections, any part of which is
c. Standard railing guards shall be placed no 2 100 mm or less above floor or working
less than 380 mm no more than 500 mm level shall be guarded.
from any moving parts, provided however
that where clearances from other moving 3.6 Flywheel Ball Governors: Fly Ball Governors
parts of are less than 380 mm, such parts located 2 135 mm or less above the floor,
shall be guarded as required elsewhere in platform or working level having rotating,
this code. projecting or sectional parts, or hazardous
recesses shall be guarded.
3.4 Opening for Lubrication
3.7 Conveyors:
a. Where application of lubrication must be
done, openings with hinged or sliding covers a. Screw conveyors 2 100 mm or less above
shall be provided. floor or other working level shall be
completely covered with substantial lids
b. Where machines or machine parts must be except that screw conveyors 600 mm or less
lubricated while in motion the lubricating from its top t o the floor or working level,
devices shall be located at least 300 mm whether its axis be above or below the floor
from dangerous moving parts unless such level which may be guarded by standard
CHAPTER 3 - POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPT., PRIME MOVERS, MACHINES AND MACHINE PARTS
railing guards having toe boards of midrail e. Conveyors passing over areas that are
height or by substantial cover or gratings. occupied or used by employees shall be so
guarded as to prevent the material handled
b. All belt conveyor head pulleys, tail pulleys, from falling on and causing injury to
single tension pulleys and dip take-up employees.
pulleys shall be so guarded that the entire
sides of the pulleys are covered and the f. Where workmen pass under the return
guard shall extend in the direction of the run strands of chain conveyors a shallow trough
of the belt at such distance that a person or other effective means of sufficient
cannot reach behind it and be caught in the strength to carry the weight of the broken
nip point between the belt and the pulley. chain shall be provided.
c. Portable inclined conveyors shall have head 3.8 Process Machine Power Control:
and tail pulleys or sprockets and other
power transmission equipment guarded a. Each process machine driven by an
accordingly. individual prime mover shall be equipped
with emergency stopping device which can
d. Where necessary to pass over exposed be safely actuated from the operator's
chain, belt, bucket, screw, or roller working position unless the machine is
conveyors, such crossovers shall be equipped with automatic clutch which will
provided with catwalk or bridge with stop or disengage all machine operation.
standard railings and toe boards and shall
have a safe means of access either fixed b. Where an operator attends one or more
ladder, ramp, or stairway. process machines not equipped with
individual drives, each machine shall be
Table 3.1 Materials for "U" Guards equipped with stopping device which can be
safely actuated from the operator's working
position at the machine, such a stopping
device may stop an entire group of
machines by stopping the prime mover,
power transmission or it may be a machine
clutch, cut-off coupling, or tight and loose
pulley with belt shifter which can stop all the
machine. Pole or hand shifting of belt is not
considered adequate means for
disconnecting the power.
designed, installed, and/or located that they and where the distance between any two
are not likely to operate from accidental adjacent belts or pulleys does not exceed
contact with objects or parts of the body. 900 mm.
3.9 Machine Power Control. All machines shall be f. Horizontal overhead belts more than 2 100
equipped with adequate means whereby the mm above a floor, platform or other working
operator of the machine or some other person level shall be guarded for their entire length
may disconnect the power promptly in case of if located over passageways or working
emergency. places.
3.10 Revolving and Reciprocating Parts g. Wherever there pulleys of such dimensions
and so located as to permit passage
a. Hazardous revolving or reciprocating parts between upper and lower runs of belt,
in any machine not guarded by the frame or standard railing guard shall be constructed;
the machine or by location shall be guarded. or all space traversed by belt shall be
completely barred against passage.
Keys, set screws, projections or recess in
revolving parts not guarded by the frame of h. Continuous system rope drives so located
the machine or by location shall be that the condition of the rope (particularly
removed, made flush or guarded. the splice) cannot be constantly and
conveniently observed shall be equipped
3.11 Collars and couplings shall be cylindrical and no with a "telltale" device (preferably electric
screws or bolts project beyond largest periphery. bell type) that will give warning when rope
begins to fray.
3.12 Clutches, cut-off couplings or clutch pulleys,
having projecting parts where any parts of such i. All rope drives shall be guarded as required
devices is located or 2 100 mm or less above for belt drives.
the floor or working level shall be guarded.
3.14 Counter-balanced belt tensioner and all parts
3.13 Guarding of Belt and Pulley Drives: thereof shall be of substantial construction.
Means shall be provided to prevent the
a. Any part of a belt and pulley drive involving tensioner from falling in case the belt breaks; or
the use of flat crowned or flanged pulleys, the area directly beneath the tensioner shall be
which is 2 100 mm or less above the floor or guarded by standard railing guards.
working level shall be guarded.
3.15 Belt-type variable speed drives located 2 100
b. Flat step-cone pulleys drives upon which the mm or less from the floor or working level shall
belt operates on one step only, or step cone have all moving parts guarded.
pulleys drives where multi-step operation is
obtained by changing the length of the belt 3.16 All gears and sprockets wherever located shall
shall be guarded. be guarded adequately.
c. very V-belt and pulley drive including V- 3.17 Friction drives located 2 100 mm or less above
belt and step-cone pulley drives, any part of floor or other working level shall be guarded.
which is 2 100 mm or less above the floor or
working level shall be enclosed. 3.18 The chains. sprocket and chain drives, located
with 2 100 mm of the floor or other working
d. If the bottom of the guard is within 100 mm level, shall be guarded.
of the floor or supporting structure, the
bottom of the guard need not be enclosed. 3.19 Where workmen pass under the chain drives, a
shallow trough or other effective means of
e. Where a group of flat belt drives is guarded sufficient strength to carry the weight of a
by a standard railing guard, such drives broken chain shall be provided.
shall be considered guarded where the
distance from the vertical plane of the rail to 3.20 Manually operated power disconnecting devices
the nearest point of any belt or pulley is not shall be designed, constructed and installed that
less than 380 mm nor more than 500 mm
CHAPTER 3 - POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPT., PRIME MOVERS, MACHINES AND MACHINE PARTS
they will remain in the neutral position until 4.11 Exterior shapes or any pad of the machines that
intentionally actuated. require frequent contacting or handling should
be so designed as to facilitate convenience in
3.21 Machine Guarding Other Than Point-of- handling, while moving parts that cannot be
Operation: enclosed should, as far as possible, be smooth
in contour.
Relates to the belts, pulleys, gears, shafts and
shafts ends, screws, projections, and all other Table 3.4
moving machine parts, other than at the point- Threshold Limit Values for Noise Exposure
of-operation, that constitute potential injury
producing conditions. Max. Sound Levels (Slow
Hours of exposure per day, Hrs.
Response), dB
R an
Section 4.0 Principle of Safe Machine
Design:
4.1 Dangerous moving parts should be enclosed.
4.9 Vibration should be eliminated or reduced to the 4.16 Wherever manufacturing circumstances permit,
maximum permissible extent. point-of-operation guards should be installed by
the builder of the machines so that it may be
4.10 Machine motions tiring to the eyes should be delivered to the purchases in a fully guarded,
avoided, as when reciprocating or revolving condition.
parts must be viewed through cross screens or
lattice-work. 4.17 Consideration should be given to the safe
location or isolation of machines that cannot be
made safe otherwise.
CHAPTER 3 - POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPT., PRIME MOVERS, MACHINES AND MACHINE PARTS
illustrative Example: What horsepower would a fiber. This method may be used to find the
short shaft, 50.8 mm in diameter, carrying but two approximate value of the polar section that
pulleys close to the bearings transmit if the shaft are nearly round. For other than circular
makes 300 revolutions per minute? Using cross-sections, however, the polar section
Formula (6a) modulus does not equal the polar moment
of inertia divided by the distance c.
md
Da .. ..
..
-9 or
A.
0.1667~'
b 02
o.z(~& or 0.07d
commonly manufactured of fabric, cord, or
combination of these, treated with natural or
synthetic rubber compound and vulcanized
together, provide a quiet, compact, and
. .
..
. ..
...
..,.. .......
... . .. &&#L&3 + 1.8IYb resilient form of power transmission. They
12
whee d is the sborier side
are used extensively in single and multiple
forms for automotive, home and commercial
& or 0.0980' & or 0 . 1 9 ~ equipment and in industrial drives for a wide
..... ...j 32 i6
DJ - ( range of horsepower extending upwards
from fractional values.
LF I@ -do sf@- d'l
g=JJ . D 33
or 0 . ~ tff
8 - JJ
iD.s
s(D-~)
3
r b. Standard Multiple V-Belt. Five sizes V-
belts are designated in the Engineering
Standards for Multiple V-Belt Drives.
....: . .
-
5& sd=1.0a25sJ
B 1F~ Nominal width and thickness dimensions are
.. ::;, .'
F
or 0.12 F
' as shown in Table 3.5.2. However, actual
dimensions of V-belts of various
-no'-s' -l.d-A' manufacturers may vary somewhat from
A. 6 5. 3D
0.fg6rf - 0.3332 these nominal dimensions. Because of this
or 0 . 0 g ~ d- 0.7679' 0'
D fact, it is recommended that belts of different
-
u d --
5 d sJ
~ makes should never be mixed on the same
-
0' - -6
5K!T
3f==&l 32
or o.as&
8
- ,.ogjb Or
id
ol
40
~ d2.-r6e2
D
drive. Standard V-belt pitch lengths and
permissible pitch-length tolerances are
given in Table 3.5.3.
93
-
48 20 Table 3.5.2
or 0.036 : or 0 . 0 5 d
Standard Multiple V-Belt Dimensions and
A
Recommended Test Load
c. Measuring a Multiple V-Belt. The pitch of the sheaves without injury. Also shown in
multiple V-belts is determined by measuring Table 3.5.4 is the minimum allowance above
fixture consisting of two equal diameter the standard center distance (plus values)
sheaves having standard grooves and for which the centers should be adjustable
pulled with a standard test load indicated in to take up any slack in the belts due to
Table 3.5.2. One of the sheaves is fixed in stretch and wear.
position, while the other is movable along a
graduated scale with the specified tension Table 3.5.4 Minimum Center Distance Allowances
applied to it. for Installation and Take-up of Multiple V-Belts
f. Power Rating for Multiple V-Belts. The g. Arc of Contact. The arc of contact made by
following formulas and accompanying table the V-belt on the small sheave is of
of constants (Table 3.5.6 to 3.5.9) may be importance when computing the power
used to determine the general horsepower rating of a V-belt for a give drive. This may
rating of a single V-belt. The total be found by the formula:
transmitted power through multiple V-belts
thus, shall not exceed the sum of individual Arc of Contract = 180" - [D - d ) 60" (5)
rated capacities of all connected V-belts. C
The recommended power, P which may be where D, d and C are as noted above.
transmitted through a single V-belt for a Correction factors for various arcs of
specified belt speed, S is given by: contact, used in finding power capacities of
multiple V-belts drives (see example) are
given in Table 3.5.8.
Rolls - 1.21.61.4- - - - - - -
Bakery
Machinery 1.2 - - - - - 1.21.0 - - -
Dough Mixer
CHAPTER 3 - POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPT., PRIME MOVERS, MACHINES AND MACHINE PARTS
Table 3.8 Arc of Contact Correction Factors c. Types of Sprockets. Four different designs
Type of Drive Arc of Type of Drive or types of roller chains are shown in
Arc Of
V to V IV to Flat ' Contact V to V /V to Flat ' sectional views in Fig. 3.5.2. Type A is a
Contact
on
on
Small
plain plate sprocket; type B is a single-
Small Correction Factor Correction Factor hubbed sprocket; type C is double-hubbed;
Sheave
Sheave and type D, shows detachable hub
arrangement. Also used are shear pin and
slip clutch-type sprockets designed to
prevent damage to the drive or to other
150" ( .92 ( .82 1 100" 1 .74 1 .74 equipment caused by overloads or stalling.
140" 1 .89 1 .84 1 90" 1 .69 1 .69
* A V-Flat drive is one using
- a small sheave and a larger
- d. Selection of Chain and Sprockets. The
ldiameter flat pulley. smallest applicable pitch of roller chain is
desirable for quiet operation and high
speed. The horsepower capacity varies with
Standard Roller Chain Numbers. The the chain pitch. However, short pitch with
right-hand figure in the chain number is zero high working load can often be obtained by
for roller chains of the usual proportions, 1 the use of multiple-strand chain.
for a lightweight chain and 5 for a rollerless
bushing chain. The numbers to the left of The small sprocket selected must be large
the right-hand figure denote the number of enough to accommodate the shaft. Table
118 inch in the pitch. The letter H following 3.5.10 gives maximum bore and hub
the chain number denotes the heavy series; diameters consistent with commercial
thus the number 80 H denotes a I-inch pitch practice for sprockets with up to 25 teeth.
heavy chain. The hypernated number 2
suffixed to the chain number denotes a After selecting the small sprocket, the
double strand, a 3 triple strand, 4 a number of teeth in the largest sprocket is
quadruple strand chain and so on. determined by the desired ratio of the shaft
speed. Over emphasis on the exactness in
Heavy Series: These chains, made the speed ratio may result in a cumbersome
in %-inch and larger pitches, have and expensive installation. In most cases,
thicker link plates than those of the satisfactory operation can be obtained with
regular standard. Their value is a minor change in speed of one or both
only in the acceptance of higher shafts.
tensile or jerk loads at low speeds.
The rollers, bushing diameters, pin
diameters, and widths are the same
as in the standard series.
The data for each size of chain are divided Table 3.11 Horsepower Ratings for Roller Chains Drive
into four zones. The first is for Type I
lubrication; the second, Type II lubrication;
and the fourth; for Type IV lubrication, as
explained below. The limiting RPM for each
lubrication type is read from the column to
the right of the boundary line shown.
I -
1 114 lnch Pitch Standard Singlestrand Roller Chain No. 100 (Cont.) I INo. O1f '/2 lnch Pitch Standard Single-Strand Roller Chain - No. 120 (Cont.) I
-
CHAPTER 3 - POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPT., PRIME MOVERS, MACHINES AND MACHINE PARTS
Horsepower Rating
CHAPTER 4 - MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
Chapter 4
-
Danger Zone and area of place near or at the point Plate Shear - machine capable of shearing metal
those in process in the machine may come in contact, stock more than 6mm thick
or be caught by or between moving and1 or : I
parts of the machine. This inclucjes area ?
Point of Operation- the portions or areas of a
materials or stock are fed into, PI.ocessed r machine in which mechanical operations on the stock
discharged from the machint. rn or materials are performed. Such points of operations
shall necessarily include stock feeding and discharge
-
Doctor Feeds a device emwloved to keew feed and points on the machine.
stock rolls clean and assist in fe&ing stock'into the in-
running or feed rolls on the machine. It usually Power Press - motor-driven machines fitted with
consists of curved steel plates mounted in front of, and rams or dies for purposes of blanking, trimming,
leading to each pair of rolls. This plates extends drawing, punching, stamping, forming or assembling
throughout the length of the rolls with its concave side materials.
toward the rolls and its opposite edge held by spring or
gravity action against the surface of the top rolls. Pull-Out Protective Device (Hand Fed). A
mechanically operated device attached to the
-
Drop Hammer a heavy metal cylinder or hammer operator's hands, wrist or arms which withdraws the
operator's hands from the danger zone as the ram
which is raised a practicable height and dropped so
that the force or energy of the blow is developed descends.
entirely from gravity.
Ram - the reciprocating machine part within a
-
Foot and Hand Press machines actuated by foot or cylinder. It may also be called plunger, slide or
mandrel.
hand power only, and fitted with rams or dies for
purposes of blanking, trimming, drawing, punching,
stamping, forming or assembling cold worked -
Sweep Guards a mechanically operated guard that
sweeps the hands of the operator out of the way of the
materials.
descending ram.
CHAPTER 4 - MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
The non-repeat device may not be rendered a. The in running side of the rolls shall be
inoperative unless proper instruction and provided with a fixed or self-adjusting barrier
authorization is given by the employer to the so arranged that the material can be fed to
operator in order to permit continuous operation the rolls without permitting the fingers of the
of the press. Suitable fixed guards, warning operator to be caught between the rolls or
devices and signs shall be provided whenever between the guard and the rolls.
the press is in continuous mode.
b. The control device shall be of the constant
3.5 Treadle Guards (Class A). A treadle on every contact type and shall be so located as to
foot controlled power press shall be protected by prevent the employee from contacting the
means of a guard designed to prevent danger zone, or
accidental tripping. For treadles other than long
bars extending across the machine, the c. The prime mover shall be equipped with an
openings in such guards shall not be more than effective brake and there shall be installed
twice the width of the foot. across the front of the rolls at approximately
knee height a control bar, lever, or other
3.6 Circular Metal-Cutting Saws (Class B): device which when actuated will stop the
motor and apply the brake.
a. Circular metal-cutting saws shall be
provided with a hood that will cover the saw 3.8 Bar Stock Machine (Class A). On machine
to at least the depth of the teeth. The hood where revolving bar stock is being machined,
shall automatically adjust itself to the that portion of the bar stock which extends
thickness of stock and remain in contact beyond the machine shall be guarded by a
with the material being cut at the point trough or tube or by other effective means.
where the saw engages the stock.
3.9 Wire Drawing Machines (Class B)
b. There shall be a provided fixed or manually-
adjusted hood or guard when the space a. Blocks shall be equipped with a stopping
device so arranged that it will automatically
CHAPTER 4 - MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
shut down the machine in case the operator 3.14 Drop Hammers: Drop hammers shall be
should be caught on the block and be equipped with safety stops which will hold the
carried around it, or hammer in the elevated position. Such stops
shall be of the pivoting type and shall be of such
b. A device along the operating side of a a design that requires the hammer to be lifted to
continuous drawing frame or unit so release the safety stops.
designed that pressure against the device
will instantly initiate the process of stopping Section 4.0 Die Casting Machines
sequence of the machine.
4.1 Hot Chamber Machine Controls. Every hot
c. Reels shall be equipped with stopping chamber die casting machine shall be equipped
device so arranged that it will automatically with one of the following controls:
shut down the block in case the operator
should be caught in the wires as it runs from a. Two-hand controls requiring the
the reel, or in case the reel should be drawn simultaneous use of both hands until the die
up to the frame. is completely closed. Removal of either or
both hands during the closing of the die will
3.10 Planners (Class A). Openings in the bed of all stop or reverse the closing cycle, or
metal planners shall be covered with substantial
metal or other suitable covering. b. A single control of the constant pressure
type. This control shall be located at such a
3.11 Alligator Shears (Class B): distance from the parting line of the die that
the operator cannot reach into the die at the
a. The upper jaw of the shear shall be parting line with his free hand. Removal of
surrounded with a heavy U-shaped metal the hand from the control during the closing
strip with the lower edge of the strap just far of the die will stop or reverse the closing
enough above the cutting edge of the fixed cycle, or
jaw to allow the material to be inserted
under it. The clearance from the moving jaw c. A sliding gate guard which when closed will
shall not be over 76 mm, the width of the bar prevent contact by the operator and the die.
should be great enough so that the tip of the This gate shall be interlocked with the
moving jaw does not rise above it. control system so that if the gate is opened
prior to the completion of the closing cycle,
b. A horizontal bar shall be secured to the the closing cycle will stop or reverse.
lower jaw, parallel to the cutting edge, at a
height sufficient to permit the passage of the 4.2 Cold Chamber Machine Controls. Every cold
thickest stock, and so positioned to prevent chamber die casting machine shall be equipped
stock from bending or flying upwards. with one of the following controls:
3.12 Abrading, Buffing and Polishing Machines a. Two-hand controls requiring the
(Class A): simultaneous use of both hands until the die
is completely closed. Removal of either or
a. Exposed arbors shall be guarded. both hands during the closing of the die will
stop or reverse the closing cycle;
b. Arbor ends which are not equipped with a
coarse nuts or equivalent shall be guarded. b. A single control of the constant pressure
type. This control shall be located at such a
3.13 Tumbling Barrels (Class A) distance from the parting line of the die that
the operator cannot reach into the die at the
a. Tumbling barrels shall be completely parting line with his free hand. Removal of
enclosed or guarded by movable rail guards, the hand from the control during the closing
or by other suitable and effective means. of the die will stop or reverse the closing
cycle;
b. If enclosed, tumbling barrels shall be
equipped with an effective lock or brake c. A sliding-gate guard which when closed will
mechanism. prevent contact by the operator and the die.
This gate shall be interlocked with the
CHAPTER 4 - MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
control system so that if the gate is opened control during the closing of the die will stop
prior to the completion of the closing cycle, or reverse the closing cycle.
the cycle will stop to reverse;
4.5 Plunger Control:
d. Two-hand controls requiring the
simultaneous use of both hands until the die a. Every plunger on hot chamber machines
is within 50 mm of complete closing. This shall be equipped with a control interlocked
control shall have an interlocked limit switch with the die which will prevent the operation
that maintains a closed circuit for the last 50 of the plunger prior to the closing of the die.
mm of the closing cycle. Removal of either
or both hands before the activation of the b. Every plunger on cold chamber machines
limit switch will stop or reverse the closing shall be equipped with a control interlocked
cycle. with the die which will prevent the operation
of the plunger unless the die is completely
4.3 Ladling Operation. To activate the plunger in open or completely closed. Or for the
the shot sleeve a single control shall be removal of a stuck plug, a cold chamber
provided. This control shall be a type which machine may be equipped with two-hand
permits the operator to use his free hand for controls, which operate the plunger and
ladling metal. The push button control shall be require simultaneous use of both hands.
so guarded by a shield or recessed so that it
cannot be activated by any part of the body 4.6 Shields Between Die Casting Machine.
other than the finger. Shields shall be provided between die casting
machines to protect against metal spitting.
4.4 Hot and Cold Chamber Machines, Helpers These shields shall be located at the parting line
Protection. Where a helper is employed, his of the die and shall be no less than 1 200 mm
position shall be protected by: wide and 1 830 mm high.
a. A fixed-barrier guard with controls. The 4.7 Holding Furnaces. Any open holding furnace,
control may be foot-operated and shall be which measures less than 750 mm from the floor
interlocked with the primary control so that or working level to the furnace top shall be
the machine cannot be started while the guarded by means of a ring guard around its
secondary control is activated. If the perimeter to a height of at least 750 mm from
secondary control is activated during the the floor or working level.
closing cycle, the closing will stop or
reverse; or Section 5.0 Wood Working Machine
b. A sliding-gate guard which when closed will 5.1 Circular Rip Saw (Class B) Manual Feed:
prevent contact by the helper and die. This
gate shall be interlocked with the primary a. A hood shall be used that will cover the saw
control system so that the machine cannot to at least the depth of the teeth.
be started while the gate is opened and
cannot be started until it is closed; or b. Such hood shall automatically adjust itself to
the thickness of and remain contact with the
c.. Two-hand controls connected with the material being cut around point where the
primary controls and requiring simultaneous stock encounters the saw; or
use of both hands of the helper before the
machine can be started. Removal of one or c. The hood may be a fixed or manually
both hands during the closing cycle will stop adjusted hood or guard provided the space
or reverse the closing cycle; or between the bottom of the guard and the
stock does not exceed 12.70 mm.
d. A single control of the constant pressure
type connected with the primary controls. d. The hood or other guard shall be so
These controls shall be located at such a designed as to prevent a kick-back. "Anti-
distance from the parting line of the die that Kick-Back'' devices shall be designed to be
the helper cannot reach into the die with his effective for all thickness of material.
free hand. Removal of the hand from the
CHAPTER 4 - MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
b. The feed rolls or star wheels shall be 5.4 Cordwood and Similar Saws (Class B). All
enclosed with a cover coming down to within unused portions of the saw blade shall be
12.70 mm of the stock. guarded.
c. A spreader shall be fastened securely at the 5.5 Box Shock Cut-Off Saws (Class 6). Box shock
rear of the saw in alignment with the saw cut-off saws shall be guarded either by a hood
blade, except where a roller wheel is or splitter-type guard. Either type guard shall
provided at back of saw. The spreader shall cover the top back quarter of the saw and shall
be slightly thinner than the saw kerf, and be kept adjusted close to the saw.
slightly thicker than the saw disc.
5.6 Swing Cut-off Saw (Class A)
d. The exposed parts of the saw blade under
the table shall be guarded. a. The saw blade shall be encased on both
sides in such a way that at least the upper
e. Every self-feed circular ripsaw shall be half of the blade and the arbor end will be
equipped with an anti-kick-back device completely covered.
installed on the in-feed side. Such an anti-
kick-back device shall be designed to be b. There shall be an effective device to return
effective for all thickness of stock. the saw automatically to the back of the
table when released at any point of its travel
5.3 Circular Crosscut Saw (Class B): such device shall prevent saw from
rebounding and shall not depend on fiber
a. A hood or guard shall be used to prevent rope or cord for it to function.
contact between the operator and the saw
teeth. c. If a counterweight is used, all bolts
supporting the bar and weight shall be
1. The hood shall automatically adjust provided with nuts and cotter pins. A bolt
itself to the thickness of and remain may be put through the exposed end of the
in contact with the stock nearest the counterweight rod, where the weight does
point where cutting takes place; or not enclose the rod. A safety chain shall be
attached to the counterweight.
2. The hood or guard may be a fixed
or manually adjusted provided the
space between the bottom of the
CHAPTER 4 - MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
d. Limit chains or other positive stops shall be d. The cutter blade under the table shall be
provided to prevent the saw from swinging guarded.
beyond the front edge of the table.
5.10 Horizontal Pull Saw (Class A), sometimes
e. Where it is possible to pass behind a swing referred to as "Contractor's Saw" or "Radial Arm
cut-off saw the rear of the saw shall be Saw" shall be provided with the following:
completely housed when the saw is in back
position. The housing shall include the a. The saw blade shall be encased in such a
swing frame as well as the saw. way that at least the upper half of the blade
and the arbor ends will completely be
5.7 Underhung Swing Cut-Off Saws (Class A). covered.
The saw blade shall be fully enclosed when in
the extreme back position, and the swing frame b. Limit chains or other positive stops shall be
shall not pass the vertical position when at its used to prevent the saw from moving
extreme forward limit. A positive stop shall be beyond the front edge of the table. Such
furnished so that the saw cannot pass the front limiting devices shall be so designed and
edge of the table. located that they can be easily inspected
and they shall be maintained in good
5.8 Portable Power Driven Circular Hand Saws condition.
(Class A)
c. Where a horizontal pull saw is used for
a. Portable circular saw shall be equipped with ripping purposes, there shall be an anti-kick-
guards or hood which will automatically back device installed at the in-feed side.
adjust to the work when the saw is in use. Such a device shall be designed to be
The guards are provided so that none of the effective for any thickness and the width of
teeth above the work are exposed to the stock to be cut and shall not be attached
contact; and when the blade is withdrawn to the saw guard. Automatic feeding devices
from the work, the guard shall at least cover when used they shall be guarded.
the saw to the depth of the teeth. The saw
shall not be used without a shoe or guide. d. There should be an effective device which
will return the saw automatically to the back
b. The saw guards shall be equipped with a of the table when released at any point of its
handle or locked or blocked in an open travel; such a device shall prevent the saw
equipped with a handle or lug by which it from rebounding.
may be temporarily retracted without
exposing the operator's fingers to the blade. 5.11 Band Knives and Band Saws (Class A).
(Including band re-saws having saw blades less
c. Saw guards shall not be locked or blocked than 175 mm in width or band saw wheel less
in an open position and shall be maintained than 1 525 mm in diameter) shall be guarded as
in good working condition at all times. follows:
5.8 Circular Knives (Class A). Circular Knives a. All portions of the saw blade shall be
shall be guarded as follows: enclosed or guarded except that portion
between the guide rolls and the table. The
a. A hood shall be provided to cover the cutting down travel guard from the upper wheel to
edge of the knife. the guide shall be of an angle bar or channel
construction covering the front and at least
b. The hood shall automatically adjust itself to the outside of the blade, and shall be so
the thickness of the stock and remain in adjusted that the blade will travel within the
contact with the stock does not exceed angle bar or channel.
12.70 mm.
b. Band saw wheels shall be fully enclosed.
c. A fixed or manually adjusted hood or guard
may be allowed, provided the space c. Feed rolls of band re-saws and band
between the bottom of the guard and the ripsaws shall be protected with a semi-
stock does not exceed 12.70 mm. cylindrical guard to prevent the hands of the
CHAPTER 4 - MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
employee from coming in contact with the 5.16 Elbow Sanders (Class A). The revolving head
in-running rolls at any point. shall be fully guarded except where abrasive
comes in contact with the material.
5.12 Jointer (Class A):
5.17 Boring and Mortising Machines (Class A):
a. All jointers shall be equipped with cylindrical
cutting heads. a. Only safety-hit chucks with no projecting set
screws should be used.
b. A suitable guard which will automatically
cover the exposed portion of the cutting b. Boring bits should be provided with a guard
head not engaging the stock shall be used. that will enclose all portions of the bit and
The guard shall be capable of protecting the chuck above the stock.
entire length of the cutting space in the
table. c. The top of the cutting chain and driving
mechanism on chain mortisers shall be
c. The exposed portion of the cutting head at enclosed.
the rear of the fence shall be covered.
d. Where counterweights are used, one of the
d. Where equipped with automatic feed, the following measures, or equivalent means
feeding mechanism shall be guarded. shall be used to prevent the counterweights
from dropping:
e. Where knives are exposed beneath the
table, they shall be guarded. * It shall be bolted to the bar by
means of a bolt passing through
Recommendations: both bar and counterweight, or
1. A safety pusher of suitable design should be
provided and used. 2. A bolt shall be put through the
2. The operator must protective eyewear or extreme end of the bar. or
goggles and dust mask during operation of
the machine. 3. The counterweight assembly shall
be equipped with nuts and cotter
5.13 Belt Sanders (Class A). Belt sanders shall pins.
have both pulleys and the unused run of the
sanding belt enclosed. Rim guards will be 5.18 Tenon Machines (Class A). Cutting heads and
acceptable for pulleys with smooth disc wheels saws of tenoning machines shall be guarded.
provided the in-running nip points are guarded.
Guards may be hinged to permit sanding on the 5.19 Planers, Moulders, Stickers and Matches
pulley. (Class A), Shapers (Class B):
-
14 Disc Sanders (Class A). Disc sanders shall Knife heads of wood shapers and cutting
have the periphery and back of revolving disc heads of other machines, not automatically
guarded, and the space between revolving disc fed, shall be provided with guards, or ,
and edge of table shall not be greater than 6.35 templates, jigs, or fixtures which will enable
mm. the part to be processed without exposing
the operator's hands to the danger zone.
5.15 Drum Sanders (Class A):
b. Single cutter knives in shaper heads shall
a. The exposed parts of the drum except that not be used. Knives shall balance each
portion where the material comes in contact other by weight and shall be so mounted in
with the abrasive surfaces shall be guarded. the heads as to revolve at full speed without
dangerous vibration. The back ends of the
b. Feed rolls and pressure rolls shall be knives shall extend at least to a point where
enclosed except such parts as may be it makes a right angle with the axis of
necessary to feed stock. spindle. When the knife extends a distance
equal to or greater than the gripped length
of the knife there shall be separate means to
secure the knife other than the friction
CHAPTER 4 - MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
between the collar and the knife. Such and is so marked. The following table shows
means may be a hook, a through bolt, slots maximum speeds for various diameter saws.
or serrations.
Table 4.5.23 Maximum Operating Speeds of Circluar Saws.
c. Knife heads of automatically fed Pitch Diameter of Saw Max. Circular speed
woodworking machines such as stickers, (mm) (RPM)
planers, molders, and matchers, shall be 200 ........................................................... 5,732
guarded against contact. The feed rolls shall 250 ........................................................... 4.586
300 ........................................................... 3,821
be enclosed, except as may be necessary to 350 ........................................................... 3,275
feed stock. The guard shall be fastened to 400 ........................................................... 2,866
the frame carrying the rolls so as to remain 450 ........................................................... 2,547
in adjustment for any thickness of stock. 500 ........................................................... 2,292
550 ......................................................... 2,084
Knives shall be so mounted in the heads as 600 ........................................................... 1,910
to revolve at full speed without dangerous 650 ........................................................... 1,763
vibration. 700 ........................................................... 1,637
750 .......................................................... 1.528
d. Double-spindle shapers shall be provided
with a spindle starting and stopping device 5.24 Wobble Saws. Wobble Saws shall not be used.
for each spindle.
5.25 Exhaust Systems. Whenever the chips and
5.20 Automa -athes (Shoe Lathes, Spoke and sawdust produced by woodworking machines
All Other Automatic Lathes of the Rotating accumulate on the floor so as to endanger
Knife Type) (Class A). A hood or cover shall employees, suitable exhaust system shall be
be provided to completely enclose the cutter required.
blades while the stock is being worked. Such
hood or cover may be of sheet steel and Section 6.0 Paper and Printing Machines
provided with openings no larger than 10 mm in
any dimension. 6.1 Calendar and Similar Rolls (Class B). Each
calendar shall be equipped with a guard or
5.21 Combination Woodworking Machines (Class feeding device!, SO arr,anged that the material
B). Each point of operation of all component can ble fed wit hout permitting the fingers of the
machines or tools shall be guarded as required opera1tor to be caught Iby the rolls. The device
,
for each individual tool in a separate machine. shall L A
uc r-
allallycu that the operator can
Such machines shall be equipped with a immediately stop the rolls, at the feed point, by
separate starting and stopping device for each the use of a lever rod or treadle. The rolls shall
point of operation. be equipped with an automatic trip device that
will stop the machine when the fingers approach
5.22 Cracked Saws: the intake points. "Doctor Feed" is acceptable.
a. Any band saw found to have developed a Note: The so-called "Doctor Feed can be used
crack whose length is greater than one-tenth on calendar stacks. It is a device employed to
(1110) the width of the band, shall be keep the rolls clean and to assist in feeding the
replaced unless the width is so reduced so material into the in-running side of each pair of
as to eliminate the cracks or unless the rolls on the stack. It generally consists of a
cracked section is repaired. curved steel plate attached in front of, and
leading to each pair of rolls. This plate extends
b. Any circular saw that is found to have through the length of the rolls with its concave
developed a crack whose length exceeds side toward the rolls and its opposite edge held
5% of the diameter of the saw shall be by spring or gravity against the surface of the
discarded unless the diameter is so reduced top rolls of each pair just above the nip point on
as to eliminate the crack and the tension is the cut-running side.
corrected.
In operation the material is fed into the top or
5.23 Maximum Speeds of Circular Saws. The first pair of rolls of the stack and as it emerges, it
peripheral speeds of circular saws shall not is guided by the curved plate of the doctor feed
exceed 3 600 mlmin unless the saw has been into the next pair of in-running rolls; and so on
manufactured or hammered for a higher speed down the stack.
CHAPTER 4 - MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
6.2 Corner Cutter (Class A). Single and double 6.8 Index Cutter (Class B). All knives or plungers
machines with or without mechanical power used for cutting strips off ends of books and
shall be provided with a guard in front of and to similar operations shall be provided with a guard
the side of knives. that will prevent the operator's hands from
coming into contact with the cutting knife or
6.3 Corner Stayers (Class A). Corner stayers with plunger as it descends.
or without mechanical power shall be provided
with an automatic device that will instantly stop 6.9 Power-Driven Guillotine Paper Cutters (Paper
the downward motion of the plunger, should the Cutters). Power-driven guillotine paper cutters
fingers of the operator come between the shall be provided with:
plunger and the anvil.
a. (Class A). A non-repeat device that will
6.4 Cutter and Creasers (Class A). Drum cylinder automatically lock the clutch mechanism into
type cutters and creasers shall be guarded so place so that the cutter cannot make a
as to prevent the operator's hands being caught second stroke until the hand lever is again
between the cylinder and the bed. moved into the starting position, or
6.5 Rotary Scoring Machines (Class A). Scorers b. (Class A). A buffer that will interpose a
shall have guard in front of in-running discs that positive stop to some moving parts of the
will prevent injury to the operator's hands while machine whenever the clutch fails to
the machine is in operation. perform the function of preventing the cutter
from making a repeat stroke. In addition to
6.6 Drum Winder on Paper Machine (Class A). the non-repeat device or buffer, such paper
Machine should be so arranged that the drums cutters shall be provided with:
run outward. Where the drums run inward on the
operating side a cover or guard shall be 1. (Class B). A-two-handed starting
provided for the point of contact between the device which requires the
drum and the paper roll. simultaneous action of both hands
during the cutting motion of the
6.7 Job Platen Press (Class 6). Job platen knife, or
presses with or without mechanical power shall
be provided with one of the following: 2. (Class B). An interlocked starting
device that will interpose a barrier
a. An automatic feed which does not require to interlocking between the starting
the operator's hands to be placed between levers and clutch which must be
the platen and bed, or released through a movement of the
hand starting lever before the lever
b. An automatic feed which will prevent the can be moved to the position where
platen from closing if the hand or hands of it applies power to the cutter.
the operator are caught between the platen
, and the bed, or c. (Class A). Simultaneous operation of paper
cutters by more than one operator shall not
c. A guard or gate, mechanically operated, be permitted or required by the employer.
which will throw the operator's hands out of
the way as the press closes. For sweep Exception: Continuous feed trimmers.
guards which lift the hands out of the danger
zone, the guard should rise at least 100 mm 6.10 Paper Box Ending and Edge Attaching
above the platen as the press closes, and Machines (Class A). Paper box ending and
should descend by gravity or be drawn by edge attaching machines shall be provided with
springs. The guard shall be so arranged that an automatic device which will prevent the
it will prevent a shear between the guard application of injurious pressure if the fingers of
and the top of the platen, or the operators are between the top of the form
and the pressure head.
d. Any other device or tripping mechanism
which will prevent the platen from fully 6.11 Cylinder and Rotary Presses (Class B). The
closing if the hands of the operator should in-running sides of power-operated rollers or
be between the platen and bed. cylinders shall be provided with a guard so
CHAPTER 4 - MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
arranged that the material can be fed to the b. Rotary Slotters. A guard shall be provided
roller without permitting the operator's fingers to in front of the knives so that the hands of the
be caught between the roller or cylinders. operator cannot come into contact with the
knives while machine is in operation.
6.12 Lithographic Presses (Class A). The in-
running side of the cylinder and roller shall be Section 7.0 Textile and Laundry
provided with a guard that will prevent the Machinery
operator from being caught between the
cylinders. 7.1 Shuttles (Class A). All looms shall have shuttle
guards or shall be constructed in such a manner
6.13 Embossing Machines (Class A). Embossing as to prevent the shuttle from flying off from the
machines of the head type shall be equipped machine.
with:
Cards (Class A). The cylinder cover or
A fixed enclosing front and sides of press revolving flat type cards shall be provided with
with just enough clearance space for an interlock, securely bolted in place; or shall be
feeding stock. The guard shall be so provided with a stripping device so arranged that
arranged that the operator's fingers cannot the operator cannot come in contact with the
be caught between the press and the die point of operation.
while feeding stock, or
A licker-in cover shall be provided on all cards
b. A fixed or a movable front guard connected and shall be bolted securely in place so that the
to the operating mechanism in such manner operator cannot readily open it. Thumbscrews
that the operator's fingers cannot be caught or wing nuts shall not be used.
into the press while feeding stock, or
7.3 Carpet Frayer or Rag Shredder (Class A).
c. A two-handed starting device which requires Cylinder door or cover shall be provided with an
the simultaneous action of both hands to interlock so constructed that the cover cannot be
start the machine. opened while the roller is revolving or the cover
shall be clamped in place and the slot be so
Exception: Machines equipped with feeding constructed and guarded that the operator's
devices such that the hands of the operator fingers cannot come in contact with the roller.
cannot come in contact with the die.
7.4 Carpet Trimmer (Class A). Revolving knives
6.14 Paper Punches and Line Perforators (Class shall be guarded.
B). Mechanical or foot power punches and line
perforators shall be provided with an effective 7.5 Stationary Circular Knife (Class A). Circular
device that will prevent the operator's fingers Knives or discs shall be equipped with a guard
from coming between the punch and die. that will prevent contact with the cutting edges
while the machine is in operation.
Exception: Paper punches and line perforators
where the clearance between the opening for 7.6 Cotton Picker., Ooener and Willower (Class
feeding stock does not exceed 10 mm in the rn
7.9 Napper (Class A). Rolls shall be provided with a c. Each washing machine shall be equipped
cover or guard so arranged that the employee's with brake or other devices to prevent the
fingers cannot be caught in the rolls while inner cylinder from moving while loading or
feeding the material. unloading.
7.10 Silver and Ribbon Lap Machine (Doublers) 7.15 Centrifugal Extractor (Class A):
(Class A). A device or cover shall be provided
and so arranged that the employee's hands a. Each extractor shall be equipped with a
cannot be caught under the lap roll. metal cover at least 0.953 mm thick, or its
equivalent sturdiness, which shall entirely
7.11 Garnet Machine (Class A). Openings in the cover the opening to the outer shell. The
lower frame and between lower frames and floor cover shall be kept in its closed position
shall be guarded. Where metal guards are used, when the extractor is in motion.
it shall not be less than 0.953 mm thick.
b. Each extractor shall be equipped with an
7.12 Marking Machine (Class A). interlocking device that will prevent the
cover from being opened while basket is in
a. Each power marking machine shall be motion; and also prevent the operation of
equipped with a spring compression device the basket while the cover is open.
of such design as to protect the finger bones
should these be caught between the Note: This should not prevent the movement
marking plunger and platen, or of the basket by hand to insure an even
loading when the cover is open.
b. The marking machines shall be equipped
with a control mechanism which will require c. No extractor shall be operated at a speed
the simultaneous action of both hands to greater than the manufacturer's rating,
operate the machine, or which shall be stamped on the basket where
easily visible in letters not less than 6 mm in
c. There shall be a guard that will interpose a height. The maximum permissible speed
barrier in front of the marking plunger. shall be given in revolutions per minute.
7.17 Starching Machine (Cylinder or Box Type) a slot or hopper or a rod located directly in front
(Class A). Each starching machine shall have of the feed and extending the full length of the
the rolls or cylinders guarded so as to prevent roll.
contact by the employees while the machine is
in motion. 7.21 Ironer (Flatwork Type) (Class A):
b. Each drying tumbler shall be provided with 7.23 Ironer (Rotary-body Type) (Class A). Each
adequate means for holding open the doors combined rotary bosom and coat-ironer shall be
or covers of inner and outer cylinders or equipped with a guard across the entire length
shells while being loaded or unloaded. of the feed roll or shoe, so arranged that when
struck, the machine will immediately stop.
c. Each drying tumbler shall be equipped with
brakes or other positive locking devices to 7.24 Ironer (Press Type) (Class A)
prevent the inner cylinder from moving
during loading and unloading. "lnching a. Each ironing press (excluding hand or foot
devices" are permitted. power presses) shall be equipped with a two
hand device which require the simultaneous
Exception: Shakeout or conditioning action of both hands to operate the press.
tumblers where the clothes are loaded into
the open end of the revolving cylinder and b. Every power-driven ironing press of the type
are automatically discharged out of the used in the dry cleaning or garment
opposite end. manufacturing industry shall be equipped
with two hand controls which will require the
7.19 Shaker (Clothes Tumbler, Batch Type) (Class simultaneous use of both hands to apply
A) : heavy pressure or to look the press.
a. Each shaker or clothes tumbler shall be 7.25 Laundry Machine. Working areas around the
equipped with a device that will prevent the Laundry Machine shall be provided with non
tumbler from moving while the door is open. skid or slip-resistant flooring.
The tumbler shall be enclosed or guarded
so as to prevent accidental contact. Section 8.0 Leather and Composition
Good Machines
b. Each shaker or clothes tumbler shall be
equipped with brakes or other positivti 8.1 Dinking and Clicking Machines (Class A).
locking devices to prevent the insidt Every dinking machine shall be guarded by at
cylinder from moving when the machine is least one of the following methods:
-oaded or unloaded. "lnching devices" are
3ermitted. a. "Safety type" dies shall be used throughout.
Dies of this type shall be at least 75 mm in
7.20 Dampening Machine (Class A). The rolls on height provided with safety grooves or
dampening machines shall be guarded by either flanges. This safety flanges reduce the
CHAPTER 4 - MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS QF OPERATION
danger of having the operator's fingers a simultaneous action of both hands, or they
being caught between top of die and beam. shall be provided with a mechanical feeding
Other types are provided with horizontal or device.
vertical handles at least 65 mm in height
above the die proper; or b. The plunger shall be guarded either by a
complete enclosure or by a barrier guard in
b. The machine shall be provided with a sliding front of the plunger.
table or swinging head which does not
require the operator to place his hands 8.4 Skiving Machines (Roll Feed) (Class A). Feed
under the beam or head; or rolls shall be so arranged that material must be
fed through slot or under a fixed or removable
c. There shall be a two-handed device that metal rod or strip directly in front of the feed and
required both hands of the operator to be running the full length of the rolls.
removed from under the beam at the
moment of tripping the machine or operation 8.5 Splitter (Stationary Knife) (Class A). Feed
of the machine; or rolls shall be so arranged that material must be
fed through a slot or under a fixed metal rod or
The point of operation shall be guarded on strip directly in front of the feed and running the
all sides. The end guards shall be fixed and full length of the rolls.
the front and back guards shall be gate
guards of the elevating interlocking type. 8.6 Splitter (Band Knife) (Class A)
8.2 Embossing Machines (Power or Foot Driven) a. All exposed portions of the knife as well as
(Class A). Embossers of the head type shall be band wheels shall be enclosed and feed
equipped with the following: rolls shall be guarded.
a. A fixed guard enclosing front and sides of b. An extension of the stopping device shall be
platen with stock feeding slots too narrow to installed across the entire front of the top of
allow insertion of operator's fingers, or the feed roll so installed that it can be readily
operated from the operator's working
b. An interlocking gate-guard connected with position.
the operating mechanism in such a way that
it will automatically protect front and sides of 8.7 Stripper (Class B). Strippers shall be provided
platen during the power stroke in such with control device which requires the
manner that the operator's hand cannot be simultaneous action of both hands during the
caught by the platen, or cutting movement of the knife.
c. An actuating device that requires the 8.8 Tanning Drums (Class A). Horizontal revolving
simultaneous action of both hands of the drums shall be guarded, in addition, the drum
operator or operators, whenever more than shall be provided with a stopping device, to
one person is required to operate the prevent the movement of the drum while loading
machine. or unloading.
d. A sliding or revolving table or other feeding 8.9 Roll Type Machines (Class A). The in-running
device which does not require the operator side of corrugating, crimping, embossing,
to place his hands under the platen, or pleating, printing, and graining rolls shall be
guarded.
e. A mechanically operated guard that throws
the hands of the operator out of the way as 8.1Q Dehairing Machines (Class A). All knives used
the platen descends. Such a guard should in removing hair from hides and skins shall be
be padded to prevent injury should it strike enclosed except such opening as is necessary
the operator's hand or wrist. to feed stock.
8.3 Heel Compressing Machine (Class A) 8.11 Fleshing and Dehairing Machines - Special
Types. All fleshing and dehairing machines in
a. Heel compressing machines shall be which the cylinders have a secondary motion in
equipped with a control device that requires addition to a rotary one shall be equipped with a
CHAPTER 4 - MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
two hand control. This control must be arranged be so located that the operator
so that the simultaneous and continuous action cannot reach into the mixer while
of both hands is required to set the machine in pressing the button, or
motion.
2. If belt driven, the belt shifter shall be
8.12 Whitening Machines. The moving parts of the so arranged that it will normally
heads of whitening machine shall be enclosed move the belt toward the loose
except such opening as is necessary to feed the pulley and hold it there while the
stock. mixer bowl is tilted and uncovered
unless the operator pushes the belt
Section 9.0 Food and Tobacco Machinery lever toward the tight pulley. The
belt shifter must be so located that
9.1 Pressure Bottling Machine (Class A). the operator cannot reach into the
Pressure bottling machines shall be provided bowl while holding the shifter, or
with an enclosure made of sheet metal not less
than 1.27 mm thick or wire mesh with opening If clutch driven, the clutch lever shall
not to exceed 6 mm, and shall be so arranged be so arranged that it will move the
on the machine to confine or safety deflect clutch out of engagement and hold it
broken glass. The enclosure shall extend there while the mixer is tilted or
downward at sides and rear to a point level with uncovered unless the operator
that part of the machine on which the bottle moves the clutch lever to engage it.
stands while being filled and upward to a point The clutch lever shall be so located
of at least 100 mm higher than the top of the that the operator cannot reach into
bottle and be so constructed that bottle side is the bowl while holding the lever.
facing the operator. When the bottling is done
under a pressure of more than 0.053 kg/mm3 Note: When a pushbutton control is
such enclosure shall be constructed of metal not used, it is recommended that there
less than 2.799 mm thick. should be installed in the circuit a
loose fitting piston type inverse time
9.2 Cake Center (Band Knife) (Class A). Band relay designed to open the circuit at
wheels of band knives shall be completely the end of one second operation.
encased and all portions of the knives shall be
enclosed or guarded except for that portion Exception: Mechanically fed and
between the guide and the table where the saw discharged horizontal tilting type
engages the stock. If metal guards were used, it dough mixers in inaccessible
shall be of not less than 0.953 mm thick; or if locations.
other material is used, the guard shall be of
equal strength and rigidity. 9.4 Dough, Cakes or Candy Mixers (Horizontal
Mon-Tilting Dough Mixers Type) (Class A).
9.3 Dough or Candy Mixers (Horizontal Tilting Horizontal non-tilting type dough mixers shall
Dough Mixer Type) (Class A). have a cover with an interlocking device so
arranged that power cannot be supplied to the
a. Horizontal tilting type dough mixers shall be agitators unless the cover is in place on the
provided with a cover over the top of the mixer.
mixer. An interlocking device shall be
provided, so arranged that power cannot be 9.5 Dough Brake (Class A):
applied to the agitators unless the mixer is in
operating position, with cover in place. a. Rolls on dough brakes shall be guarded so
that the operator's hand cannot come in
b. The mixer when tilted shall be operated with contact with the rolls when in motion, or
the covers were open.
b. There shall be installed a stop bar located
1. If equipped with an electrical along the end of the dough table which,
pushbutton that will require the when actuated, will automatically shut off
operator to keep his finger on the power and apply a brake to the rolls.
button when operating the mixer
with the cover open; the button shall
CHAPTER 4 - MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
9.6 Dividers (Class A): 9.8 Rotary Dough Kneaders (Class A).
a. All pinch points and shear points from a. Each direct-driven rotary dough kneader
reciprocating or rotating parts of the divider shall be equipped with a guard across the
shall be enclosed or guarded, to protect the entire length of the down-running side of
operator's hands and fingers. each corrugated kneading roll so arranged
and installed that if struck, the machine will
b. Guards at the front of a divider shall be so stop.
arranged that the weight of the dough can
be adjusted without removing the guard. b. All dough kneaders other than those direct-
driven shall be equipped with a guard
c. The back of the divider shall have a across the entire length of the down-running
complete cover to enclose all the moving side of each corrugated kneading roll and
parts, or each individual part shall be shall be equipped with a device which will
enclosed or guarded. The rear cover shall quickly disengage the power. The means of
be provided with an electric switch so operating such a device shall be so located
arranged that the machine cannot operate and so arranged that the operator can
when this cover is open. readily reach it from any working position.
d. The oil holes in the knife at the back of the 9.9 Slicers and Wrappers (Class A):
divider shall be of such size that employee's
finger cannot go through the hole. a. Where necessary to manually push the last
loaf through the slicing knives the operator
9.7 Moulders (Class A): shall be provided with, and shall use a
suitable and adequate device by which the
a. Mechanical feed moulder shall be provided loaf can be pushed through the knives
with hoppers so designed and connected to without danger to his hands or fingers.
the proofer that an employee's hands
/ cannot go into the hopper where they will b. The cover over the knife head of
come in contact with the in-running rolls. reciprocating blade slicers shall be provided
- with an electrical control switch so that the
b. Hand-feed molders shall be provided with a machine cannot operate unless the cover is
belt-feed device or the hopper shall extend in place.
high enough so that the hands of the
operator cannot get into the feed rolls. The c. On slicers with endless band knives, the
top edge of such a hopper shall be well wiring for the motor shall be so arranged
rounded to prevent injury when it is struck or that a brake will be applied each time the
bumped by the employee's hand. motor is shut off, or it shall be so arranged
by means of a limit switch that cannot be run
c. There shall be a stopping device within easy with the side door open. All doors and
reach of the operator who feeds the molder removable panels to the cutting heads shall
and another stopping device within the be either connected to electric switchers or
reach of the employee taking the dough shall have no latch openings and be so
away from the molder. fastened that they cannot be opened from
the outside through the side door.
d. Where a removable crank is used to adjust
the molder for different sizes of loaf by d. When it is necessary to sharpen blades on
adjusting a nut on the molder drum, the machine, a barrier shall be provided
brackets shall be provided on the side of the leaving only sufficient opening to the
machine for holding the crank when it is not sharpening stone to reach the knife blades.
in use. The brackets should be connected to
a contact switch so that when the crank is 9.10 Candy Cutter (Roller Type) (Class A). The
removed, the current is broken and the rolls, or knives of roller and fan type candy
machine cannot run unless the crank is cutters, shall be provided with a cover or guard,
returned to rest on the bracket. so arranged that the fingers of the operator
cannot come in contact with same. A safety bar
shall also be provided at the in-feed side.
CHAPTER 4 - MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
9.11 Caramel Slittea (Circular Knife Type) (Class cover the hoper opening except for
A). The knives shall be completely covered with openings in the grille and shall be
an adjustable guard of sheet metal or wire mesh above the bottom of the pan.
(with openings not to exceed 6 mm). In addition
there shall be provided a feedbelt to carry the 4. A hinged interlocking grille or
material under and away from the knives, or a grating over the hopper or pan
slide feed set at an incline that will permit the which will open the power circuit
material to pass by gravity against the knives on when the grille or grating is lifted.
the intake side and away from the knives on the Such grilles or gratings shall be
discharge side. designed and located as provided in
item 3 above.
9.12 Nougat Cutter (Class A). A hood shall cover at
least the top half of the knife or disc at all times 5. In large hand-fed grinders of the
and be so constructed that the cutting operation type used in the whole!
can be performed without danger to the manufacturing trades, whf
operator. neck exceeds 62 mm diams~e~ al~u
the opening is not guarded by grilles
or gratings, the distance from the
9.13 Meat, Fish and Other Food Grinders (Class top of the neck to the worm shall be
A) : not less than 915 mm and minimum
accessible distance from the
a. Every power driven food grinder of the worm working level to the worm shall not
type shall be so constructed, installed or be less than 2 235 mm.
guarded that eh employee's finger cannot
come in contact with the worm. b. A pusher shall be provided for each grinder
and shall be used during the feeding
Note: The engineer will accept the following operation where it is possible to increase the
methods as being in compliance with this safety of the operation. Under no
code: circumstances shall a pusher be used in lieu
of the above methods of guarding.
1. A mechanical method of feeding the
worm which will prevent an c. Before cleaning food grinders, the prime
employee from contacting the worm mover shall be disconnected and the
during the feeding operation. controls locked in the "off' position.
9.18 Ice Breaker or Crusher (Class A). A hopper Exception: Automatic loading and unloading
shall be provided of such size and arrangement extractors which are completely enclosed
that the hand of the operator cannot come in with an enclosure of sufficient strength to
contact with the revolving teeth or prongs while retain the basket in the event of rupture.
the machine is in operation. If the top of the
hopper is less than 1 050 mm above the floor or d. Each extractor shall be effectively secured
working level, a standard railing shall be in position on the floor or foundation so as to
provided to prevent an employee from stepping eliminate unsafe vibration.
or falling into the hopper.
10.3 Extractors (Screw Cover Type) (Class A):
9.19 Tobacco Stem Crusher (Class A). The rolls
shall mclosed that it will not be possible a. A screw cover type extractors shall be
for tl tor's fingers to come in contact with equipped with a metal cover at least 0.953
then mm thick which shall entirely cover the
opening to the outer shell and shall be kept
9.20 Cigar Cutter (Class A): in its closed positicn when the extractor is in
motion.
a. The knives shall be provided with a metal
cover that will enclose the knives, or b. The cover for the revolving container shall
be held securely in place by a lock nut on
b. A feed hopper which completely encloses the spindle or the container shall revolve in
the knives shall be provided of such size the direction that will tend to tighten the
and so arranged that material be fed without spindle nuts.
the operator's fingers coming in contact with
the knives. 10.4 Extractors (Automatically Fed and
Discharged) (Class A). The revolving bowl
Section 10.0 Chemical Industry Machines shall b completely enclosed or guarded so as to
prevent contact with it during operation.
10.1 Gear or Chain Feeders. Gear or Chain Feeders
should be enclosed. 10.5 Extractors (Open Top, Bottom Discharge)
(Class A). Every extractor equipped with
removable plate vale in bottom of shell shall be
CHAPTER 4 - MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
provided with an interbcking device which will with a safety trip device by which the
prevent the introduction of the plow into the operator can disconnect the power and stop
basket until the plate valve has been removed. the equipment in case of emergency.
a. Rolls on all machines, not specifically a. Old Calenders. All calender drives in use of
mentioned, which require the continued contracted for prior to 1985 (the effective
presence of the operator to feed with a year of issuance of this provision),
cover or guard, or irrespective of the size of the rolls, shall be
made capable of stopping within a distance
b. A quick stopping or reversing device, so of no more than 2 percent of the travel from
arranged that the operator can actuate the operating speed. The operating speed shall
device while in his usual working position be measured from the surface of the drive
should hands be caught. roll and expressed in meters per minutes
(mlmin). This rule shall apply to calendar
10.7 Soap Presses (Class A). Hand fed presses operating speeds up to 61 mlmin while
shall be guarded, at point of operation, as running empty.
specified in Sections 4.3.1 and 4.3.4.
Exception: Where operating speeds above
61 m/min as measured on the surface of the
Section 11.0 Rubber and Composition drive roll are used, stopping distance of
Working Machines more than 2% may be permissible subject to
engineering determination.
11.1 Calender Rolls (Not Paper) (Class A):
b. New Calenders. All new calender drives
a. Safety devices shall be provided across the purchased or contracted for after 1985 (the
front and back of all calendars extending the effective year of issuance of this provision),
full length of the face of the rolls and irrespective of the size of the rolls, shall be
designed to initiate instantly the process of stopped within a distance no more than 1.75
stopping the calender when either pushed or percent of the travel from operating speed.
pulled. The device shall not be more than 1 The operating speed shall be measured
830 mm nor less than 1 675 mm above the from the surface of the drive rolls and
working floor or platform on which the expressed in meters per minute (mlmin).
operator stands, and shall be within easy This rule shall apply to operating speeds up
reach of the operator when he is in normal 76.25 mlmin while running empty.
working position.
Exception: Where operating speeds above
b. On each side of all calendars near both 76.25 m/min as measured on the surface of
ends of the face of the ioll, there shall be a the drive roll are used, stopping distances of
vertical tight wire cable connecting with the more than 1.75% may be permissible
bar tripping mechanism. This shall be from subject to written justification by a
the top and fastened to the frame within 300 professional mechanical engineer. Stopping
mm of the floor and at a distance of not less distances shall be subject to engineering
than 25.4 mm from calender frame. determination.
c. At. the "bite" of in~runningopen rolls where 11.3 Rubber Mills (Class A).
sheeting, duck or other fabric is fed by hand,
a safety bar or cable connected to the a. Mills shall be provided with a hopper of such
stopping device, shall be placed across the size and arrangement that it will protect the
full length of the face of the rolls. It shall be operator's hands against inadvertent contact
so located that the operator's fingers will trip with the in-running nip point of the rolls
the stopping device before coming into when feeding material, or
contact with the bite.
b. Old Group Mills. For mills driven in groups
d. Calender equipment such as windups, idler of two or more; in use, contracted for, or
rolls and cooling drums shall be provided constructed prior to 1985 (the effective year
CHAPTER 4 - MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
of issuance of this provision), irrespective of b. A bar or other device, connected with the
the size of the rolls, shall be made capable switch, so arranged that the operator's
of stopping within a distance no greater than fingers cannot reach the worm without first
2% of the travel of the rolls as measured on actuating the switch, or
their surface in meters 'per minute while
running empty. 4 bar or other device arranged to be
perated by knee, thigh, foot or hand
c. New Group Mills. New mills driven in groups ressure, which will stop the machine.
of two or more; in use, contracted for, or
constructed after 1985 (the effective year of 11.9 Injection Molding Machine (Class A). Every
issuance of this provision), irrespective of the injection molding machine shall be guarded by
size of the rolls, shall be stopped within a any one or more of the following methods:
distance not greater than 1.75% of the travel
of the rolls as measured on their surface in a. By a sliding gate guard so designed and
meters per minute while running empty. installed that it interposes a barrier between
the dies and the operator before the dies
-
11.4 Bale Cutters Guillotine (Class A). can close; and shall be so arranged that if
the gate can be opened during the closing
a. All guillotine bale cutters shall be equipped cycle, the cycle will be immediately stopped
with a two hand continuous control, or or be reversed by the opening of the gate.
b. A one-hand continuous control so located that The sliding gate guard shall extend over the
the operator cannot reach the control and the top and to each side of the dies such a
point of operation at the same time. distance so that it would be impossible for
the operator to come in contact with the dies
11.5 Bevel Cutters - Circular Knife -
Non- while these are closing. The danger zone on
Automatic (Class A). The circular knife shall be the side of the machine opposite the
covered with a metal hood which shall guard the operator's working position shall also be
cutting edge down to point not more than 12.70 guarded.
mm above the thickest portion of the material
being cut. A positive stop must be provided to b. By two-handed pressure devices or controls
prevent the knife from passing the front edge of which require the simultaneous use of both
the table. the operator's hands during the entire die
closing cycle.
11.6 Cuttersheet Rubber (Horizontal Cutter Type)
(Class A). The exposed portion of the knife at 11.I0 Thermosetting Plastic Molding Presses
the sides of the sliding table shall be covered (Class A). Every thermosettmg plastic molding
with a ,metal enclosure so that the operator press shall be guarded by any one of the
cannot come into accidental contact with the methods covered in Section 4.3.1.
knife when feeding the machine. Any holes or
openings on this enclosure, whenever it may be 11.11 Tire Machine. The switch pedal which controls
necessary to have them, shall not exceed 6mm the rotation of the frame while endless piles of
in any dimension. fabric are being adjusted by a bar held in the
operator's hands must be so connected with the
11.7 Power Driven Rotary Saws and Slitters (Hand brake that removal of pressure from the pedal
Feed) (Class A). A metal hood shall cover the shall stop the machine.
cutting edge to a point not more than 12.70 mm
above the thickest portion of the stock. 11.12Tube Splicer (Class A). Each tube splicer shall
be equipped with a two-hand control.
11.8 Tubing Machine (Class A):
11.I3 Testing and Maintenance (Class A).
a. All hand-fed extrusion machines, including
tubing machines, shall be provided with a. The stopping device on each mill and on
hoppers of such height and size of opening each calendar shall be tested for operation
as to make impossible for the operator's during each shift. When a group of rubber
fingers to reach the worm, or mills is driven by one motor but stopped by
a safety device located at each mill, and
CHAPTER 4 - MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
when a visible signal such as a lamp is the charging floor or platform, a standard railing
operated by the motor circuit opening switch or enclosure shall be provided which will prevent
is open, and the safety device has been the operator from falling into the pan.
tripped, then after mill line has been stopped
by actuating one safety trip for the first test Section 13.0 Cotton and Seed Cotton
and before the mills are restarted, the Processing Machines
remaining safety devices may be tripped
and the lamp signals used as an indication 13.1 Saws:
of the proper functioning of the tripping
devices and motor switch. After a particular a. All gin stands used In processing field cotton
stopping device has been used to stop the or seed shall be provided with a positive
motor driving a group of mills for a test, the guard which shall be designed to prevent
same device may not be used for the same contact with the gin saws while in motion.
purpose until all the other devices have The saw blades in the roll box shall be
been similarly used. considered guarded by location if they do
not extend the ginning ribs into the roll box
b. Each stopping device shall be tested for when breast is in the out position.
braking distance once a week by a
competent person, and a record of such test b. Moving saws on lint cleaners having doors
shall be made and kept on file for at least giving access to the saws shall be guarded
one year. Such records shall be available to by interlock barred barriers, or equivalent.
the division or its employees.
13.2 Gin Stand, Main Drive and Miscellaneous
;he emp~loyer shall cause all defects or Drives.
iubstandi3rd condition revealed by the test
o be corrected. a. Such drives shall be completely enclosed or
uarded by means of standard railings or
Section 12.0 Stone, Clay and Glass quivalent protection provided. When
Working Machines uarded by standard railing, where the
"river aDDr0aches the railing by 1633 *LII.la1
.em -.-.
I
12.1 Pug Mills (Class A). Pug mills shall be guarded 3 shield guards shall be installed on
by: tt g extending at least 380 mm
bcyvl rl ~eimpairment on either side.
a. A substantial grating with openings no
greater than 100 mm, said grating to b. V-belt drives within standard railing
completely cover the opening, or enclosures shall have the pulleys guarded.
The open end of the pulleys shall be no less
b. A cover projecting 100 mm on all sides , . that 100 mm from the periphery of the
which may be raised not more than 200 mm pulleys.
above the machine or floor, so as to permit
loading into machine on all sides without c. Chains and sprockets within 2 130 mm of
screening same through grating, or - the floor or working level shall be guarded.
.. Chains and sprockets more than 2 130mm
c. A hoper completely encircling the opening from the floor or working level need not be
through which the machine is fed and guarded provided the bearings are packed
extending 400 mm or more above the blade. and accessible extension lubrication fittings
In no case shall the top of the hopper be are used.
less than 900 mm from any floor or working
level used by the pug mill operators or 13.3 Elevated Platforms and Transmission
attendants. Enclosures.
d. Where automatic conveyor feed is used, a. Elevated platforms shall be guarded as.
said conveyor shall be completely enclosed. provided in Section 2.3.9 of this Code.
12.2 Wet and Dry Pans, Mullers, Chasers and b. Where belts, pulleys, chains, sprockets,
Similar Mixing and Grinding Mills (Class A). gears or shifting are within 380 mm
When the top of pan is less than 914 mm above horizontally or less than 2 130 mm above
CHAPTER 4 - MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
the platform shield guards as provided in below the floor level may be guarded by
Section 4.13.2 shall be used in addition to standard railing guards having two boards of
standard railing guards. midrail height or shall be covered by
substantial covers or gratings.
13.4 Power Drives
e. All belt conveyors head pulleys, tail pulleys,
a. Drives between gin stands shall be guarded. single tension pulleys and dip take-up
Where individual pulley guards are used, the pulleys shall be so guarded that the entire
guards must extend 100 mm beyond the sides of the pulleys are covered. The guard
periphery of the pulleys. shall extend in the direction of travel of the
belt to such a distance that a person cannot
b. Drives which are accessible above the reach behind it and be caught in the nip
shield guard shall be individually guarded. point between the belt and the pulley.
13.5 Warning Device. A warning device which will f. Portable inclined conveyors shall have head
sound an audible signal before machinery is and tail pulleys or sprockets and other
started shall be installed in all gins. Such signal power transmission equipment guarded
shall be intense enough to be heard above the accordingly.
general noise level.
g. Where necessary to pass over exposed
13.6 Baler. An automatic interlock shall be installed chain, belt, bucket, screw, or roller
on all balers so that the upper gates cannot be conveyors, such crossovers shall be bridged
opened while the tramper is operating and the or catwalked properly equipped with
tramper cannot operate while the gates are standard railings and toe boards and shall
open. have a safe means of access either fixed
ladder, ramp or stairway.
13.7 Burr Machines. Top panels of burr extractors
must be hinged and equipped with a sturdy h. Conveyors passing over areas that are
positive latch. occupied or used by employees shall be so
guarded as to prevent the materials handled
13.8 Conveyors from falling and causing injury to employees.
a. All accessible screw conveyors shall be i. Where workmen pass under the return
guarded by substantial covers or gratings or strands of chain conveyors a shallow
with an inverted horizontally slotted guard of through or other effective means of sufficient
the trough type, which will prevent personnel strength to carry the weight of the broken
from coming into contact with the screw. chain shall be provided.
Such guards may consist of horizontal bars Section 14.0 Other Industrial Machinery in
spaced to allow material to be fed into the Manufacturing Installations.
conveyor and supported by arches which
shall be not more than 2 440 mm apart.
Screw conveyors under gin stands shall be 14.1 Machine Guards for Operator's Protection.
considered guarded by location. Applicable machine guards of the types describe
shall be provided at points of operation and
b. All accessible seed cotton conveyors shall danger zones to protect the operator from
be of the belt type. hazards of accidental contact.
c. Wherever practical in existing installations
screw conveyors shall be replaced with belt
a. Coupling Guards -
pairs or groups of
guards which may mesh together to form
conveyors. an enclosure around the point of operation
during machine operation.
d. Screw conveyors 2 100 mm or less above
floor or other working level shall be
completely covered with substantial lids.
-
b. Chain Guards fixed-mounted or movable
hood guards covering the length of run of ;.
Screw conveyors which are 600 mm or less power of chains.
above the floor or other working level; or
CHAPTER 4 - MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
c. Belt Guards - fixed-mounted or movable 15.1 Electrical Safety Hazards shall be painted in
guards or enclosures covering the length of red-orange color.
run of belts.
15.2 Outdoor installations shall be drip proof
d. Distance Rail Guards - fixed-mounted or enclosure for weather protection.
movable guards designed to prevent
personnel from moving into danger zones. 15.3 Motor terminal box covers shall be
weatherproof.
e. Hood Guards - fixed-mounted or
retractable enclosures covering the vicinity 15.4 In wet workplaces, water splash motor enclosure
of the point of operation or danger zone. shall be provided.
f. Water Splash Guards - fixed-mounted or 15.5 In dusty environment, dust hoods shall be
retractable water resistant enclosures placed on top of motor but allowing free
covering the vicinity of the point of the circulation of cooling air.
operation or danger zone and designed to
contain or direct liquid splashes and spills. 15.6 Electrical cable conduit pull boxes shall be
weatherproof, liquid-tight, air-light enclosures
g. Explosion Guards - fixed-mounted when installed outdoors.
explosion resistant enclosures covering the
vicinity 3f the point of operation or danger Section 16.0 Personal Protection in
zone and designed to contain flying Workplaces
materials.
h. Fire Explosion Doors - retractable type 16.1 Personal Protective Equipment. Personnel
explosion resistant enclosures covering Protective Equipment (PPE) shall be considered
vicinity of the point of operation of danger the last line of defense against hazards in the
zone and designed to contain energy work environment. The engineer shall specify
bursts and flying materials. and require the use of PPE to protect personnel
from known or possible hazards in the
i. -
Railings and Screen Doors Retractable workplace.
type railings or access doors resistant to
flying materials and encloses the vicinity of 16.2 ~ m ~ l o ~ eshall
r s * protect their employees by
the point of operation or danger zone, and providing appropriate and approved protective
is designed to isolate the same without tools, devices, equipment and appliances such
impairing ocular inspection. as, but not limited to the following:
14.4 For automatic start-stop machines, a warning 16.3 Radiation hazards in workplaces shall be
sign, tag or nameplate shall be displayed in identified and appropriate warning signs shall be
strategic location in the workspace. posted.
Chapter 5
Section 1.0 Scope Bumper. A device which stops the moving part at the
limit of travel of a trolley, bridges, or crane operating
The provisions in this Chapter apply to overhead on rails, and'prevents further motion beyond that point.
traveling or bridge cranes, storage bridges, gantry
cranes, portal cranes, jib cranes, hammerhead cranes, Cab. An enclosure for housing the operator and the
pintle cranes, wall cranes, tower cranes, and any .
hoisting mechanism, power plant, and equipment
modification of these types which retain their controlling crane.
characteristic features of the above mentioned cranes
except when a provision specifies a particular type of Cage. An enclosure for housing the operator and
crane. It also includes safety regulations for mobile equipment controlling a crane.
type cranes and hoists.
Crane. A machine for lifting or lowering a load and
Section 2.0 Definitions moving it horizontally, in which the hoisting
mechanism is an integral part of the machine. It may
Boom. A timber or metal section or strut which is be driven manually or by power and may be a fixed or
pivoted or hinged at the heel (lower end) at a fixed mobile machine, but does not include stackers, or lift
point on a frame, mast, or vertical member. Its head trucks.
(upper end) is supported by chains, ropes or rods to
the upper end of the frame, mast or vertical member. Some of the common types of cranes are defined as
A rope for raising and lowering the payload is run follows:
through a sheave or block at the head of the boom.
The length of the boom shall be taken as the straight- 1. Boom Type Mobile Crane. A self-propelled crane
line distance between the axis of the foot pin and the equipped with a boom and mounted on a chassis
axis of the end sheave pin. which is supported on either rubber tires, endless
belts or treads, or railway wheels running on
Boom Type Excavator. A power operated excavating railroad tracks.
crane-type machine used for digging or moving
materials. Some excavators of this type are commonly 2. Cantilever Gantry Crane. A crane 'in which the
known as dipper stick shovels, back diggers; trench bridge girders or trusses are extended
hoe shovels, draglines, grab buckets, clamshell or transversely beyond the crane runway on one or
orange peel, excavators. both sides. Its runway may be either on the
ground or elevated.
Booming, Luffing or Topping. Raising or lowering
the head of a boom. 3. Crawler Crane. A boom 'type mobile crane
mounted on endless tracks or tread belts.
Brake (Electric). An electric motor acting as a brake
by regenerative, counter-torque, or dynamic means. 4. Gantry Crane. A crane similar to an overhead
traveling, except that the bridge for carrying the
Brake (Electrically Operated). A friction brake trolley or trolleys is rigidly supported on two or
actuated or controlled by electrical means. more movable legs running on fixed rails or other
runway.
Bridge (of an Overhead, Gantry, or Storage Bridge
Crane). Structural member or members supporting 5. Hammerhead Crane. A rotating counterbalanced
one or more trolleys. cantilever equipped with one or more trolleys and
supported by . a pivot
. or turntable on a traveling or
Buffer. A cushioning device at the end of a trolley, fixed tower.
bridge, or other moving part of a crane operating on
rails to minimize shock in the event of collision. 6. Jib Crane. A fixed crane consisting of a supported
vertical member from which extends horizontal.
CHAPTER 5 - CRANES AND OTHER HOISTING EQUIPMENT
swinging arms carrying a trolley hoist or other structure, adapted to hoist and swing load over
hoisting mechanism. high obstructions and mounted upon a fixed or
mobile tower-like gantry. The revolving crane may
7. Locomotive Crane. A boom type mobile crane be supported on the lower tower by a revolving
consisting of a self-propelled car operating on a mast or by a turntable.
railroad track, upon which is mounted a rotating
body supporting the power operated mechanism 18. Tractor Crane. (caterpillar crane) (see crawler
together with a boom capable of being raised or crane).
lowered at its head (outer end) from which is led to
the wire rope or chain connected to the hoisting 19. Wall Crane. A crane having jib with or without a
mechanism for raising or lowering a load. trolley and supported from a side wall or line of
columns of a building so as to swing through an
8. Motor-Tractor Crane. (see crawler crane). arc.
9. Motor Truck Crane. A boom type mobile crane Crane Runway - the structure upon which a crane
mounted on a motor truck frame or rubber-tire runs, and may be:
chassis.
1. A structure consisting of columns, longitudinal
10. Overhead Travelling or Bridge Crane. A crane bracing and elevated beams, girders, or trusses,
on a pair of parallel elevated runways, adapted to to support traveling or bridge cranes.
lift and lower a load and carry it horizontally
parallel to, or at right angles to, the runways, or 2. Elevated beams, girders, or trusses in a building
both; and consisting of one or more trolleys or on the side of a building, for supporting traveling
operating on the bridge, which in turn consist of cranes.
one or more girders or trusses mounted on trucks
operating on the elevated runways with its 3. Surface tracks or rails.
operation limited to the area between the runways.
4. Tracks or rails on walls or trestles.
11. Pillar Crane. A fixed crane consisting of a vertical
member held at the base, with horizontal revolving Derrick. A structun ilding appurtenance for
arm carrying a trolley. hoisting, but does nc ! a hoistway nor a car or
a. A gong or other effective warning signal e. The controller operating handles shall be
shall be mounted on each cage or cab located within convenient reach of the
controlled crane equipped with a power operator.
traveling mechanism. Cage or cab
controlled cranes operating over areas f. As far as is practicable, the movement of
congested with employees may be required each controller handle shall be in the same
to be equipped with automatic warning general direction as the resultant
devices which can be sounded continuously movements of the load.
while the crane is in motion.
g. The controls for the bridge and trolley shall
b. Any cage or cab controlled crane whose be so located that the operator can readily'
warning device has become inoperative see the direction of travel while operating
shall no1t be operated until the warning the controls.
device is repaired or replaced. Temporary
Zrane op erat ti on will be permitted provided h. All electric cranes of the same type
there is an available flagjman whlose sole operating in a given plant shall e so wired
duty is to warn thc)se in the! path of the crane that like motion of controller handles will
Dr its loac1. produce like effect in similar controlled
. mechanisms.
3.4 Fire Extinguisher. A carbon-tetrachloride,
carbon dioxide, or other non-conducting 3.6 Hoist Limit Switches. The hoisting motion of all
medium, portable fire extinguisher shall be kept electric overhead travelina cranes shall be
in the cage, cab or machine house of each provided with a suital3le a n i t?ffective enclosecI
electric or internal combustion engine crane. type limit switch so pllaced ar~darrancled as tc)
disconnect the hoist rnotor an1d apply t.he brake:
Note: ~are~should be taken when using carbon- in time to stop the motor before the hook passes
tetrachloride in an enclosed space and such the highest point of safe travel.
space should not be re-occupieduntil thoroughly
ventilated. 3.7 Brakes:
mesh or similar guard to prevent injury from separate drums permanently keyed to the
flying pieces of glass. same shaft.
b. Each independent hoisting unit shall be 5.6 Control Equipment. Operating controls shall
.equipped with two braking means except be plainly marked to indicate the direction of
worm geared hoists, the angle of whose travel.
worm is such as to prevent the load from
lowering and simple drum hoists which need 5.7 Warning Device. Each cage controlled hoist
have but one braking means. One brake will shall be equipped with an effective warning
be so covered by: device.
a. Every derrick shall have plainly marked on it b. Eye splices shall be made in a manner to
the length of the boom, the rated load and develop maximum splice efficiencies as set
'he corresponding radius. forth in the manufacturer's tables.
lerricks of variable radius shall have c. Where wire rope clip attachments are used
substantial plated metal or other durable they shall be made with U-bolts on the dead
material . conspicuously posted on which or short end of the rope and saddle on the
shall be given the rated' load of at least four live end.
different radii of operation, including the
maximum and minimum radius. d. No "Contractor's Standby" (knot and clip)
attachment shall be used as an end
6.3 Hoisting Ropes. Wire ropes running from connection on any permanent hoisting sling
hoisting machine to derrick shall be guarded if or rope.
within 2 135 mm of floor or platform.
e. The maximum number of clips for end
6.4 Access to Sheaves, Bearings and Blocks. If attachment shall be not less than those
necessary to go out on derrick booms to service indicated in the manufacturer's table, but in
sheaves, bearing or blocks, said boom must be no case shall it be less than three for any
equipped with substantial oiler's catwalk and permanent installation. The clips shall be
necessary grab . irons to give access to the spaced at a distance equal to at least six
equipment to be serviced. times the diameter of the rope.
Section 7.0 Auxiliary Hoisting Equipment f. All clip or clamp bolts shall be kept tight.
7.1 Hoisting Chains and Ropes: g. Where swaged or compressed fittings are
used they shall be applied in a manner
a. All chains, wire ropes, and fiber ropes used specified by the manufacturer.
for hoisting purposes shall be of sufficient
strength to safely lift or othewise handle the 7.4 Chain Splices:
loads. The maximum allowable working
loads shall be based on manufacturer's a. No hoist chain shall be spliced by any
tables. makeshift means.
b. Every hoist chain, wire rope and fiber rope b. Knots shall not be tied in the chain to
in hoisting drums shall be of sufficient length shorten it.
that the hoist hook shall at least reach the
floor, ground, or lowest working level. c. Lap link, cold shuts or patent repair links
Where this is not practicable lower-limit shall not be used for hoist chain or slings
switches may be used to restrict the unless such device will develop greater
downward limit of travel. strength than the chain.
Exemption: Chain hoists employing pocket 7.5 Hoist .of Sling Hooks, Rings, and Chain
sheaves instead of drums. Links, Defective. The use of deformed or
defective hooks, rings, or chain links shall be
7.2 Hooks, Slings and Fittings. All hooks, slings discontinued forthwith. Deformed hooks or rings
and other fittings shall be of correct size for the shall be reshaped only by the manufacturer of
work to be done and shall have strength the hooks or rings under proper metallurgical
sufficient to safely sustain the loads imposed control and proof tests unless the employer is
upon them. equivalently competent to make these repairs
and tests.
7.3 End Attachment: ,
7.6 Sheave Nip-Points. All nip or contact points
a. Where socketing is done it shall be done between ropes and sheaves which are
with zinc (spelter) or in a manner specified permanently located within 2 135 mm from the
by the manufacturer of the wire rope. floor or working platform shall be guarded.
CHAPTER 5 - CRANES AND OTHER HOISTING EQUIPMENT
Section 8.0 Operating Rules 8.6 Signalling. Only qualified employees shall give
signals. No one would give signal except
8.1 Size of Load. A crane, derrick, or hoist shall not employees who are specifically designated and
be loaded beyond the rated capacity or safe authorized to do so by the employer. Crane
working load whichever is smaller. operators shall not accept signals except from
those specifically designated and authorized to
8.2 Attaching the Load: give same.
a. The load shall be attached to the hook by 8.7 Posting of Signals Required. It is
means of slings or other suitable and recommended that the following Standard
effective means which shall be properly Signals be adopted and used in connection with
rigged to insure the safe handling of the all hoisting operations. Other signal codes or
load. system may be used however if they provide
quick and precise transmission of instructions to
b. Chain and wire rope slings shall be freed of the operator. Regardless of the signal system
kinks or twists before use. employed, there shall be conspicuously posted
in the vicinity of the hoisting operation legible
c. Baskets, tubs, skips, or similar containers chart depicting and explaining the system of
used for hoisting bulk materials shall be signals used.
loaded so as not to exceed their safe
carrying capacity. a. One-hand Signals:
b. Cranes, hoists, or derricks shall not be left 5. Raise Boom: Arm extended, fingers
unattended while load is suspended over closed, thumb pointing upward
water, is barricaded or is blocked up or move hand up'and down.
otherwise supported from below during
repairs of emergency. 6. Lower Boom, Same as (e), but with
thumb pointing down.
8.5 Limit Switch:
7. Swing Boom. Arm extended, point
Before an electric crane is operated for the with finger in direction of motion.
first time during any shift, the operator shall
test the operation of the limit switch over a 8. Bridge Travel. Arm extended, hand
cleared area under no load and shall report open and slightly raised wave
any defect to his employer who shall have forearm in direction of travel, while
the defect corrected before the crane is facing in that direction.
permitted to operate.
9. Rock or Trolley Travel. Palm
b. The limit switch shall never be used as an upward, fingers closed, thumb
operation control unless designed for such pointing in direction of motion, jerk
use. Where such limit switches are used as and horizontally.
operating controls there shall be a second
limit switch located behind the control limit
switch.
CHAPTER 5 - CRANES AND OTHER HOISTING EQUIPMENT
b. Two-hand Signals: 7. Stop Booming. One short blast.
1. Hoist. Hold both arms horizontal at 8 . . Swing Boom to Right. One long
sides, fully extended and move and two short blasts.
upward and return.
9. Swing Boom to Left. One long and
2. Lower. Hol rms horizontal at three short blasts.
sides, fully d and move out
and return. 10. Stop Swinging Boom. One short
blast.
3. Stop. Hold both arms horizontal at
sides, fully extended. Same as (a) 8.8 Provision for Preventing Accidents Due to
without motion. Proximity of High Voltage Lines. The
provisions contained in Philippine Electrical
4. Move Slowly. Same as (a) or (b), Code or Ordinances relative to clearances,
but with other hand held near warning signs and other safeguards for the
(behind or below) the hand giving prevention of electrical accidents due to
the signal. contacting high voltage lines shall be complied
with operation of voltage lines.
5. Raise Boom and Lower Load.
Use (e) and (b) together. Section 9.0 Inspection
6. Lower Boom and. Raise Load. 9.1 The employer shall require that fast moving
Use (f) and (a) together. parts such as wire ropes, bearings gears,
frictions clutches, chain drives and other parts
7. Dog Off Load and Boom. Clasp subject to wear be inspected at adequate
finger of one hand with fingers of intervals and any unsafe conditions must be
other, palm facing each other. corrected. The Engineer must be required to
keep properly accomplished logbooks indicating
c. Whistles Signals: the date of inspections in the action made of
each and every equipment under his area of
1. Hoist. Two short blasts. supervision.
2. Lower. Three short blasts. 9.2 Mechanically and electrically operated brakes
shall be inspected periodically or as often as
3. Stop. One short blast. necessary. Repairs and adjustments when
necessary should be made immediately.
4. Emergency Stop. Series of short
blasts. 9.3 Cranes handling molten metal shall be
inspected at least once a week when in use and
5. Raise Boom. Four short blasts. necessary repairs made accordingly.
6. Lower Boom. Fie short blasts.
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
Chapter 6
-
Buffer, Spring A buffer utilizing a spring to absorb Car Frame, Underslung -
A car frame to which the
the impact of the falling car or counterweight against hOisting-ro~esheaves are attached at Or the car
the elevator pit. platform.
-
Clearance, Top Car The shortest vertical clearance
between the top of the car cross-head, or between the
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
top of the car where no cross-head, is provided, and Door or Gate, Self-Closing - A manually opened
the nearest part of the overhead structure or any other hoistway door or gate that automatically closes when
obstruction when the car floor is level with the top released.
terminal landing.
Dumbwaiter - A hoisting and lowering mechanism
Clearance, Top Counterweight - The shortest design to materials and other loads such as food,
vertical distance between any part of the laundry, etc., equipped with a car, which moves in
counterweight structure and the nearest part of the fixed guides and serves two or more fixed landings
overhead structure or any other obstruction when the through a hoistway. This equipment shall be designed
floor is level with the bottom terminal landing. to carry small materials in a car, or partitioned or
shelved enclosure measuring no more than 0.86 m2of
Compensating-Rope Sheave Switch - A device net platform area; with a height no more than 1.2
which automatically causes the electric power to be meters and a maximum rated capacity no greater than
removed from the elevator driving-machine motor and 225 kg.
brake when the compensating sheave approaches its
upper or lower limit of travel. -
Dumbwaiter, Under Counter A dumbwaiter which
has its topmost landing located underneath a counter.
Control - The system governing the starting,
stopping, direction of motion, acceleration speed, and Elevator - A hoisting and lowering mechanism other
retardation of the moving number. than a dumbwaiter or freight elevator which is design
to carry passenger or authorized personnel, in a
Control, Single-Speed Alternating Current - A protected enclosure (elevator car) which moves along
control for a driving machine induction motor which is fixed guides and serves two or more fixed landings on
arranged to run at a single speed. a hoistway.
Controller - A device or group of devices which Elevator, Freight - An elevator primarily used for
serves to control in some predetermined manner the carrying freight and on which only the operator and the
apparatus to which it is connected. person necessary for unloading and loading the freight
are permitted to ride.
Dispatching Device, Elevator Automatic - A device,
the principal function of which is to either: Note: Its use is subject to the modification specified in
Sec. 6.4.8.
(a) Operate a signal in the car to indicate when the
car should leave a designated landing; or Elevator, Inclined - An elevator which travels at an
angle of inclination of 70 degrees or less from the
(b) Actuate its starting mechanism when the car is at horizontal.
a designated landing.
Elevator, Multi-Deck - An elevator having two or
-
Door, Bi-Parting A vertically or a horizontally sliding more compartment located one immediately above the
door, consisting of two or more sections so arranged other.
that the sections or groups of sections open away from
each other. Elevator, Hydraulic - A power elevator where the
energy is applied, by means of a liquid under
-
Door or Gate, Car or Landing The sliding portion of pressure, in a cylinder equipped with a plunger or
the car, the hinged or sliding portion on the landing piston; the type of which as follows:
through the hoistway enclosure which covers the
opening giving access to the car or the landing. (a) Elevator, Direct-Plunger Hydraulic - A
hydraulic having a plunger or cylinder directly.
Door or Gate, Manually Operated - A hoistway door attached to the car frame or platform.
or a car door or gate which is opened and closed by
hand. (b) Elevator, maintained Pressure Hydraulic - A
hydraulic elevator having a plunger or cylinder
-
Door or Gate, Power Operated A hoistway door or directly attached to the car frame or platform.
car door or gate which is opened and closed by means
of electric motor or other mechanical system utilizing (c) Elevator, Electro-Hydraulic - direct-plunger
some motive power other than gravity, spring or elevator where liquid under pressure is available
manual operation. at all times for transfer into the cylinder.
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
-
(d) Elevator, Roped-Hydraulic A hydraulic elevator -
Hoistway, Blind The portion of a hoistway (shaft)
having its piston conn the car with wire where normal landing entrances are not provided.
ropes.
Hoistway Single - A hoisture (shaft) where normal
Elevator, Scenic -
An elevator designed to permit landing entrances are not provided.
exterior viewing by passengers while the car is
traveling. Hoistway Enclosure - The fixed structure, consisting
of vertical walls or partitions, which isolates the
-
Elevator, Passenger An elevator used primarily to hoistway from all other areas or from an adjacent
carry persons other than the operator and persons hoistway and in which the hoistway doors and door
necessary for loading and unloading. assemblies are installed.
-
Elevator, Pit That portion of a hoistway extending Hoistway Door Electric 'Contact - An electrical
from the threshold level of lowest landing door to the device, the function of which is to prevent operation of
floor at the bottom of the hoistway. the driving machine by the normal operating device
unless the hoistway door is in the closed position.
-
Elevator, Private Residence A power passenger
elevator which is limited in size, capacity, rise, and Hoistway Door I Gate Locking Device A device-
speed, and is installed in a private residence or in a which secures a hoistway door or gate in the closed
. multiple dwelling as a means of access to a private position and prevents it from being upended from the
residence. landing side excerpt under certain specified
conditions.
Emergency Stop Switch - A device located in the car
which when manually operated, causes the electric -
Hoistway-Unit System A series of hoistway door
power to be removed from the driving machine motor interlocks, hoistway door electric contacts or hoistway
and brake of a n electric elevator or from the door combination mechanical locks and electric
electrically operated valves and/or motor of a hydraulic contacts, or a combination thereof, the function of
elevator. which is to prevent operation of the driving machine by
the normal operating device unless all hoistway doors
-
Entrance Locked Out of Service An entrance in are in the closed position and, are locked in the closed
which the hoistway door is mechanically locked by position.
means other than the interlock to prevent the door
being opened from the car side without keys or special Hoistway Door Combination Mechanical Lock and
equipment. Electric Contact - A combination mechanical and
electrical device with two related, but entirely
Escalator - A power-driven, inclined continuous independent functions, which are:
stairway used for raising or lowering passengers.
(a) To prevent operation of the driving-machine by the
-
Escalators, Tandem Operation Escalators used in normal operating device unless the hoistway door
series with common intermediate landings. is in the closed position; and
Factory of Safety - The ratio of the ultimate strength (b) To lock the hoistway door in the closed position
to the working stress of a member under maximum and prevent it from being opened from the landing
static loading, unless otherwise specified in a side unless the car is within the landing zone.
particular rule.
Note: As there is no positive mechanical connection
-
Hoistway Access Switch A switch, located at a between the electric contact and the door-locking
landing, the function of which is to permit operation of mechanism, this device ensures only that the door will
the car with the hoistway door at this landing and the be closed, but not necessarily locked, when the car
car door or gate open, in order to permit access to the leaves the landing. Should the lock mechanism fail to
top of the car or to the pit. operate as intended when released by a stationary or
retiring car-cam device, the door can be opened from
-
HoistwaylShaft An opening through a building or the landing side even though the car is at the landing.
structure for the travel of elevators, dumbwaiters, or If operated by the normal operating device unless all
material lifts, extending from the pit floor to the roof or hoistway doors are in the closed position and, where
flow above.
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
so required by this code, are locked in the closed -
(c) Traction Machine A direct driven in which the
positions. motion of the car is obtained through friction
between the suspension and a traction sheave.
Indicator, Passenger Waiting - An indicator which
show a which landing and for which direction elevator (d) Gearless-Traction Machine - A traction machine,
hall stop-or-signal calls have been registered and are without intermediate gearing, which has the
unanswered. traction sheave and the brake drum mounted
directly on the motor shaft.
-
Landing, Elevator or Material Lift That portion of a
floor balcony or platform used to receive and (e) Winding-Drum Machine -
A gesired-drive
discharge passengers or freight. machine in which the suspension rcIpes are
fastened to and wind on a drum.
-
Landing Zone A zone extending from a point 457
mm below an elevator or material lift landing to a point (f) Worm-Geared Machiine . - A gezired-drivt?
457 mm above landing. machine in which the ~...---..
I I G I Y Y s.11omother. I--&A"
IULUI
- -
:.
IS
transmitted to the drivin s or drunn througt1
Leveling - Controlled car move1ment to\~ a r dtht? worm gearing.
-c
landing, within the leveling zone, by mei1113UI d a
leveling device, which vertically aligns the car-platform (g) Indirect-Drive Machine -
An electric driving
sill relative to the hoistway landing sill to attain a machine, the motor of which is connected
predetermined accuracy. indirectly to the driving sheave, drum or shaft by
-
means -' %It or chain through intermediate
LCsveling Device, One-way Automatic - A device gears.
w1hich corrects.the car level only in case of under-run
of: 4C.r. b., -4 .,:I1 "
LIIG La[. VUL WIII I I O ~ maintain the level durina loading
..-r
Material Lift - A hoisting and lowering mechanism
ar~dunloacling. normally classified as an elevator has been modified
to adapt it for the automatic transfer device.
sveling IDevice, iatic Maintaining
A device! which clorrects tti e car l eiel
~ on bo~thunder- Moving Walk - A power-driven device made of a
In and (3ver-run, and maintains the lev1el during continuous belt treadway or pallets used to convey
ading an1d unloading. passengers andlor materials on a horizontal plane
from one point to another; the types of which as
-
Leveling Zone The limited distance above or below follows:
an elevation or material lift landing with which the
leveling device is permitted to cause movement of the -. -
(a) Moving Walk, Belt T v ~ e A moving walk with a
car toward the landing. power driven cc~ntinuou:
;belt tre: adway.
Machine Drive - The power unit which applies the (bI) Moving Walk, Belt Pallet Type# - A m 0ving waH<
energy necessary to raise or lower an elevator or with a series of connected and power-driven
dum bwaiter. pallets to which a continuous treadway is
fastened.
Machine Drive, Electric - One where the energy is
applied by an electric motor. It includes the motor, (c) Moving Walk, Pallet Type - A moving walk with a
brake, and the driving sheave or drum together with its series of connected and power-driven pallets
connecting gearing, belt or chain, if any, and can be which together constitutes a treadway.
classified as follows:
-
Non-Stop Switch, Elevator A switch, which when
(a) Direct-Drive Machine - An electric driving operated will prevent the elevator from marking
machine, the motor which is directly connected registered landing stops.
mechanically to the driving sheave, drum, or shaft
without the use of the belts or chains, either with Operator, Automatic - Operation wherein the starting
or without intermediate gears. of the elevator car is effected in response of the
momentary actuation of operating devices at the
(b) Geared-Drive Machine - A direct drive machine landing, and/or operating devices in the car identified
in which theenergy is transmitted from the motor with the landings, andlor in response to an automatic
to the driving sheave drum or shaft through starting mechanism and wherein, the car is stopped
gearing. automatically at the landings.
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
Operating Device - The car switch, push button, Starter Control Panel, Elevator -An assembly of
lever or other manual device used to actuate the devices by means of which the starter may control the
control. manner in which an elevator or group of elevators
function.
Overhead Structure - All the structural .members
platforms, etc. supporting the elevator machinery, Static Switching - Switching of circuits by means of
sheaves and equipment at the top of the hoistway. solid state devices.
Safety, Self-Resetting - A car or counterweight Terminal Stopping Device, Machine Final (Stop
safety released and reset by movement in the up Motion Switch) - A final-terminal stopping device
direction. operated directly by the driving machine.
Single Automatic, Operation - Automatic operation Terminal Stopping Device, Normal - A device or
by means of one button in the car for each landing devices to slow down and stop an elevator,
served and one button at each landing, so arrange dumbwaiter, or material lift car automatically at or near
that f any car of landing button has been actuated, of a terminal landing independently of the functioning of
actuation of any other car or landing operating button the operating device.
will have no effect of the operation of the car until the
response to the first button has been completed. Top Runby (Direct-Plunger Hydraulic Elevator) -
The distance the elevator car can run above its top
Signal Device, Elevator Car Flush - One providing a terminal landing before the plunger strikes the
signal light in the car, which is illuminated when the mechanical stop.
car approaches the landings at which a landing signal
registering device has been actuated. Transom -
A panel or panels used to close a
hoistway enclosure opening above a hoistway
Signal System, Elevator - One consisting of buttons entrance.
or other devices located at the landing which when
actuated by a waiting passenger illuminate a flash Travel (Rise) - The vertical distance between the
signal or operate an annunciator in the car indicating bottom terminal landing and the top terminal landing of
floors at which stops are to be made. an elevator, dumbwaiter, escalator, material lift, or
inclined lift.
Slack-Rope Switch - A device which automatically
causes the electric power to be removed from the Travelling Cable - A cable made up of electric
elevator driving machine motor and brake when the conductors, which provides electrical connection
suspension ropes of a winding-drum machine become between an elevator, dumbwaiter, or material lift car
slack. and fixed outlet in the hoistway or machine room.
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
2. Overhead sheaves, governors, and Hoistway for elevators outside building shall be
other equipment where the elevator substantially enclosed to a height of at least
machine is located below or at the 3 000 mm provided that the enclosure shall be
side of the hoistway. continuous to the top of any side on which there
is access to the cage.
b. Location of Floor. The floor shall be
located: The enclosure shall either be a continuous wall
or substantial grill work, metal bars, or wood
1. Above or level with the tope of the slats.
machine beams where the machine
is located over the hoistway; Openings fixed enclosures shall not exceed 50
mm in their lesser dimensions, at all places
2. Below the overhead sheaves where where moving cars, counter-weights, or sliding
the machine is not located over the doors present hazard they shall not exceed 10
hoistway. mm in their lesser dimensions.
Strength of Floor. The floor shall be Hoistway enclosures and hoistway doors and
;apable of sustaining a concentrated load of door assemblies shall be of fire-resistive
136 kg on any 2 580 mm area and in construction of not less than I-hour fire
addition where it constitutes the floor of the resistance.
main or secondary level machinery space, it
shall be designed for a live load of not less Where four or more elevators serve or the same
than 611 kglm in all open areas. A sign portion of a building, they shall be located in not
stating the maximum allowable load of less than two (2) hoistway and in no case shall
which the floor is designed shall be more than four (4) elevators be located in any
permanently displayed in all main and one hoistway.
secondary machine-room spaces. The sign
shall be of metal with black letters and Window and Skylights:
figures at least 100 mm high on a white
background. a. Window and Skylight Frames and Sash.
Windows in the walls of hoistway enclosures
d. Construction of Floors. Floors may be of are prohibited. Frames and sashes of
. concrete, or may be of metal construction windows in machine rooms and skylights
with or without perforations. Metal floors shall be of metal.
shall conform to the following:
1. Skylights Guards. A guard
1. If of bar-type grating, the openings securely anchored to the supporting
between bars shall reject a ball 20 structure, consisting of a wire mesh
mm in diameter. screen of at least 2.325 mm
diameter steel wire with openings
2. If of perforated sheet metal or of which will reject a ball 25 mm in
fabricated open work construction, diameter, or an expanded metal
the openings shall reject a ball 25 screen of equivalent strength and
mm in diameter. open area, shall be installed above
every elevator skylight. A similar
screen of at least 1.205 mm
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
diameter steel wire, or of expanded from the landing except with special emergency
metal of equivalent strength and key.
open area, shall be installed below
every elevator skylight. 4.5 Landing opening in passenger-elevator hoistway
enclosure shall be protected preferably by
Section 4.0 Machine Rooms and sliding doors, combination sliding and swing
doors, or swinging doors.
Machinery Spaces
4.6 Access to Machine Rooms and Machinery
4.1 Enclosure Required: Spaces:
a. Enclosure Required for Elevators Having a. General Requirements. A permanent safe
Non Fire-Resistive Hoistway Enclosure. and convenient means of access to elevator
Spaces containing machines, control machine rooms and overhead machinery
equipment, sheaves, and other machinery spaces shall be provided for authorized
shall be enclosed with non combustible persons.
material extending to a height of not less
than 1 830 mm. Openwork material, if used, b. Where the passage is over a sloping roof
shall reject a ball 51 mm in diameter. having slope exceeding 15 degrees from the
horizontal, an unobstructed, permanent and
4.2 Equipment in Machine Rooms substantial walkway not less than 610 mm
wide, equipped on at least one side with a
a. Equipment Permitted in Machinery and standard railing not less than 1 067 mm
Control Spaces. Elevator machine and high, shall be provided from the building exit
control equipment may be located in a room door at the roof level to the means of access
or space containing other machinery and to machine room or machinery spaces.
equipment essential to the operation of the Railings shall conform to the requirements
building; provided that they are separated of ANSI A1 2.1.
from the other machinery or equipment by a
substantial metal grille enclosure not less 4.7 Headroom in Machine Rooms and Overhead
than 1 830 mm high with a self-closing and Machinery Spaces. Elevator machine rooms
self-locking door. The grille enclosures shall and machinery spaces not located over the
be of a design which will reject a ball 51 mm hoistway shall have a clear headroom of not
in diameter. less than 2 130 mm.
b. Equipment Prohibited in Machine Room. Where a floor is provided at the top of the
Where the elevator machine and control hoistway (see Sec. 4.2), elevator machine
equipment are not located at the top of the rooms and overhead machinery spaces above
hoistway, only machinery and equipment such floor shall have a clear headroom of not
required for the operation of the elevator less than the following:
shall be permitted in the elevator machine
room. a. Machine, control, and motor-generator
rooms, 2 130 mm.
4.3 Where machine room are provided over elevator
shaftways they shall be substantially b. Spaces containing overhead, secondary or
constructed with sufficient room for repair and deflecting sheaves, and governors, signal
inspection and access shall be by means of iron machines, or other equipment, 1 372 mm.
ladder or stairs where the machine room
entrance is more than 610 mm above the c. Spaces containing overhead, secondary and
adjacent floor or roof surface. The angle of deflecting sheaves, the machine and
incline of such ladder or stair shall not exceed supporting beams may encroach on the
60' horizontal. required headroom provided there is a
clearance of not less than 914 mm between
4.4 Landing doors for power driven elevators shall the underside of such beams and the top of
be provided with interlocks to hold the elevator the floor.
car immovable while any landing door is open
and to make it impossible to open any landing
door when the car is more than 80 mm away
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
-I P I-
P
& 10,000
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Y
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T Section Rail B
Moment of Inertia, in4(11Ib Rail)
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Fig. 6.4.1-3 Elcsvator Gulcle Rails .-c 9
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Moment of Inertia, in.4 (12 Ib Rail)
4.8 Lighting and Ventilation of Machine Room Where practicable the light control switch
and Machinery Spaces. shall be located on the lock jamb side of the
access door.
(a) Lighting. Permanent electric lighting shall
be provided in all machine rooms and (b) Ventilation for Machinery and Control
machinery spaces. Equipment. Machine rooms shall be
provided with natural or mechanical
The illumination shall be not less than 108 ventilation to avoid overheating of the
lux at the floor level. The llghting control electrical equipment and to insure safe and
switch shall be located within easy reach of normal operation of the elevator.
the access to such rooms or spaces.
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
4.9 Storage of Materials in Machine and Control (a) All risers and returns shall be located
Room. Elevator machine and control rooms outside these spaces.
shall be maintained free of refuse, and shall not
be used for the storage of articles unnecessary (b) Branch lines in hoistway shall supply
for the maintenance or operation of the elevator. sprinklers at not more than one floor
Flammable liquids having a flash point of less level.
than 43.3OC shall not be kept in such rooms.
(c) Shut off valves shall be provided in
Section 5.0 Electrical Wiring, Pipes, and accessible locations outside these
Ducts in Hoistway and Machine Rooms spaces.
5.1 Wiring, Raceways, and Cables in Hoistways. 4. Piping for pit and sump pumps may be
Main feeders for supplying power to the elevator installed.
shall be installed outside the hoistway.
5.3 Guarding of Exposed Auxiliary Equipment:
Only such electrical wiring, raceways, and
cables used directly in connection with the a. In machine rooms and secondary machinery
elevator, including wiring for signals, for spaces, exposed gears, sprockets, tape of
communication with the car, for lighting, heating, rope sheaves or drums of selectors, floor
air conditioning, and ventilating the car, for low- controllers or signal machines, and their
voltage fire-detecting systems, for pit sump driving ropes, chains or tapes, shall be
pumps, and for heating and lighting the guarded to protect against accidental
hoistway, may be installed inside the hoistway. contact.
1. The construction of the pit walls, the e. Stop Switch in Pits. There shall be
pit floor, and any pit access doors installed in the pit of each elevator an
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
(a) Horizontal slide, single or multi- f. The vision panels in horizontally swinging
section. doors shall be located for convenient vision
when opening the door from the car side.
(b) Swing, single-section.
g. Wire-glass panels in power-operated doors
(c) Combination horizontal slide shall be substantially flush with the surface
and swing. of the landing side of the door.
(b) The top surface or beveled sills 1. Stops shall be provided in the
shall not be more than 38 mm entrance assembly to prevent
above the adjacent floor hangers from over-running the end
surface. of the track.
applied to the panel surface for transmitted to the rails as a result of loading
decorative purposes. and unloading operations.
5. The thickness of the fishplates and 6.2.2 Car and Counterweight Buffers
the diameter of the bolts for each
size of guide rail shall not be less a. Spring, Oil, or Equivalent Buffers. Buffers
than specified in Table 6.D.1.4 (b). of the spring, oil, or equivalent type shall be
installed under cars and counterweights of
6. The diameter of bolt holes shall not passenger and freight elevators.
exceed the diameter of the bolts by
more than 1.6 mm for guide rails nor Spring buffers or their equivalent may be
3 200 mm for fishplates. used where the rated speed is not in excess
of 1.02 mls.
Exception: Joints of different design and
construction may be used subject to the Exception: Where type C safeties are used
approval of the enforcing authority, (see Sec. 6.D.6.7 (a), car buffers are not
provided they are equivalent in strength required provided solid bumpers are
and will adequately maintain the installed.
accuracy of the rail alignment.
b. Location. Buffers or bumpers shall be
c. Bracket Fastenings. Guide-rail brackets located so as to retard the car and
shall be secured to their supporting structure counterweight without exceeding allowable
by means of bolts, rivets, or by welding. design stresses in the car frame and
Fastening bolts and bolt holes in brackets counterweight frame.
and their supporting beams shall conform to
the requirements of Sections 6.D.1.8 to c. Construction and Requirements for Solid
6.D.1.10. Bumpers. Solid bumpers used with Type C
safeties shall be made of wood or other
suitably resilient material of sufficient
strength to withstand without failure and
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
impact of the car with rated load, or the 1. Retardation. Oil buffers shall
'
Tests shall be made on a buffer (1) For car oil buffers, the total
of each type or design to be weight of the car as marked
approved and having the on the car crosshead data
following oil porting: plate plus 68 kg.
(b) The porting having the range of (2) For counterweight oil
maximum loads for which the buffers, the weight of the
buffer is designed. counteweight used.
(c) The porting having the range of (b) The maximum load rating shall
minimum loads for which the be not less than:
buffer is designed.
(1) For car oil buffers, the total
The firm or person installing the weight of the car as marked
buffer shall submit to the on the cross head data
enforcing authority an authentic plate plus the rated load;
copy of the test certificate.
(2) For counterweight oil
5. Upon receipt of an authentic copy of buffers, the weight of the
the test certificate stating that the counteweight used.
buffer tested has met the specified
test requirements, the enforcing 7. Buffer Marking Plate. Every
authority shall approve the use of installed oil buffer shall have
such buffers. Oil buffers tested in permanently attached thereto a
accordance with the test metal plate, marked by the
requirements of prior editions of this manufacturer in a legible and
Code shall be acceptable without permanent manner, indicating:
being re-tested, on submittal by the
person or firm installing the buffers (a) the maximum and minimum
of the test certificate stating that the loads and the maximum striking
buffer, when tested, met the speeds for which the buffer may
specified test requirements of that be used in conformity with this
edition of the Code. The approval section;
shall include buffers of the same
type or design having a greater or (b) the permissible range in
shorter stroke, up to a maximum of viscosity of the buffer oil to be
2 130 mm and having oil porting for used, stated in Saybolt Seconds
any load range within the maximum Universal at 37.8OC;
and minimum loads for which the
buffer has been tested, provided (c) the viscosity index number of
that the installer certifies on the the oil to be used;
plans and specifications filed with
the enforcing authority that the (d) the pour point in degrees
buffer as installed will conform to Centigrade of the oil to be used.
the requirements of Section 6.D.2.5
(a). 6.2.3 Counterweights
2. Tie Rods. At least two iie rods shall When compensating ropes are used with a
be provided which shall pass tension sheave, one end of each rope shall
through all weight sections. Tie rods be provided with a shackle rod, or other
shall be provided with lock nut and means which provide for individual
cotter pins at each end. adjustment or rope length.
Exception: Tie rods are not required 6.2.4 Car Frames and Platforms
where other means are provided to
retain weight sections in place if a. Car Frames Required. Every elevator shall
they become broken. have a car frame (see Section 6.B
definitions).
3. Guiding Members. Counterweight
frames shall be guided on each b. Guiding Members. Car frames shall be
guide rail by upper and lower guided on each guide rail by upper and
guiding members attached to the lower guiding members attached to the
frame. frame.
6.2.4 Design Requirements for Frames and c. Design of Car Frames and Guiding
Rods. Members. The frame and its guiding
members shall be designed to withstand the
a. Material. Frames and rods shall be made of forces resulting under the loading conditions
steel or other metals, provided that where for which the elevator is designed and
steels of greater strength than those installed (see Section 6.D.8).
specified, or where metals other than steel
are used, the factor of safety used in the d. Underslung or Sub-Post Frames. The
design shall conform to the requirements of vertical distance between the center lines of
Section 6.D.3.2 (c). the top and bottom guide shoes of an
elevator car having a sub-post car frame or
b. Factor of Safety. The frame members and having an underslung car frame located
their connections shall be designed with a entirely below the car platform, shall be not
factor of safety of not less than 5 with the less than 40% of the distance between
elevator at rest and the counter-weight at guide rails.
the top of its travel.
e. Car Platforms. Every elevator car shall
c. Sheaves. Where a hoisting sheave or have a platform consisting of a non
sheaves are mounted in the frame, the perforated floor attached to a platform frame
requirements of Sec. 6.D.4.9 shall apply supported by the car frame, and extending
(see also Sec. 6.D.9.2 and 6.D.9.3 for over the entire area within the car enclosure.
requirements for sheaves). The platform frame members and the floor
shall be designed to withstand the forces
d. Suspension-Rope Hitch or Shapes. developed under the loading conditions for
Where counterweights are suspended by which the elevator is designed and installed.
ropes attached directly to the frames by
means of rope fastenings, the rope Exception: Laminated platforms may be used for
attachments shall conform to Section passenger elevators having a rated load of 2270
6.D.4.10. kg or less. The deflection at any point of a
laminated platform when uniformly loaded to
e. Securing of Weights in Fames. Filler rated capacity, shall not exceed 11960 of the
weight of counterweight shall be made of span. The stresses in the steel facing shall not
cast iron in a slab form where it should be exceed 115 of its ultimate strength and the
tied rigidly to the frame by tie-rods. stresses in the plywood core shall not exceed
60% of the allowable stresses in Section 3.14 of
f. Compensating Chain or Rope the American Plywood Association Plywood
Fastenings. Compensating chains or ropes Design Specification. Platform frames are not
shall be fastened to the counterweight frame required where laminated platforms are
directly or to a bracket fastened to the frame provided.
and shall not be fastened to the tie rods.
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
f. Materials for Car Frames and Platform adequately reinforced and braced to the car
Frames. Materials used in the construction platform and conforming to the following:
of car frames and platforms shall conform to
the following: 1. It shall extend not less than the full
width of the widest hoistway-door
1. Car frames and outside members of opening.
platform frames shall be made of
steel or other metals. 2. It shall have a straight vertical face,
extending below the floor surface of
2. Platform stringers of freight the platform, of not less than the
elevators designed for Class B or C depth of the leveling or truck zone,
loading shall be of steel or other plus 76 mm.
metals.
3. The lower portion of the guard shall
3. Platform stringers of passenger be bent back at an angle of not less
elevators and of freight elevators than 60' nor more than 75' from the
designed for Class A loading shall horizontal.
be made of steel or other metals, or
of wood. 4. The guard plate shall be securely
braced and fastened in place to
g. Cast iron shall not be used for any part withstand a constant force of not
subject to tension, torsion or bending. less than 68 kg applied at right
angles to and at any position on its
1. Guiding supports face without deflecting more than
6.3 mm, and without permanent
2. Guide shoes deformation.
1. They shall be provided with electric d. Top Emergency Exits. An emergency exit
contacts which will prevent with a cover shall be provided in the top of
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
all elevator cars and shall conform to the passengers in case the glass panels
following requirements: break or are dislodged.
1. The exit opening shall have an area 4. Be so mounted in the structure, that
of not less than 0.258 m2, and shall the structure including the glass in
measure not less than 406 mm on place shall withstand the required
any side. elevator tests without damage.
Exception: [Sec. 6.D.5.4 (c)]: The a. lllumination and Outlets Required. Cars
exit cover of a lower deck of a multi- shall be provided with an electric light or
deck elevator can be opened from lights conforming to the following:
either compartment.
1. Not less than two lamps shall be
6.2.7 Car-Enclosure Tops. Tops of car enclosures provided.
shall be so designed and installed as to be
capable of sustaining a load of 136 kg on any 2. The minimum illumination at the car
square area 610 mm on a side and45 kg threshold, with the door closed,
applied at any point. Simultaneous application shall not be less than:
of these loads is not required.
(a) For passenger elevators: 54 lux
a. Equipment Prohibited on Top of Cars. A
working platform or equipment which is not (b) For freight elevators: 27 lux
required for the operation of the elevator or
its appliances, except where specifically 3. Passenger elevators shall be
provided herein, shall not be located above provided with an emergency lighting
the top of an elevator car. power source on each elevator
sonforming to the following:
b. Glass in Elevator Cars. Glass may be used
in elevator cars. Glass exceeding 0.093 m2 a) The emergency system shall
in area shall: provide some general
illumination in the car. The
1. Be laminated; intensity of illumination 1220
mm above the car floor and
2. Meet the requirements for laminated approximately 305 mm in front
glass of ANSI 297.1 except as to of the car operating device shall
transparency; be not less than 22 lux. Lights
shall be automatically turned on
3. Be installed and guarded so as to in all elevators in service
provide adequate protection for immediately after normal car
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
lighting power fails. The power shall be located within or below the lower
system shall be capable of members of the car frame (safety plank).
maintaining the above light
intensity for a period of at least All car safeties shall be mounted on a single
4 hours. car frame and shall operate only on one pair
of guide rails between which the frame is
(b) Not less than two lamps of located.
approximately equal wattage
shall be used. b. Duplex Safeties. Where duplex (two)
safeties are provided, the lower safety
4. Each elevator shall be provided with device shall be capable of developing not
an electric light and convenience less than one-half of the force required to
outlet fixture on the car top. stop the entire car with rated load (see Sec.
6.4.8.8). Duplex safety devices shall be
b. Passenger-Car Lighting Devices. Glass arranged so as to function approximately
used for lighting fixtures shall conform to the simultaneously. Type A or Type C safety
requirements of Section 6.D.5.7. devices (see Sec. 6.4.6.4) shall not be used
in multiple (duplex).
Suspended glass used in lighting fixtures
shall be supported by a metal frame secured c. Counterweight Safeties. Counterweight
at not less than three points. Fastening safeties shall conform to the requirements
devices shall not be removable from the for car safeties.
fixture. Glass shall not be drilled for
attachment. Light through supporting wiring Exceptions:
raceways and other auxiliary lighting
equipment, where used, shall be of metal 1. Where otherwise specified in Sec.
except where lined with non combustible 6.4.6.
materials.
For rated speeds of not over 0.76
Lighting arrangements using slow-burning mls, counterweight safeties may be
combustible materials for diffusing and operated as a result of the breaking
illumination purposes shall be permitted or slackening of the suspension
providing such combustible materials do not ropes and may be of the inertia or
come in contact with lighting equipment. other approved types without
governors (see Sec. 6.4.6.6 and
c. Protection of Light Bulbs and Tubes. 6.4.7).
Light bulbs and tubes shall be:
3. A switch operated by the safety
1, Installed and guarded so as to mechanism is not required for
provide adequate protection incase counterweight safeties (se Sec.
the bulb or tube in the structure, 6.D.6.6).
shall withstand the required elevator
tests without damage. d. Identification and Classification of Types
of Safeties. Car safety devices (safeties)
2. So mounted in the structure, that are identified and classified on the basis of
the structure including the bulb or performance characteristics after the safety
tube in the structure, shall withstand begins to apply pressure on the guide rails.
the required elevator tests without On this basis, there are three types of
damage. safeties:
2. Type B Safeties. Safeties which On the parting of the hoisting ropes (free
apply limited pressure on the guide fall), type A governor operated safeties shall
rails during the stopping interval, apply without appreciable delay, and their
and which provide stopping application shall be independent of the
distances that are related to the speed action of the governor and of the
mass being stopped and the speed location of the break in the hoisting ropes
at which application of the safety is (inertia application), and may be
initiated. Retarding. forces are accomplished by the use of a governor and
reasonably uniform after the safety governor rigging having a sufficiently high
is fully applied. Continuous tension value of inertia to apply the safety on free
in the governor rope may or may not fall independently of the speed action of the
be required to operate the safety governor.
during the entire stopping interval.
1. Type C (Combination
3. Type C Safeties (type A with Oil Instantaneous and Oil Buffer
Buffers). Safeties which develop Safety). Type C safeties may be
retarding forces during the used subject to the following
compression stroke of one or more requirements:
oil buffers interposed between the
lower members of the car frame and (a) The rated speed shall be not
a governor-operated type A auxiliary more than 2.54 mls.
safety plank applied on the guide
The stopping distance is (b) The oil buffers shall conform to
!qua1 to the effective stroke of the all requirements specified in
wffers. Section 6.D.2 for oil buffers,
except that the stroke shall be
e. Safeties to Stop Ascending Cars or based on governor tripping
Counterweight Prohibited. Safeties shall speed and on an average
not stop an ascending car or counterweight. retaidation not exceeding 9.81
mls .
f. Governor-Actuated Safeties and Car-
Safety Mechanism Switches Required. (c) After the buffer stroke, as
defined in Sec. 6.D.6.7 (2) has
1. Car safeties, and counterweight been completed, provision shall
safeties, where provided, shall be be made for an additional travel
actuated by separate speed of the plunger or piston of not
governors. less thanlo% of the buffer
stroke to prevent excessive
Exception: Speed governor are not impact on the buffer parts and
required for the operation of the auxiliary safety plank.
counterweight safeties of elevators
having a rated speed of not more (d) Where the distance between
than 0.76 mls. guide rails exceeds 2 440 mm,
the safety shall be provided with
2. Every car safety shall be provided two oil buffers of substantially
with a switch, operated by the car identical calibration, and the
safety mechanism. This switch buffers shall be so located as to
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
e. Speed Governor Over-Speed and Car- d. Governor Rope Tag. A metal data tag shall
Safety-Mechanism Switches be securely attached to the governor rope
fastening. This data tag shall bear the
Where Required. A switch shall be following wire rope data:
provided on the speed governor and
operated by the over-speed action 1. The diameter in mm.
of the governor when used with type
B and C car safeties of elevators . 2. The manufacturer's rated breaking
having a rated speed exceeding strength.
0.76 mls. A switch shall be provided
on the speed governor when used 3. The grade of material used.
with a counterweight safety for any
car speed. 4. The month and year the rope was
installed.
For static control, an over-speed
switch shall be provided regardless 5. Whether non-preformed or pre-
of rated speed and shall operate in formed.
both directions of travel.
6. Construction classification.
Every car safety shall be provided
with a switch operated by the car 7. Name of the person or firm who
safety mechanism when the safety installed the rope.
is applied.
8. Name of the manufacturer of the
These switches when operated shall rope. A new tag shall be installed at
remove power from the driving- each rope renewal.
machine motor and brake before or
at the time of application of the e. Speed Governor Marking Plate. A metal
safety. plate shall be securely attached to each
speed governor and shall be marked in a
6.2.12 Governor Ropes legible and permanent manner with letters
and figures not less than 6.3 mm in height
a. Material and Factor of Safety. Governor indicating the following:
ropes shall be of iron, steel, monel metal,
phosphor bronze, or stainless steel. They 1. The speed in meter per minute at
shall be of regular-lay construction, and not which the governor is set and
less than 9.5 mm in dia. Tiller-rope sealed to trip the governor-rope-grip
construction shall not be used. The factor of jaws.
safety of governor ropes shall be not less
than 5. 2. The size, material and construction
of the governor rope on which the
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
3. Floor area divided by 9.3 equal * To allow for variations in cab designs, an increase in
number of persons. the maximum inside net platform are not exceeding
5%, shall be permitted for the various rated loads.
4. number of person divided by 220 is
number of elevators. e. Use of Partitions for Reducing Inside Net
Platform Area. Where partitions are
c. For determining capacities of elevators the installed in elevator cars for the purpose of
following shall be used as basis for elevator restricting the platform net area for
or elevators capacities. This is on the basis passenger use, they shall be permanently
of carrying within 5 minutes the following bolted, riveted or welded in place. Gates,
percentage of building occupants as follows: doors or handrails shall not be used for this
purpose. Partitions shall be so installed as
1. For apartments 8 - 10% to provide for approximately symmetrical
loading.
2. For offices 10 - 13%
f. Carrying of Freight on Passenger
3. For dept. stores 13 - 15% Elevators. When freight is to be carried on
a passenger elevator, the following
d. The following forrnulas shall be used for requirements shall be conformed to:
determining the maximum rated load of
passenger elevators: 1. The minimum rated load shall
conform to the requirements of
I. For an elevator having an inside net Section 6.4.8.1 or 6.4.8.4 whichever
platform area of not more than 4.65 is greater;
m2
2. The elevator shall be designed for
W = 35.10 (A)* + 326.224 (A) applicable class of freight elevator
loading.
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
g. Minimum Load Permitted. The minimum (b) "THIS ELEVATOR DESIGNED
rated load for freiaht elevators in kilograms FOR MOTOR-VEHICLE
c;hall be based 01 the we!ight and class of LOADING"
t he load to be handled.
(c) "THIS ELEVATOR DESIGNED
h. Carrying of Passengers on Freight FOR LOADED INDUSTRIAL
Elevators. Freight elevators shall not be TRUCK WEIGHING - KG.
permitted to carry passengers. MAXIMUM".
- .-0
2300
2200
2100
2000
1900
1800
1700
1600
1500
e
2 1400
2c 1300
0
0
5
8 1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
?no
100
0 200 400 600 800 1000 120C DO 1800 2000
7. The car safeties shall be designed 6.3.1 Driving Machines and She:
to stop and hold the specified
"Capacity Lifting One-Piece Loads," a. Type of Driving Machine:
rith the ropes intact.
1. All driving machines shall be of the
there there is an occupied space, traction type.
or an unauthorized access under
the hoistway, the following Exceptions:
requirements shall be conformed to:
(a) Winding-drum machines may be
The machine shall be designed used for freight elevators subject to
to operate with the "Capacity the ff:
Lifting One-Piece Loads" at
slow speed; the car safety shall . They shall not be provided with
be designed to stop and hold counterweights.
the car with this load
independently of the hoisting 2. The rated speed of elevator
ropes; shall not exceed 0.25 mls.
(b) The counterweight safety, shall 3. The travel of the elevator car
be designed to stop and hold shall not exceed 12.2 m.
the entire weight of the
counterweight independently of (b) Screw machines conforming to the
the ropes. require nents of Section 6.D.9.5.
9. For traction machines, where b. Material and Grooving for Sheaves and
necessary to secure adequate Drums. Sheaves and drums used with
traction, additional counterweight suspension and compensating ropes shall:
shall be added during the period of
use with one-piece loads so that the Be of metal and provided with
total over-balance is at least equal finished grooves for ropes. The
to 45% of the "Capacity Lifting One- grooves of sheaves not used to
Piece Loads." transmit power may be lined with
non-metallic material. The grooves
special operating device of the of sheaves used to transmit power
ar-switch or continuous-pressure may be lined with non-metallic
type shall be provided in the material provided that in the event
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
the lining should fail, there will be shall be provided unless other
sufficient traction still available in means are provided to limit the
the groove to safely stop and hold down speed of the car with rated
the car with 125% of the rated load. load to not over 0.89 mls if there is
a failure of the driving means.
2. Have a pitch diameter of not less
than: 3. Where belts or chains are used to
connect the motor to the driving
(a) 40 times the diameter of the machines the following
rope, where used with requirements shall be conformed to:
suspension ropes;
(a) Belts shall be of the multiple V-
(b) 32 times the diameter of the belt type.
rope, where used with
compensating ropes. (b) Two or more separate chains
shall be provided.
c. Factor of Safety for Driving Machines
and Sheaves. The factor of safety, based (c) The driving 'means, whether
on the ultimate strength of the material, to belts or chains, shall have a
be used in the design of driving machines factor of safety of not less than
and in the design of sheaves used with 10.
suspension and compensating ropes shall
be not less than: (d) The machine brake shall be so
located that failure of the driving
1. 8 for steel, bronze, or for other belt or chain will not prevent it
metals having an elongation of at from performing its intended
least 14% in a length of 51 mm. function.
2. 10 for cast iron, or for other metals 4. The factor of safety of the screw as
having an elongation of less than a column shall be not less than 3
14% in a length of 51 mm. based on the total weight supported
with rated load in the car.
The load to be used in determining
the factor of safety shall be the 5. Means shall be provided to maintain
resultant of the maximum tensions the screw in its vertical position in
in the ropes leading from the case of excessive over-travel.
sheave or drum with elevator at rest
and with rated load in the car. 6. Screws shall be of steel and nuts
shall be of bronze or other material
d. Driving-Machine Brakes. The elevator having an elongation of at least 14%
driving machine shall be equipped with a in a length of 51 mm.
friction brake applied by a spring, or by
gravity, and released electrically. The brake 7. A vertical casing, closed at the
shall be designed to have a capacity bottom, shall be provided to enclose
sufficient to hold the car at rest with its rated and protect the screw below the nut.
load [see also Sec. 6.D.8.8.1.
6.3.2 Terminal Stopping Devices
e. Screw Machines. Screw machines shall be
of the uncounterweighted type and shall a. Additional Requirements for Winding
mform to the requirements of the section Drum Machines. Final terminal stopping
i d to the following: devices for winding-drum machines shall
conform to the following:
1. The rated speed shall not exceed
0.25 mls. 1. Stopping switches, located on and
operated by the driving machine,
2. A car safety device conforming to shall not be driven by chains, ropes,
the requirements of Section 6.4.6 or belts.
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
Exception: Elevators with screw machines. Note: In the case of multiple roping, the
number of runs of rope (N) under load
6.4.13.2 On Crosshead Data Plate. The crosshead will be: For 2:l roping, twice the
data plate shall bear the following wire rope number of ropes used; for 3:1 roping,
data: three times the number of ropes used,
etc.
a. The number of ropes.
6.4.13.9 Minimum Number and Diameter of
b. The diameter in millimeter. Suspension Ropes. The minimum number
of hoisting ropes used shall be three for
c. The manufacturer's rated breaking strength traction elevators, and two for drum-type
per rope in kilograms. elevators.
6.4.13.3 On Rope Data Tag. A metal data tag shall Where a car counterweight is used, the
be securely attached to one of the wire rope number of counterweight ropes used shall
fastenings. be not less than two.
6.4.13.4 Minimum number of hoisting ropes shall be The term "diameter" where used in this
three (3) for traction elevators and two (2) section shall refer to the nominal diameter
for drum-type elevators. as given by the rope manufacturer.
6.4.13.5 Suspension rope tension equalizers shall be The minimum diameter of hoisting and
provided. counterweight ropes shall be 9.5 mm.
6.4.13.6 Drum type elevators shall have not less than Table 6.4.13.8
one (1) turn of the rope on the drum when Minimum Factors of Safety for Suspension Wire Ropes
the car is resting on the fully compressed
buffers.
Exception: Equalizers of other types may 2. the rope socketing shall be such as
be used with traction elevators provided the to develop at least 80% of the
equalizers and their fastenings are approved ultimate breaking strength to the
by the enforcing authority on the basis of strongest rope to be used in such
adequate tensile and fatigue tests made by fastenings,; and
a qualified laboratory. Such tests shall show
the ultimate strength of the equalizer and its 3. U-bolt type rope clips (clamps) shall
fastenings in its several parts and assembly, not be used for such fastenings.
which shall be not less than 10% in excess
of the strength of suspension ropes as 6.4.13.15 Adjustable Shackle Rods. The car ends,
required by Sec. 6.4.13.8, provided that or the car or counterweight dead ends
equalizers of the single-bar type, or springs where multiple roping is used, of all
in tension, shall not be used to attach suspension wire ropes of traction type
suspension ropes to cars or counterweights elevators shall be provided with shackle
or to deadened hitchplates. rods of a design which will permit individual
adjustment of the rope lengths. Similar
6.4.13.11 Securing of Suspension Wire Ropes to shackle rods shall be provided on the car or
Winding Drums. Suspension wire ropes of counterweight ends of compensating ropes.
winding-drum machines shall have the drum
ends of the ropes secured on the inside of 6.4.13.16 General Design Requirements. Wire rope
the drum by clamps or by tapered babbitted fastenings shall conform to the following:
sockets, or by other means approved by the
enforcing authority. a. The portion of the rope fastenings which
holds the wire rope (rope socket) and the
6.4.13.12 Spare rope-Turns on Winding Drums. shackle rod may be in one piece (unit
Suspension wire ropes of winding-drum construction), or they may be separate.
machines shall have not less than one turn
of the rope on the drum when the car is b. The rope socket shall be either cast or
resting on the fully compressed buffers. forged steel provided that where the rope
socket and the shackle rod are in one piece
6.4.13.13 Splicing and Replacement of Suspension (unit construction), the entire fastening shall
Ropes. Suspension wire ropes shall not be be of forged steel.
lengthened or repaired by splicing. If one
rope of a set is worn or damaged and c. Where the shackle rod and rope socket are
required replacement, the entire set of ropes not in one piece, the shackle rod shall be of
shall be replaced. forged or rolled steel.
6.4.13.14 Type of Rope Fastenings. The car and d. Cast of forged steel rope sockets, shackle
counterweight ends of suspension wire rods and their connections shall be made of
ropes, or the stationary hitch-ends where unwelded steel, having an elongation of not
multiple roping is used, shall be fastened in less than 20% in a length of 51 mm,
such a manner that all portions of the rope sonforming to ANSIIASTM A668, Class B
except the portion inside the rope sockets for forged steel and ANSIIASTM A27,
shall be readily visible. Fastening shall be:
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
Grade60130 for cast steel and shall be its outer edge be rounded and free from
stress relieved. cutting edges.
Exception: Steels of greater strength may be d. The diameter (d) of the hole at the large end
used provided they have an elongation of of the tapered portion of the socket shall be
not less than 20% in a length of 51 mm. not less than 2-114 times nor more than 3
times the diameter of the wire rope used.
e. Where the shackle rod is separate from the
rope socket, the fastening between the two Table 6.4.13.18
parts shall be positive and such as to Relation of Rope Diameter to Diameter of the
prevent their separation under all conditions Small Socket Hole
of operation of the elevator. Where the
connection of the two parts is threaded, the
length of the thread engagement of the rod
in the socket shall be not less than 1 112
times the root diameter of the thread on the
rod, and a cotter pin or equivalent means
shall in addition be provided to restrict the
turning of the rod in the socket and prevent
unscrewing of the connection in normal
e. The diameter (dm) of the hole at the end of
operation.
the tapered portion of the socket shall be not
more than shown in Table 6.4.1 3.18.
Eye bolts used as connections with clevis-
type sockets shall be of forged steel
conforming to ANSIIASTM A668, Class B Section 5.0 , Hydraulic Elevators
(heat treated) without welds.
6.5.1 Hoistways, Hoistway Enclosures, and
f. Rope sockets shall be of such strength that Related Construction.
the rope will break before the socket is
materially deformed. 6.5.1.1 Hoistways, hoistway enclosures, and related
construction shall conform to the requirements
g. The shackle rod, eye bolt, or other means of the following Sections and Article 6.3.
used to connect the rope socket to the car except Sec. 6.3.7.
or counterweight, shall have a strength at
least equal to the manufacturer's rated 6.5.2 Machine Rooms and Machinery Spaces
breaking strength of the rope.
6.5.2.1 Where pumps, motors, valves, and electrical
h. Rope fastenings incorporating anti-friction control equipment are located in spaces
devices which will permit free spinning of the separated from the hoistway enclosure (Sec.
rope shall not be used. 6.3.1.1), such spaces shall be separated from
other parts of the building by enclosures
6.4.13.17Tapered Babbitted Rope Sockets. conforming to the requirements of Sec. 6.3.2.1
Tapered babbitted rope sockets shall be of a (a) and having an access door.
design.as shown in Fig. 6.4.13.17, and shall
conform to the following: 6.5.3 Bottom and Top Clearances and Runby for
Cars and Counteweights
a. The axial length (I) of the tapered portion of
the socket shall be not less than 4-314 times 6.5.3.1 Bottom Car Clearance. The bottom car
the diameter of the tope used. clearances shall conform to the requirements
of Sec. 6.3.7.1, provided that, in the
b. The axial length (Lm) of the open portion of determination of the required clearance, any
the rope socket shall be not less than four under-car bracing which is located within 152
(4) times the diameter of the rope used. mm horizontally from the edge of the car
platform or 76 mm horizontally from the
c. The length of the straight bore (Lmm) at the centerline of the guide rails shall not be
small end of the socket shall be not more considered.
than 12.70 mm nor less than 3.2 mm, and
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
6.5.3.2 Minimum Bottom and Top Car Runby. The 6.5.3.7 Top Clearance' and Bottom Runby of
bottom and top car runby shall be not less Counterweights. Where a counterweight is
than: provided, the top clearance and the bottom
runby of the counterweight shall conform to
a. 76 mm for rated speeds not exceeding 0.51 the following:
mls;
(a) Top Clearance. The top
speeds exceeding 0.51 clearance shall be not less than
the sum of the following:
6.5.3.3 Maximum Bottom and Top Car Runby. The (1) The bottom car runby.
bottom and the top car runby shall not be
more than 610 mm. (2) The stroke of the car buffers
used.
6.5.3.4 Top Car Clearance. The top car clearance
shall be not less than the sum of the following (3) 152 mm.
two items:
(b) Bottom Runby. The bottom
a. The top car runby. runby shall be not less than the
sum of the following:
b. The largest of the following:
(1) The distance the car can
1. 610 mm above the car crosshead travel above its top terminal
where a crosshead is provided. landing until the plunger
strikes its mechanical stop.
2. The height of the refuge space on
top of the car enclosure.
6.5.3.5 Equipment Projecting Above the Car Top. 6.5.4 Protection of Spaces Below Hoistway
When the car reaches its maximum upward
movement and refuge space is provided, all 6.5.4.1 Where the space below the hoistway
equipment, exclusive of guide shoe is used for a passageway, is occupied
assemblies or gate posts for vertically sliding by persons, or, it is unoccupied, is not
gates, attached to and projecting above the secured against unauthorized access,
car top, shall be at least 152 mm from striking the following requirements shall be
any part of the overhead structure or any conformed to:
equipment located in the hoistway.
(a) The cylinder shall be supported
6.5.3.6 Overhead Obstructions in Hoistway. When by a structure of sufficient
overhead beams or other overhead hoistway strength to support the entire load
construction except sheaves are located that may be imposed upon it.
vertically over the car, but not over the
crosshead, the following requirements shall be (b) Where a counterweight is
met: provided, the space below it shall
be inaccessible to persons or the
a. The clearance from the car top to such counterweight shall be provided
beams or construction when the car is level with a safety device operated as
with the top landing shall be not less than a result of breaking or slackening
the amount specified in Sec. 6.5.3.4. of the counterweight suspension
ropes.
b. Such beams or constructions shall be
located not less than 610 mm horizontally
from the crosshead.
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
(c) The car shall be provided with 6.5.5.3 Counterweight Safeties. Counterweight
buffers of one of the following safeties, where provided in accordance with
types: the requirements of Sec. 6.5.4.1 (b), shall
conform to the requirements of Sec. 6.4.6,
1. Spring buffers of a design provided that safeties shall be operated as a
which will not be fully result of the breaking or slackening of the
compressed when struck by counterweight suspension ropes, irrespective
the fully loaded car at the of the rated speed of the elevator.
maximum speed attained in
the down direction. 6.5.5.4 Capacity and Loading. The requirements of
Section 6.4.8 covering capacity and loading
(d) Car buffer supports shall be shall apply to hydraulic elevators, provided
provided which will withstand that with Class C2 loading the load during the
without permanent deformation loading and unloading shall not exceed the
the impact resulting from buffer rated load of the elevator unless all parts of
engagement by the car with its the hydraulic equipment are designed for the
rated load at the maximum speed maximum pressure developed as a result of
attained in the down direction. this load.
6.5.5.1 . Information on Elevator Layout. Elevator 6.5.6.1 Driving Machine and Connection
layout drawings shall, in addition to other data,
indicated the following: a. Type of Driving Machine. The machine
shall be of a direct plunger type or indirect
The bracket spacing. plunger (suspension type).
6.5.5.2 Car Safeties. Car safeties where provided (a) Ropes shall correspond to the
shall conform to the requirements of Section following conditions:
6.4.6 and to the following:
(1) The nominal diameter of the
a. The safety shall be of a type which can be ropes shall be at least 8 mm
released only by moving the car in the up
direction. (2) The tensile strength of the
wire shall be:
b. The switches required by Sec. 6.4.7.5 shall,
when operated, remove power from the 2.1 1570 Nlmm or
driving machine motor and control valves 1770 Nlmm for
before or at the time of application of the ropes of single
safety. tensile.
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
2.2 1370 Nlmm for (c) Plunger Stops. Plungers shall
the outer wires be provided with solid metal stops
and 1660 Nlmm andlor other means to prevent the
for the inner plunger from traveling beyond the
wires of ropes of limits of the cylinder. Stops shall
dual tensile. be so designed and constructed
as to stop the plunger from
(3) The ratio between the maximum speed in the up
pitch diameter of direction under full pressure
sheaves and pulleys without damage to the hydraulic
and the nominal system. For rated speeds
diameter of the exceeding 0.51 mls where a solid
suspension ropes metal stop is provided, means
shall be at least 40, other than the normal terminal
regardless of the stopping device shall be provided
number of stands. to retard the car to 0.51 mls with a
retardation not greater than
6.5.6.2 Plungers gravity, before striking the stop.
(See Sec. 6.5.7.7).
(a) Plunger Connection. Where the
plunger is the driving member and (d) Plunger-Follower Guide. A
is subjected to eccentric loading, plunger-follower guide may be
the following requirements shall used provided it is arranged so
apply: that the elevator is always in a
position where the unsupported
(1) The plunger connection to the length of the plunger conforms to
car shall also be so designed the "maximum free length", and to
and constructed as to transmit open the power circuit if this
the full eccentric moment into length is exceeded.
the plunger with a factor of
safety of not less than 4. 6.5.6.3 Cylinders
(2) The plunger and the plunger (a) Materials. The cylinder and
connection to the car shall connecting couplings for the
also be so designed and cylinder shall be of materials with
constructed that the total a factor of safety of not less than
vertical deflection of the 5 based on the ultimate strength
loading edge of the car and with an elongation of not less
platform due to eccentric than 10% in 51 mm.
loading of the car shall not
exceed 19 mm. (b) Clearance at Bottom of
Cylinder. Clearance shall be
(b) Plunger Joints. Plungers provided at the bottom of the
composed of more than one cylinder so that the bottom of the
section shall have joints designed plunger will not strike the safety
and constructed to: bulkhead of the cylinder when the
car is resting on its fully
(1) carry in tension the weight of compressed buffer.
all plunger sections below the
joint with a factor of safety of (c) Cylinder and Plunger Heads.
not less than 4; and Heads of cylinders, and heads of
plungers subject to fluid pressure,
(2) transmit in compression the shall conform to the following
gross load on the plunger with requirements:
a factor of safety of not less
than 5 based on ultimate (1) Cylinder Heads. Bottom
strength. heads of cylinders only shall
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
6.5.7.4 Wall Thickness. The minimum wall (4) Control Means Affected.
thickness shall conform to the
following requirements: (a) Direct Plunger
(Maintained Pressure
(a) For working pressure up to 1'72 Type). The emergency
MPa, piping equal to standard terminal and normal
schedule 40 steel pipe may be terminal stopping
used without stress analysis. devices shall not control
the same controller
6.5.7.5 Threading. Pipe lighter than switches to complete the
Schedule 40 shall not be threaded. circuit to the control
valves unless two or
6.5.7.6 Supply Line Shut-Off Valve. A more separate and
manual shut-off. valve shall be independent switches
installed in the supply line to the are provided, two of
cylinder of every hydraulic elevator which shall be closed in
where the cylinder is not exposed to the appropriate direction
inspection. The shut-off valve shall be of travel.
located in the machine room.
(b) Electro-Hydraulic. For
6.5.7.7 Emergency Terminal Speed the up direction of travel
Limiting Devices. at least two control
means are required, one
(a) Where Required. Emergency or both to be controlled
terminal speed limiting devices by the emergency speed
shall be installed where a limiting device and the
reduced stroke buffer is used and other or both by the
for the up direction where the car normal terminal stopping
speed exceeds 0.51 mls to insure device. If, in the up
that the plunger does not strike its direction, the pump
solid limit of travel at a speed in motor is the only control
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
means, two magnetic range of the free suspension of the car and
switches, both of which not exceeding 76 mm.
shall be closed to
complete the motor b. The enclosure may be omitted on the upper
circuit, are required to landing on continuous pressure operation
satisfy this rule. If, elevators serving only adjacent landings
however, the pump (one floor travel) provided the floor opening
motor is one control at the upper landing is protected by an
means and there is a enclosure and gate at least 914 mm high
second control means, with openings that will reject a ball 25 mm in
(e.g., a valve) only one diameter and the gate is provided with a
magnetic switch for the combination mechanical lock and electric
pump motor is required. contact.
For the down direction,
the emergency terminal c. The enclosure may be omitted on the upper
speed limiting and landing of elevators having continuous
normal terminal stopping pressure operation and serving only
devices shall each adjacent landings (one floor travel), where
directly or through the floor opening is provided with a vertically
separate switches affect lifting hatch cover which is automatically
the control valve. Where raised and lowered vertically by he
two magnetic switches ascending and descending car, provided
are used, the emergency this cover meets the following requirements:
terminal speed limiting
and normal terminal 1. It is fitted with guides to insure its
stopping devices each proper setting.
may control one or both.
2. It is designed and installed to
6.5.7.8 Final Terminal Stopping Devices. Final sustain a total load of 3.59 kPa or
terminal stopping devices are not required. 136 kg at any one point.
6.1.3 Top Car Clearance. The top car clearance c. Glass in Elevator Cars. Glass, where used
shall be not less than 152 mm plus 25 mm for in elevator cars, shall conform to the
each 0.07 mls of the rated speed in excess of requirements of Sec. 6.4.5.7.
0.15 mls.
6.2.3 Car Doors and Gates. A car door or gate
6.1.4 Between Car and Hoistway Enclosures or which, when closed, will guard the opening to
Counterweight. There shall be a clearance of a height of at least 1680 mm shall be provided
not less than 19 mm between the car and the at each entrance to the car. Car doors may
hoistway enclosure, and between the car and be of solid or openwork construction which will
its counterweight. reject a ball 76 mm in diameter.
6.1.5 Between Car and Landing Sill. The Collapsible car gates shall be of a design that,
clearance between the car platform and the when fuliy closed (extended position), will
landing sill shall be not less than 13 mm nor reject a ball 76 mm in diameter.
more than 38 mm.
a. Car Door or Gate Locking Devices.
6.1.6 Guarding of Suspension Means Where the hoistway enclosure is not
continuous for the full travel of the car, the
a. Suspension Means Passing Through car door or gate shall be provided with a
Floors or Stairs. Ropes and chains mechanical lock that will lock the car door or
passing through a floor or stairway outside gate if the car is more than 152 mm away
the hoistway enclosure shall be enclosed from a landing.
with a solid or openwork enclosure. If or
openwork, the enclosure shall reject a ball b. Car Door or Gate Electric Contacts.
12.70 mm in diameter. Means for inspection Every car door or gate shall be provided
shall be provided. The floor openings shall with an electric contact.
not be larger than is necessary to clear the
suspension means. The design of the car door or gate electric
contacts shall be such that for a sliding door
6.2 Cars or gate, the car cannot move unless the
door or gate is within 51 mm of the closc?d
6.2.1 Car Frames and Platforms. Materials used position. If the door or gi3te swin(3s outward
in construction of car enclosures, frames, and to open, the car door or late musit be closf?d
platforms shall conform to the following: and locked before the car can move.
a. Cars shall have a metal or combination of Light in Car. The car shall be provided with
metal and wood car frames and platforms an electric light. The control switch for the
having a factor or safety of not less than 5 light shall be located in the car and near the
based on rated load. car entrance. The minimum illumination at the
car threshold, with the door closed, shall be
b. Cast iron shall not be used in any member not less than 54 Ax.
of the car frame or platform other than for
guides or guide shoe brackets. 6.3 Safeties and Governors
shall be provided, with a safety conforming to 6.5.4 Replacement of Chains and Sprockets. If
the requirements-ofSection 6.6.3.2. chains are used as a suspension means and a
worm chain is replaced, all chains must be
6.3.2 Operation of Safeties. The car safety shall replaced. If a chain sprocket is replaced due
be of the inertia or other approved type to wear, all sprockets must be replaced.
operated by the breakage of the suspension
means or by the action of a speed governor. Section 7.0 Hand and Power
If of the speed governor type, the governor Dumbwaiters
shall operate the safety at a maximum speed
of 0.38 mls. On the breakage of the 7.1 Hoistways, Hoistway Enclosures, and
suspension means, the safety shall operate elated Construction
without delay and independently of the speed
governor action. 7.1.1 Applicable Requirements. Hoistways,
hoistway enclosures, and related construction
6.4 Limitation of Load, Speed, and Rise shall conform to the requirements of Article
6.3 except for the following Sections which do
6.4.1 Capacity. The rated load shall not exceed 318 not apply:
kg and maximum inside net platform area
shall not exceed 1.1 m2. the minimum rated Sec. 6.3.1.1 (d) Strength of Enclosure
load shall be not less than that based on 1.91
kPa of inside net platform area of 159 kg Sec. 6.3.1.2 Floor Over Hoistways
whichever is greater.
Sec. 6.3.2.1 (a) Enclosures Required
6.4.2 Speed. The rated speed shall not exceed 0.20 for Elevators Having
mls. Fire-Resistive
Hoistway Enclo-sures
6.4.3 Rise. The rise shall not exceed 15 m.
Sec. 6.3.2.2 Equipment in
6.5 Suspension Means Machine Rooms
Suspension Ropes. On elevators having a Sec. 6.3.2.7 Headroom in Machine
rated load of 204 kg or less and operating at a Rooms and Overhead
rated speed of 0.15 m/s or less, ropes shall be Machinery Spaces
not less than 6.3 mm in diameter. Where the
rated load exceeds 204 kg or the rated speed Sec. 6.3.2.8 (b) Ventilation for
exceeds 0.15 mls the ropes shall be not less Machinery and
than 9.5 mm in diameter. Control Equipment
6.5.2 Factor of Safety of Suspension Means.
Sec. 6.3.4 Guarding of Exposed
The factor of safety of the suspension means Auxiliary Equipment
shall be not less than 7 based on the
manufacturer's rated breaking strength. Sec. 6.3.6 Pits
When the car and counterweight are Sec. 6.3.7 Bottom and Top
suspended by steel ropes and the driving Clear-ances and
means is an endless steel roller type chain, Runbys for Elevator
the factor of safety of such chain with the Cars and Count-
rated load in the car shall be not less than 8 erweights
based on the ultimate tensile strength.
Sec. 6.3.8 Horizontal Car . and
6.5.3 Arc of Contact of Suspension Means on Count-erweight
Sheaves and Sprockets. The act of contact Clearance
of a wire rope on a traction sheave shall be
sufficient to produce traction under all load 7.1.2 Enclosures for Machine Rooms and
conditions up to rated load. The arc of contact Machinery Spaces Hand and power
of a chain with a driving sprocket shall not be dumbwaiter machines and their control
less than 140 deg. equipment may be located inside the hoistway
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
enclosure at the top or bottom without conspicuously displayed on the landing side in
intervening enclosures or platforms. letters not less than 51 mm high, the words:
Power dumbwaiter machines and control "DANGER-DUMBWAITERS-KEEP CLOSED."
equipment located outside the hoistway shall
be enclosed as required for electric elevators 7.1.7 Size and Location of Hoistway-Door
by Sec. 6.3.2.1 (a) except that control Openings
equipment located outside the hoistway may
be enclosed in a metal cabinet equipped to a. For Power Dumbwaiters. The size and
prevent access by unauthorized persons. location of openings shall conform to the
following:
7.1.3 Pits. Pits are not required.
I . Size of Openings. The width and
7.1.4 Types of Entrances height of openings shall not exceed
the width and height of the car by
a. For Power Dumbwaiters. Entrances shall more than 25 mm in each
be one of the following types: dimension.
7.1.6 Signs on Hoistway Doors of Hand 7.1.8 Rails for Entrances, Vertical Slide Type.
Dumbwaiters. Every hoistway door shall have The panel guide rails shall conform to the
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
requirements of Sec. 6.3.9.1 (c), except that machines and their control equipment located
they may be fastened only to the entrance inside the hoistway enclosure. Access
frame. openings shall:
7.1.9 Overlap of Entrance Panels for Entrances, (a) be of adequate size and so located as to
Vertical Slide Type. The entrance panels permit required maintenance and inspection;
with their attachments shall overlap the
entrance frame and sill by not less than 12.7 (b) have a maximum width of 610 mm and
mm. maximum height of 610 mm.
7.1.I0 Hoistway-Door Locking Devices (c) be provided with doors which shall be kept
closed and locked.
a. For Power Dumbwaiters
7.2 Cars
1. At landings where the bottom of the
door opening 610 mm or more 7.2.1 Construction of Cars. Cars shall conform to
above the floor, the hoistway doors the following requirements:
shall be provided with hoistway-unit-
system hoist-way door combination a. They shall be of solid openwork
mechanical locks and electric construction, and of such strength and
contacts. stiffness that they will not deform
appreciably when the load leans or falls
2. At landings where the bottom of the against the sides of the cars.
door opening is less than 610 mm
above the floor, the hoistway doors b. Non-metal cars sections shall be reinforced
shall be provided with hoistway-unit- with metal from the bottom of the car to the
system hoistway door interlocks. point of suspension.
a. Maximum Rated Load. The 7.5.3 Belt-Drive Machine. Belts used as the
rated load shall not exceed 1,000 driving means between the motor and the
kilograms. machine of power dumbwaiters shall conform
to the following requirements:
b. Maximum Inside Net Platform
Area. The inside net platform a. Where flat belts are used, the rated speed
area shall not exceed 1.OO square shall be not more than 0.25 mls.
meters.
b. Where multiple V-belts are used, the rated
7.3.2 Capacity Plate. A metal plate shall be speed shall be not more than 0.76 mls.
fastened in a conspicuous place in the car and
shall indicate the rated load in letters and 7.5.4 Driving-Machine Brakes. Electric and hand
numerals not less than 6.3 mm high, stamped, driving machines shall be equipped with
etched, or raised on the surface of the plate. brakes as follows:
7.4 Car and Counterweight Safetles a. Electric driving machines shall have
electrically released brakes applied
7.4.1 Where Required. Car and counterweight automatically by springs in compression or
safeties shall not be required except for by gravity when power is removed from the
protection of spaces below hoistway for all motor.
dumbwaiter cars and counterweights having a
rated load over 11.3 kg. Where required, the b. Hand driving machines shall be equipped
car and counterweight safeties may be with handbrakes or automatic brakes which
operated as a result of breaking the will sustain the car and its rated load. When
suspension means and may be of the inertia the brake is applied, it shall remain locked in
type without governors. Car safeties may be the "On" position until released by the
located in the car crosshead. operator,
7.5 Driving Machines and Sheaves Exception Sec. 6.7.5.4 (b): For rated loads
of 9.1 kg or less, the brake may be omitted
7.5.1 Types of Power Driving Machines provided the machine has sufficient friction
Permitted. Driving machines shall be one of to hold the car and its rated load at any
the following types: floor.
f. Belt-Drive - Single Belt 7.6 Car and Counterweight Guides and Guide
Fastenings
g. Chain-Drive
7.6.1 Guides for Dumbwaiters Having a Capacity
h. Roped-Hydraulic of more than 9.1 kg. Car and counterweight
guides shall be of metal, wood, or wood and
7.5.2 Factor of Safety of Driving Machines and metal bolted together.
Sheaves. Driving machines and sheaves
shall be designed with a factor of safety, 7.6.2 Guides for Dumbwaiters Having a Capacity
based on the static load (the rated load plus of 9.1 kg or less. Car and counterweight
the weight of the car, ropes, counterweights, guides shall be of metal, wood and metal
etc.) of not less than 6 for steels, and 9 for bolted together, metal tubes, or spring steel
cast iron and other materials. wires maintained in tension.
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
7.6.3 Use of the Set of Guides for Car and b. Rated Loads of 34.0 kg or less.
Counterweight. The same set of guides may Dumbwaiters having a rated load of 34.0 or
be used for both the car and counterweight. less may be suspended by manila or
braided-cotton ropes having a factor of
7.6.4 Guide Fastenings and Joints. Guides shall safety of not less than 6.
be securely fastened to the hoistway.
Section 8.0 Escalators
Guide joints shall be either tongue and groove
or doweled and fitted and splice plates. 8.1 Protection of Floor Openings
beveled unless parallel to the direction of provided they meet the requirements of Sec.
travel. 6.8.3.2 (b).
Balustrades shall be designed to resist the Exception Sec. 6.8.3.2 (e): Where the
simultaneous application of a lateral force of clearance of the upper outside edge of the
584 Nlm and vertical load 730 Nlm, both balustrade and the ceiling or soffit is more
applied to the top of the balustrade. than 305 mm or where the intersection of
the outside balustrade and the ceiling or
The skirt panel adjacent to the step shall be soffit is more than 610 mm from the
constructed of material having a smooth centerline of the handrail.
surface. Embossed, perforated, or roughly
textured materials shall not be used. f. Anti-Slide Device. Anti-slide devices shall
be provided on decks or combinations of
Skirt panels shall not deflect more than 1.6 decks when the outer edge of the deck is
mm under a force of 68 kg applied to any greater than 305 mm from the centerline of
exposed point between the upper and lower the handrail or, on adjacent escalators,
combplates. when the distance between the handrails is
greater than 406 mm.
b. Use of Glass or Plastics in Balustrades.
Glass or plastics, if used in balustrades, These devices shall consist of raised objects
shall conform to the requirements of ANSI fastened to the decks, no closer than 102
297.1, except that there shall be no mm to the handrail, and spaced no greater
requirement for the panel to be transparent. than 183 mm, apart. The height shall be not
less than 19 mm. They shall have no sharp
Exception Sec. 6.8.3.2 (b): Plastics corners or edges.
bounded to a basic supporting panel.
8.3.3 Handrail
c. Clearance Between Balustrades and
Steps. The clearance on either side of the a. Type Required. Each balustrade shall be
steps between the step tread and the provided with a handrail moving in the same
adjacent skirt panel shall not be more than direction and at substantially the same
4.8 mm. speed as the steps.
In charging from the greater to the smaller c. Guards. Hand or finger guards shall be
width, the maximum allowable angle of provided at the point where the handrail
change in the balustrade shall be 15 deg. enters the balustrade.
from the line of travel.
d. Distance Between Handrails. The
Guards at Intersections. A solid guard horizontal distance between the centerlines
shall be provided in the intersection of the of the two handrails, measured on the
angle of the outside balustrade (deck board) incline, shall not exceed the width between
and the ceiling of soffit. the balustrades (See Sec. 6.8.3.1) by more
than 152 mm, with a maximum of 76 mm on
The vertical front edge of the guard shall either side of the escalator (see Appendix F,
project at least 356 mm horizontally from the Fig. FI).
apex of the angle. The escalator side of the
vertical face of the guard-shall be flush with 8.3.4 Steps
the face of the well way.
a. Material and Type. Step frames shall be
The exposed edge of the guard shall be made of non-combustible material.
rounded. Guards may be of glass or plastic
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
Steps treads shall be horizontal and made Where tightening devices are operated by
of non-combustible material which will afford means of tension weights, provision shall be
a secure foothold. made to retain the weights in the truss if they
should be released.
Exception: Step tread material may be slow
burning type if covered on the underside 8.3.7 Step Wheel Tracks. Step wheel tracks shall
with sheet metal not less than 0.44mm thick be designed so as to prevent displacement of
or with equivalent fire-resistive material. the steps and running gear if a step chain
breaks.
b. Dimensions of Steps. The depth of any
step tread in the direction of travel shall be 8.3.8 Rated Load
not less than 400 mm, and the rise between
treads shall be not more than 216 mm. The a. Structural. For the purposes of structural
width of a step tread shall be not less than design, the rated load in kilograms shall be
406 mm nor more than 1016 mm. (See considered to be not less than:
Appendix F, Fig. F1)
Structural rated load = 4.6WA
c. Slotting of Step Risers. The step riser shall
be provided with vertical cleats which shall where:
mesh with slots on the adjacent step tread
as the steps made the transition form Incline A = length of the horizontal projection of
to horizontal. the entire truss, mm
d. Slotting of Step Treads. The tread surface W = width of the escalator, mm.
of each step shall be slotted in a direction (see Sec. 6.8.3.1)
parallel to the travel of the steps. Each slot
shall be not more than 6.3 mm wide and not b. Machinery. For the purpose of driving
less than 9.5 mm deep; and the distance machine and power transmission
from center to center of adjoining slots shall calculations, the rated load in kilograms
be not more than 9.5mm. shall be considered to be not less than:
Slots shall be so located on the step tread Machinery rated load = 3.5WB where:
surface as to form a cleat on each side of
the step tread adjacent to the skirt panel. B = 1.32x rise, meter
f. Broken Drive-Chain Device. When the in the passenger carrying line of the track
driving machine is connected to the main system.
drive shaft by a chain, a device shall be
provided which will cause the application of m. Tandem Operation. Tandem operation
the brake on the main drive shaft and also escalators shall be electrically interlocked
stop the drive machine if the drive chain where traffic flow is such that bunching will
parts. occur if the intermediate landing stops.
g. Stop Switch in Machinery Spaces. A stop The interlocks shall stop the escalator
switch, conforming to the requirements of carrying passengers into lmmon
Sec. 6.4.1 1.3 (e), shall be provided in each intermediate landing if the esi arrying
machinery space where means of access to passengers away from the stops.
the space is provided. This switch, when These escalators shall also be electrically
opened, shall cause the electric power to be interlocked to assure that they run in the
removed from the escalator driving machine same direction.
motor and brake.
8.5.5 Signs. A caution sign shall be located at the
Exception [Sec. 6.8.5.4 (g)]: Machinery top and bottom landing of each escalator,
spaces in which main line disconnect switch readily visible to the boarding passengers.
is located. The sign shall include the following wording:
i. Rolling Shutter Device. Rolling shutters, if The sign shall be standard for all escalators
used, shall be provided with a device which and shall be identical in format, size, color,
shall be actuated as the shutter begin to wording and pictorials as shown in Fig. F2
close to cause the opening of the power Appendix F.
circuit to the escalator driving machine
motor and brake. The sign shall be durable and have a
maximum thickness of 6.5 mm with rounded
j. Reversal Stop Device. Means shall be or beveled corners and edges.
provided to cause the opening of the power
circuit to the driving-machine motor and 8.5.6 Access to Interior. Reasonable access to
brake in case of accidental reversal of travel the interior of the escalator shall be provided
while the escalator is operating in the for inspection and maintenance.
ascending direction.
Section 9.0 Moving Walks
k. Step Demarcation Lights. Green step
demarcation lights located below the step 9.1 Design Requirements
shall be located at both landing in an area
not to exceed 406 mm from combplate. 9.1.1 Direction of Passage. Passage from a
There shall be a minimum of two fluorescent landing to a treadway or vice versa shall be in
lamp fixtures at each landing. The lamps the direction of treadway travel at the point of
shall be activated whenever the escalator is passenger entrance or exit.
in operation.
9.1.2 Load Rating
I. Step Upthrust Device. Means shall be
provided to cause the opening of the power a. Structural. For the purpose of structural
circuit to the escalator driving machine design, the load rating shall be considered
motor and brake should a step be displaced to be not less than 4.78 kPa of exposed
against the upthrust tract at the lower curve treadway.
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
b. Machinery. For the purpose of brake c. Grooving. The treadway surface shall be
treadway, and power transmission grooved in a direction parallel to its travel for
calculations, the load rating shall be the purpose of meshing with combplates at
considered to be not less than 3.69 kPa of the landings. Each groove shall be not
exposed treadway. more than 6.3 mm wide at the treadway
surface and not less than 4.8 mm deep; and
9.1.3 Width the distance from center to center of
adjoining grooves shall be not more than 13
a. Limitations. The width of movina walk (the mm. Sides of grooves may slope for mold
exposed vvidth oft1readway)I shall 'Jbe not less draft purposes and may be filleted at the
ttian 560 mm. T'he maximum wicjth shall bottom.
depend tloth on the ma:ximum t readway
slope at any point on the treadway, and on 9.1.5 Belt Pallet Type Treadway. Belt pallet type
the treadway speed. The width shall not treadways shall conform to the following:
exceed the value shown in Table 6.9.1.3 (a).
a. Factor of Safety. Pallet connecting chains
b. Change in Width. The exposed width of or other connecting devices between pallets,
treadway shall not be decreased in the and pallets where part of the propelling
direction of travel. system, shall have a factor of safety of not
less than 10 based on ultimate strength.
T'his wid1:h requirement applied only to
IT loving utalks having entrance to or exit b. Splices. Splicing of the treadway belt shall
fr.om landings. It is not intended to Ipreclude be made in such a manner as to result in a
developmlent of moving \~ a l ksys#terns in continuous unbroken treadway surface of
urhich chalnges in width art$ made :safe and the same characteristics as the balance of
PI a ~ u b a ~by direct passaye srr
w--+:--l .---
IIdm one the belt.
treadway to another, subject passage from
one treadway to another, subject to the c. Grooving. The treadway surface shall be
approval of the enforcing authority. grooved in direction ~arallelto its travel for
the purpo:se of me!shing with comb1dates at
Table 6.9.1.3 (a) the landin1gs. Each groove shall not be more
Treadway Width than 4.8 Imm deel3; and tti e distarIce from
center to center o4 adjoinilly yluudes shall
P.m--.
mP.
Maximum Moving Walk Treadway Width, in be not nnore thzin 12.70 mm slides of
Max.
Above 90 Above 140 grooves nlay slopt for mold draft purposes
fprn fprn to 140 fprn to 180
Treadway Max. and may LC=Glln+..rl
.n
Illtaiau at the bottom.
9.1.4 Belt Type Treadway. Belt type treadways 9.1.6 Pallet Type Treadway. Pallet type treadways
shall conform to the following: shall conform to the following:
a. Factor of Safety. Belt type treading shall a. Factor of Safety. Pallet connecting chains
be designed with a factor of safety of not or other connecting devices between pallets,
less than 5 based on ultimate strength. and pallets where part of the propelling
system, shall have a factor of safety of not
b. Splices. Splicing of the treadway belt shall less than 10 based on ultimate strength.
be made in such a manner as to result in a
continuous unbroken treadway surface of b. Grooving. The treadway surface of each
the same characteristics as the balance of pallet shall be grooved in a direction parallel
the belt. to its travel. Each groove shall be not more
than 6.3 mm wide at the treadway surface
and not less than 4.8 mm deep; and the
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
distance from center to center of adjoining the slider bed shall be reasonably smooth.
grooves shall be not more than 13 mm. It shall be so constructed and it will not
Sides of the grooves may slope for mold support combustion.
draft purposes and may be filleted the
bottom. b. Roller Bed. Where the treadway is
supported on a series of rollers, the
c. lntermeshing Pellets. Alternate cleats on combination of roller spacing, belt tension,
adjacent pallets hsall intermesh so that and belt stiffness shall be such that the
there is no continuous transverse gap deflection of the treadway surface, midway
between adjacent pallets. between roller, shall not exceed the quantity
0.239 mm plus 0.004 times the center to
d. Alignment of Pallet Tread Surfaces. center distance of rollers in millimeter when
Adjacent ends of pallets shall not vary in measures as follows:
elevation more than 1.6 mm.
The treadway surface shall be loaded
9.1.7 Treadway Slope. The slope of the treadway midway between rollers with a 11.3 kg
shall not exceed 3 degrees within 914 mm of weight concentrated on a cylindrical
the entrance and exit and shall not exceed 12 footpiece 51 mm long by 25 mm in diameter
degrees at any point. placed with its long axis across the belt.
Deflection of this footpiece from its unloaded
9.1.8 Speed. Treadway speed shall conform to the position shall not exceed the figure obtained
following: above.
a. Maximum Speed. The maximum speed of The rollers shall be conventric and true
a treadway shall depend on the maximum running within commercially acceptable
slope at any point on the treadway. This tolerances.
speed shall not exceed the value
determined by Table 6.9.1.8 (a).
c. Edge Supported Belt. When the treadway
b. Higher Speeds. The maximum speeds belt is transversely rigid and is supported by
listed in Table 6.9.1.8 (a) apply only to rollers along its edges, the following
moving walks having an entrance or exit to requirements shall apply:
landings. It is not intended to preclude
development of moving walk systems in 1. With the belt tensioned through the
which higher speeds are made safe take-up system, the permissible
. practical, subject to the approval of the slope of a straight line from the top
enforcing authority. of a treadway rib adjacent to the
balustrade, in a plane perpendicular
Table 6.9.1.8 (a) to the path of the treadway shall not
Tread Speed exceed 3% when the treadway is
loaded with a 68 kg weight on a 152
Maximum Treadway Slope Maximum Treadway mm by 254 mm plate located on the
At any Point on Treadway, deg. Speed, fpm centerline of the treadway with 254
0 to 8 180 mm dimension in the direction of
Above 8 to 12 140 treadway travel.
d. Pallet and Belt Pallet Type. Pallet wheel 3. Balustrades shall be designed to
tracks shall be so designed and located as resist the simultaneous application
to prevent more than 3.2 mm vertical of a lateral force of 584 Nlm and a
displacement of the treadway should the vertical load of 730 Nlm , both
pallet connection means break. applied to the top of the
balustrades.
9.1.10 Threshold Plates. The entrance to or exit
from a moving treadway shall be provided with b. Geometry. The height of the balustrade
a threshold plate designed and installed to shall be not less than 838 mm nor more
provide smooth passage between treadway than 1070 mm from the treadway to the top
and landing and vice versa and it shall of handrail, measured perpendicular to the
conform to the following: treadway surface. The handrail shall be a
minimum of 102 mm horizontally and 25 mm
a. Type Required. The threshold plate shall vertically away from adjacent surfaces. The
be provided with a comb. center line of the handrail shall be not more
than 254 mm, measured horizontally, from
b. Clearance. The threshold comb teeth shall the vertical plane through the edge of the
be meshed with a set into the grooves in exposed treadway (see Appendix F, Fig.
treadway surface so the points of the teeth F3).
are always below the upper surface of the
treadway. c. Clearance with Treadway. If the balustrade
covers the edge of the treadway, the
c. Surface. The surface of the plate shall clearance between the top surface of the
afford a secure foothold. The surface shall treadway and the underside of the
be smooth from the point of intersection of balustrade shall not exceed 6.3 mm. Where
the comb teeth and upper surface of the skirt panels are used, the horizontal
treadway, for a distance not exceeding 102 clearance on either side of the treadway
mm and not less than 25 mm. between the treadway and the adjacent skirt
panel shall be not more than 6.3 mm.
9.1.1 1 Balustrades. Moving walks shall be provided
with an enclosed balustrade on each side 9.1. I 2 Guards at Ceiling Intersections.
conforming to the following:
a. A solid guard shall be provided in the
a. Construction intersecting angle of the outside balustrade
(deck board) and the ceiling or soffit.
1. Balustrades without moving
handrails shall be designed so as to Exceptions:
provide no surfaces which can be
gripped by a passenger. On the (1)Where the distance from the face of the
treadway side, the balustrade shall wellway to the centerline of the handrail
have no areas or moldings is more than 610 mm.
depressed or raised more than 6.3
mm from the parent surface. Such (2) Where the clearance between the face of
areas or moldings shall have all the well way and the upper outside edge
boundary surfaces beveled unless of the balustrade is more than 305 mm.
parallel to the direction of travel.
The balustrade shall extend at b. The horizontal length of the guard shall be
normal height not less than 305 mm such that the vertical edge of the guard shall
beyond the end of the exposed be at least 191 mm high. The moving walk
treadway. side of the vertical face of the guard shall be
flush with the face of the wellway. The
2. Glass or plastics panels, if used in exposed edge of the guard shall be
the balustrades shall conform to the rounded. Guards may be of glass or plastic
requirements of ANSI 297.1, except provided they meet the requirements of
that there shall be no requirement Section 6.9.1 .I1 (a) (2).
for the panels to be transparent.
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
9.1.13 Handrails. Handrails shall conform to the gravity under any load condition up to and
following: including the rated load condition up to and
including the rated load with the power
a. Number Required. Two moving handrails supply interrupted do not require brakes.
shall be provided on each moving walk.
c. Application of Brakes. Electrically
Exception: A single moving handrail may be released brakes specified in Sc. 6.9.1 . I 4 (b)
used for moving walks having a slope of 3 shall stop the treadway automatically upon
degrees or less, a speed of (0.36 mls), or failure of power or when any of the safety
less and a width of 610 mm or less. devices specified in Section 6.9.2 operate.
Brakes on the main drive shaft, if not of the
b. Location. The moving handrail at both the electrically released type, shall be applied
entrance and exit landings shall extend at should the drive chain part.
normal height not less than 305 mm beyond
the end of the exposed treadway. The point d. Speed Reducers. Speed reducers shall
at which the moving handrail enters or meet the requirements for design and
leaves an enclosure shall be-not more than application as established for various types
254 mm above the floor line. in the appropriate Gear Manufacturer's
Practice Standards.
c. Handrail Guards. Hand or finger guards
shall be provided at the points where the The loading shall be considered to be
handrails enter the enclosures. uniform and the service to be 24 hours per
day.
d. Enclosure. The moving handrail return run
and its driving and supporting machinery e. Chain Drives. Chain drives shall be of the
shall be fully enclosed. types covered by ANSI B29.1 and
ANSllSAE SP-68.
Speed. Each moving handrail shall move in
the same direction and at substantially the When operating at the load rating of the
same speed as the treadway. treadway, the load imposed on such chains
shall not exceed the horsepower rating as
9.1 . I 4 Drive, Motor and Brake established by these standards.
Where a chain is used to connect the driving g. Other Components. Pallet propelling
machine to the main drive shaft, a brake chains and drive and breaking components
shall be provided on the main drive shaft. It other than those specified shall have a
is not required that this brake be of the factor of safety of not less than 10.
electrically-released type if an electrically-
released brake is provided on the driving
machine. 9.1.1 5 Supporting Structure. The supporting
structure for the treadway, balustrades, and
Exception [Sec. 6.9.1.14(b)]: Moving walks machinery shall conform to the requirements
which will not run in the down direction bv of the AlSC Specification for Design,
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for where the brake is directly coupled to
Buildings. the driving machine and where a device
is provided that will cause interruption of
9.2 Operating and Safety Devices, Electrical power to the motor and apply the brake
Equipment and Wiring should the belts or chains lose tension
of brake.
9.2.1 Devices Required. Operating and safety
devices shall be provided conforming to the e. Broken Treadway Device for Belt Pallet
following requirements: Type and Pallet Type. A device shall be
provided which will cause interruption of
a. Starting Switch. Starting switches shall be power to the driving machine and to the
of the key-operated type and shall be brake, where provided, if the connecting
located upper or lower landing so that the means between pallets break.
exposed treadway is within sight.
f. Power Interruption. Where a device is
b. Emergency Stop Switches. Emergency required to interrupt power, such interruption
stop buttons or other types of manually shall not be subject to intentional delay. The
operated switches having red buttons or use of a supplemental and independent
handles shall be accessibly located at every device with or without intentional delay is
entrance to the exit from a moving walk, and permissible.
shail be protected against accidental
operation. The operation of any of these Stop Switch in Machinery Spaces. n srop
buttons or switches shall interrupt the power switch conforming to the requirements of
to the driving machine and to the brake, Sec. 6.4.1 1.3 (e) shall be provided in each
where provided. It shall be impossible to machinery space where means of access to
start the driving machine by these buttons or the space is provided. This switch, when
witches. opened, shall cause electrical power to be
removed from the driving machine motor
. Jroken Drive-Chain Switch. Where the and brake.
driving machine is connected to the main
drive shaft by a chain, and where a brake is Exception: Machinery space in w(hich the
located on the main drive shaft when main line disconnect switch is locate-.
!d
required by Sec. 6.9.1.14 (b), a device shall
be provided which will cause application of h. Rolling Shutter Device. Rolling shutters if
the brake should the drive chain part. used, shall be provided with a device which
shall be actuated as the shutters begin to
d. Speed Governor. Moving walks required close to cause the opening of the power
by Sec. 6.9.1.14 (b) to be equipped with a circuit to the moving walk driving machine
brake, or which are driven by a direct motor and brake.
current motor, shall be provided with a
speed governor which will cause the
interruption of power to the driving machine
and to the brake, where provided, should
the speed of the treadway exceed a pre-
determined speed which shall be not more
than 40% above the maximum designed
treadway speed.
Chapter 7
Definitions:
Locomotive Boiler - a boiler mounted on a self-
Boiler or Steam Generator - a closed vessel propelled track locomotive and used to furnish
intended for use in heating water or for application of motivating power for traveling on rails. (It does not
heat to generate-steam or other vapor to be used include locomotive cranes, tractors, or other self-
externally to itself. propelled apparatus). Locomotive boilers however, if
dismantled from locomotive and reinstalled for
-
Coal-Fired Boiler used stokered water temperature stationary use, are not included in this definition.
coal or pulverized coal for water-tube.
Low Pressure Heating Boiler - a boiler operated at a
Condemned Boiler Unfired Pressure Vessel - a Pre ot exceeding 1.055 kg/cm2 gage steam
boiler or unfired pressure vessel that has been wa' ?rature not exceeding 121"C.
inspected and declared unsafe to operate or
disqualified, stamped and marked indicating its Medium Pressure Heating Boiler - a boiler operated
rejection by qualified inspecting authority. at pressure not exceeding 103.5 MPa gage steam, or
water temperature not exceeding 130°C.
Existing Installations - any boiler or unfired pressure
vessel constructed, installed, placed in operation but Miniature Boiler - as used in this Code herein mean
subject to periodic inspection. any boiler which does not exceed any of the following
limits: 405 mm inside diameter, 1065 mm overall
External lnspection - an inspection made on the length of outside of heads at center, 1.85rn2 of water
external parts, accessories and/or component even heating surface, 7.03 kg/cm2 maximum allowable
when a boiler or unfired pressure vessel is in working pressure.
operation.
New Boiler or Unfired Pressure Vessel Installation
Fire Tube Boiler - a boiler where heat is applied - include all boilers and unfired pressure vessels
inside the tube. constructed, installed, placed in operation or
constructed for.
Fusion Welding - a process of welding metals in a
molten and vaporous state, without the application of Oil-Fired Boiler - uses Bunker C as fuel for heating
mechanical pressure or blows. Such welding may be boiler and power boiler.
accomplished by the oxy-acetylene or hydrogen flame
or by electric arc. Thermal welding is also classified Portable Boiler - an internally fired boiler which is
as fusion welding. self-contained and primarily intended for temporary
location and the construction and usage is obviously
Gas-Fired Boiler - uses natural gas or liquefied portable.
petroleum gas (LPG) for heating boiler, fire tube or
water-tube type. Power Boiler - a closed vessel in which steam or
other vapor (to be used externally to itself) is
Heat-Recovery Steam Generator - unfired pressure generated at a pressure of more than 1.055 kg/cm2
vessel that uses flue gas heat. gage by the direct application of heat.
Internal Inspection - an inspection made when a ASME Boiler Construction Code - The term, ASME
boiler or unfired pressure vessel is shut down and Boiler Construction Code, shall mean the Boiler
handholes, manholes, or other inspection openings Construction Code of the American Society of
are opened or removed for inspection of the interior. Mechanical Engineers with amendments and
interpretations thereto made and approved by the
Council of the Society.
CHAPTER 7 - BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
Reinstalled Boiler or Unfired Pressure Vessel - a permit and other permits necessary should
boiler or unfired pressure vessel removed from its also be stipulated on the plan.
original setting and re-erected at the same location or
erected at a location without change of ownership. b. Detailed assembly plan of boiler should
show all appendages indicating instruments,
Second Hand Boiler or Unfired Pressure Vessel - panels if any for controls and all safety
as used herein shall mean a boiler or unfired pressure devices. Details should show actual joints,
vessel of which both the location and ownership have riveting, welding, thickness of plates, tubes,
been changed after primary use. fusible plugs etc. Steam conditions like
temperature, pressure, degrees superheat
Steam System - comprises steam generation, should be indicated.
distribution, and utilization. It includes fuel, combustion
air, feedwater, combustion system, steam quality and c. Piping drawing, preferably in isometric
efficiency. drawing showing elevations headers, leads
to headers preferably from the bottom,
Unfired Pressure Vessel - a vessel in which branches from headers, preferably from the
pressure is obtained from an external source, or from top, expansion joints, pipes covering sizes,
an indirect application of heat. fittings and valves and method support.
Waste-Heat Boiler - unfired pressure vessel that d. All plans and specification should be
uses flue gas heat from waste incinerator. prepared under supervision of a
Professional Mechanical Engineer and
Water Tube Boiler - a boiler where heat is applied should have his signature and seal on every
outside the tube. page, regardless of boiler horsepower.
a. General Layout giving a plan view, a. Although not to be used for passage, boiler
longitudinal view and at least a front view rooms should be provided with two doors
showing location of boiler with respect to preferably on opposite ends or sides which if
building, location, size and height of smoke locked may be opened without key from the
stack, location of steam generator auxiliaries inside.
and location and size of fuel supply.
Building permit and location plan of the b. As the room air is usually the source of
same, Electrical permit, Fire Department combustion air, sufficient ventilation from
outside should be provided.
CHAPTER 7 - BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
a. Brickwork should be provided with sufficient d. Where two or more steam boilers will be
expansion joints both vertically and connected in parallel, each steam outlet
horizontally to take care of expansion at should be provided with a non-return valve
operating temperature. and a shut off valve.
b. Insulating castables is used for medium e. Only steam pressure sufficient for
pressure boiler. requirements should be allowed. No high
pressure will be generated just to be
1.5 No structural stress other than its own weight reduced on the line to suit requirements.
should be imposed on any brickwork and in no
case should the full weight or part weight of f. All construction features of boiler should be
steam boiler or its appurtenances be supported in conformity with the ASME Boiler
on brickwork. Construction Code when available or its
equivalent. (JIS, ASTM, IS0 Standards).
1.6 No steam boiler should be enclosed or walled-in
without authorization and inspection by g. All boiler installations, including reinstalled
authorized government representative and who boilers, shall be installed in accordance with
will conduct a hydrostatic test of 130% of the requirements of the latest revision of the
stipulated working pressure. A.S.M.E. Boiler Construction Code and/or
Rules and Regulations provided herein.
1.7 Ceiling Clearance
h. Ladders and Catwalks. A steel catwalk or
a. When boilers are replaced or new boilers platform at least 455 mm wide and provided
are installed in either existing or new with standard handrails and toe-board on
buildings, a minimum height of at lest 2,130 either side shall be installed across the tops
mm shall be provided between the top of the of adjacent boilers or at some other
boiler proper and the ceiling except in single convenient level for the Durpose of affording
installation of self-contained boilers where a safe access to the All catwalks shall
minimum height of at least 915 mm shall be have at least two I ' exit, each exit to
provided between the highest point of any be remotely loca I the other, and
valve stem or fitting and the ceiling. connected to a permanent stairway or
inclined ladder leading to the floor level.
I.8 Other Requirements
Section 2.0 Specific Requirements for
a. All boilers and unfired pressure vessels shall Fired Tube Boilers
be so located that adequate space will be
provided for the operation of the Maximum Allowable Working Pressure. The
boiler and its appurtenances, for the maximum allowable working pressure on the
inspection of all surfaces, tubes, water walls, shell of a boiler or drum shall be determined by
economizers, piping, valves and other the strength of the weakest SECTION OF THE
equipment and for their necessary STRUCTURE, computed from the thickness of
maintenance and repair. the plate, the tensile strength of the plate, the
efficiency of the longitudinal joint, OR TUBE
b. Smokestacks should be of sufficient LIGAMENTS, the inside diameter of the outside
capacity to handle flue gases, self- course and the factor of safety by these rules.
CHAPTER 7 - BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
The resistance to crushin of mild steel shall 1. The use of weighted-lever safety
9
be taken at 655.17 N/mm of cross sectional valves shall be prohibited and direct
area. spring-loaded pop type valves shall
replace these valves.
Factor of Safety
2. Safety valves having either the seat
a. The Professional Mechanical Engineer shall or disc of cast iron shall not be
increase the following factors of safety shall used.
be increased if the condition and safety of
the boilers demand it. 3. Each boiler shall have at least one
safety valve and if it has more than
b. The lowest factor of safety permissible on 46.5 m2 of water heating surface or
existing installations shall be 4.5 except for the generating capacity exceeds
horizontal return tubular boilers having 910 kglhr, it shall have two (2) or
continuous lap seams more than 3,650mm more safety valves.
in length where the factor of safety shall be
9, and when this latter type of boiler is
CHAPTER 7 - BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
b. A boiler having more than 46.5 m2 of water steam connection to the water column. The
heating surface shall have at least two steam gage shall be connected to a siphon
means of feeding, one of which shall be an or equivalent device of sufficient capacity to
approved feed pump or injector. Where a keep the gage tube filled with water and so
source of feed directly from pressure mains arranged that the gage cannot be shut off
is available at sufficient pressure to feed the from the boiler except by a cock placed near
boiler against a pressure 6 percent greater the gage and provided with a tee or level
than the release pressure of the safety valve handle arranged to be parallel to the pipe in
with the highest release setting, this may be which it is located when the cock is open.
considered one of the means.
d. When a steam gage connection longer than
c. The feed piping to the boiler shall be 2,440 mm becomes necessary, a shut off
provided with two check valves near the valve may be used provided the boiler is of
boiler and a valve near the pump. When the outside screw and yoke type and is
two or more boilers are fed from a common locked open. The line shall be ample size
source, there shall also be a valve on the with provision for free blowing.
branch to each boiler between the check
vale and the boiler. When two or more e. Each boiler shall be provided with a 6.35
boilers are fed from a common source, there mm nipple and globe valve connected to the
shall also be a valve on the branch to each steam space for the exclusive purpose of
boiler between the check valve and source attaching a test gage when the boiler is in
supply. Whenever a globe valve is used on service so that the accuracy of the boiler
feed piping, the inlet shall be under the disc steam gage may be ascertained.
of the valve.
f. Each stem outlet from a boiler (except
d. Where deaerating heaters are not safety valve connections) shall be fitted with
employed, it is recommended that the a stop valve located as close as practicable
temperature of the feedwater be not less to the boiler.
than 102°C to avoid the possibility of setting
up localized stress. Where deaerating g. When a stop valve is so located that water
heaters are employed, it is recommended can accumulate, ample drains shall be
that the minimum feedwater temperature be provided. The drainage shall be piped to a
not less than 197°C so that dissolved gases safe location and shall not be discharged on
may be thoroughly released. the top of the boiler or its setting.
2.6 Gages and Gage Connections - Fire Tube h. When boilers provided with manholes are
Boilers connected to a common steam line, the
steam connection from each boiler shall be
a. Each boiler shall have three or more gage fitted with two stop valves having an ample
cocks, located within the range of the visible free flow drain between them. The
length of the water glass, except when such discharge of this drain shall be visible to the
boiler has two water glasses with operator while manipulating the valves and
independent connections to the boiler, shall be piped clear of the boiler setting.
located on the same horizontal line and not The stop valves shall consist preferably of
less than 610 mm apart. one automatic non-return valve and a
second valve of the outside-screw and yoke
b. For all installations where the water gage tyPe.
glass or glasses are more than 9,000 mm
from the boiler operating floor, it is 2.7 Blow Off Connections - Fire Tube Boiler
recommended that water level indicating or
recording gages be installed at eye height a. The cons;truction of the setting around each
from the operating floor. I310w-off 1pipe shall permit of free expansion
c. Each steam boiler shall have steam gage, ..-A
bl bvl liraction. Careful attention shall be
nnm4
with dial range not less than one and one- given to the problem of sealing these setting
half (1%) times and not more than twice the openings without restricting the movement
maximum allowable working pressure, of the blow-off piping.
connected to the steam space or to the
CHAPTER 7 - BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
g. All cases not specifically covered by these In those cases where the boiler is
rules and regulations shall be treated as supplied with feedwater directly
New Installations or may be referred to the from a pressure main or system
government agency for instructions without the use of a mechanical
concerning the requirements. feeding device, the safety valve
shall be set to release at a pressure
Section 3.0 Specific Requirements for not in excess of ninety-four (94)
Miniature Boilers percent of the lowest pressure
obtained in the supply main or
3.1 New Boiler Installations system feeding the boiler. Return
traps shall not be considered
a. No Miniature Boiler, except reinstalled mechanical feeding devices.
boilers and those exempted by these Rules
and Regulations, shall hereafter be installed d. Water Gage Glass
unless it has been constructed/ inspected
and stamped in conformity with ASME Boiler 1. Each miniature boiler shall be
Construction Code and is approved, equipped with water gage glass for
registered and inspected in accordance with the determination of water level.
these Rules and Regulations.
CHAPTER 7 - BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
2. The lowest permissible water level where the boiler is operated without
shall be at a point one-third (113) of extraction of steam (closed system).
the height of the shell, except where
the boiler is equipped with internal 4. Feedwater shall not be introduced
furnace, in which case it shall be not through the water column or gage
less than one-third of the tube glass connections while the boiler is
length above the top of the furnace. under pressure.
a) Where the boiler is connected to Each miniature boiler shall be equipped with
a water main or system having a steam gage having a dial range not less
sufficient pressure to feed the than one and one-half (1%) times and not
boiler at any time while under more than twice the maximum allowable
pressure. working pressure. The gage shall be
connected to the steam space or to the
b) Where the fuel burned is such steam connection to the gage glass by a
that all heat input can be brass or bronze composition siphon tube, or
discontinued instantaneously by equivalent device that will keep the gage
the operation of a valve, cock, tube filled with water.
or switch, thereby permitting the
boiler pressure to be quickly h. The steam piping from a miniature shall be
lowered to a point where water provided with a stop valve located as close
can be introduced from the to the boiler shell or drum as is practicable,
connection to the water main. except in those cases where the boiler and
steam receiver are operated as closed
c) Where the boiler is operated system.
without extraction of steam
(closed system) in which case i. For installations which are gas-fired, the
the boiler is filled, when cold, burners used shall conform to the
through the connections or requirements of the American Gas
opening provided in accordance Association, as stated in the ASME Boiler
with the following rule. Construction Code.
2. Each miniature boiler shall be fitted Iach gas-fired boiiler shall be equil:)ped with
with a feedwater connection which I 100 mnn vent pipe or flue extendled to an
shall not be less than 12.7 mm iron ~pprovedlocatiorI outside! the building or
pipe size. The feed piping shall be connected to a chimney flue. Where the
provided with a check valve near horizontal run is more than 3,050 mm the
the boiler and a valve or check vent shall be increased to 152 mm. A draft
between the check valve boiler. hood approved design shall be provided on
each boiler.
3. Feedwater may be introduced
through the blow-off connection
CHAPTER 7 - BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
Section 4.0 Specific Requirements for The valves shall be set to relieve at or below
Low-Pressure Heating Boilers the maximum allowable working pressure of
the boiler and so arranged that they cannot
be reset to relieve at a higher pressure of
4.1 New Installation the boiler.
a. No Heating Boiler, except re-installed boilers Each relief valve shall have a substantial
and those exempted by these Rules and device which will positively lift the disc from
Regulations, shall hereafter be installed its seat at least 1.5 mm when there is no
unless it has been constructed, inspected pressure on the boiler.
and stamped in conformity with ASME Boiler
Construction Code or its equivalent and is c. Steam Gage
approved, registered and inspected in
accordance with the requirements of these Each steam boiler shall have a steam
Rules and Regulations. pressure gage connected to the steam
space near the boiler itself. The ranges of
b. All new installation boilers, including re- the steam gage shall not be less than 1.0
installed boilers, must be installed in bar nor more than 2.0 bars.
accordance with the requirements of the
latest revision of the ASME Boiler d. Water Gage Glass and Gage Cocks
Construction Code or its equivalent and
these Rules and Regulations. Each steam boiler shall have at least one
water gage glass with the lowest visible part
4.2 General Requirements above the heating surfaces in primary
combustion chamber. When, in the
If in the judgment of the Engineer based on the judgment of an Engineer, the heating
following and other requirements, a steam surfaces above the low water line may be
heating boiler is unsafe for operation at the injured by contact with gases of high
pressure previously approved, the pressure temperature, the water gage shall be raised
shall be reduced, proper repair made or the until the lowest visible part of the gage glass
boiler retired from service. is above such heating surface.
a. Safety Valves Each steam boiler shall have two or more
gage cocks located within the visible length
Each steam heating boiler shall be provided of the water gage glass; except when such
with one or more safety valves with a total boiler is provided with two water gage
area of not less than 25.4m2 for each 0.465 glasses.
m2 of grate area, or equivalent, if grates are
not used. It is further provided that the e. Stop Valves and Check Valves
steam relieving capacity of the safety valve
or valves on any boiler shall be sufficient to
If a boiler may be closed off from the heating
prevent a boiler pressure greater than 1.4 system by closing a steam stop valve, there
kg/cm2. If there is any doubt as to the shall be a check valve in the condensate
capacity of the safety valve, an
return line between the boiler and the
accumulation test shall be run. system.
No stop valve of any description shall be
If any part of heating system may be closed
located between a boiler and its safety
off from the remainder of the system by
valve; nor in the safety valve discharge pipe. closing a steam stop valve, there shall be
The safety valve may be located on a main
steam pipe connection at the boiler. a check valve in the condensate return pipe
from that part of the system.
b. Water Relief Valves
f. Feedwater Connection
Each Hot Water Heating or Hot Water
Supply boiler shall have one or more relief Feedwater connections shall be
valves of the spring-loaded type without disc independent of any water gage connection
guides on the pressure side of the valve.
CHAPTER 7 - BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
and be made to the condensate return pipe Rupture discs or safety heads may be used
or reservoir of the condensate return pump. for additional protection of pressure vessels.
There should be a stop valve and a check
valve in the feedwater line at the boiler. 5.2 Existing Installations
Particular attention should also be given to the When boiler or boiler parts are suspended, the
tube ends, tubesheets, and drums. The plant supports and settings should be examined
inspector should note any corrosion or carefully, especially at point when the boiler
cracking of the tubesheets, tube ends, structure comes near the setting walls or floor
furnaces, or drums, signs of leaking tubes, to make sure that the ash and soot will not
excessive thinning of the tubes from repeated restrict the boiler and produce excessive
rolling, and the condition of any ferrules and strains due to thermal expansion under
nipples within the drums. operating conditions.
The plant inspector should note any evidence 6.3.12 Lap Joints
of corrosion or cracking due to leakage at
manholes and handholes. Boilers with riveted lap joints are apt to crack
where the plates lap in the longitudinal or
CHAPTER 7 - BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
straight seam. If there is any sign of leakage solid particles should be inspected carefully
or other distress at this joint, it should be for erosion. The inspector should inspect
investigated thoroughly to determine if cracks baffles and walls, particularly for holes, which
exist in the seam. Any cracks noted in the may permit short circuiting of gases. The plant
shell plate are usually dangerous. inspector should inspect soot blowers, where
used, and also the boiler tubes for cutting or
6.3.13 Fire Surfaces erosion due to discharge from the blower
nozzles. The plant inspector should enter the
Particular attention should be given to plate or furnace for the inspection of the exterior of
tube surfaces exposed to fire. The plant tubes, drums, brickwork, and baffles.
inspector should observe whether any part of
the boiler has become deformed during In watertube boiler, it should be noted whether
operation by bulging or blistering. If bulges or the proper flue gas baffling is in place. The
blisters are large enough to seriously weaken deterioration of baffling often causes high
the plate or tube, or if water is leaking such a temperature on portions of the boiler structure,
defect, the boiler should remain out of service which are not intended for such temperatures
until the defective part or parts have received and may result in a dangerous condition. The
proper repairs. Careful observation should be location of combustion arches with respect to
made to detect leakage from any part of the tube surfaces should be noted to make sure
boiler structure, particularly in the vicinity of they do not cause the flame to impinge on a
seams and tube ends. particular part of the boiler and produce
overheating.
The plant inspector should inspect the setting
for cracks and settlement. Where brickwork is In vertical watertube boilers, the bridgewalls
used as insulation of steel supporting should be inspected to see that the mud drum
members, it should be examined to see that it is properly protected. In sectional and non-
is in good condition and that the air space, if sectional header-type watertube boilers, the
any, is maintained. The furnace refractory front and rear walls should be examined to
should be examined for spalling, and make sure that the bottoms of the headers are
settlement. properly protected. Tile or refractory for
protection of drums should be examined
6.3.14 Watertube Boilers carefully to make sure that drum plates are not
exposed directly to furnace flames or gases. A
The interior of the tubes should be examined defective condition of refractory andlor
for scale and deposits. Tube ends should be insulation can be detected during operation by
examined for wastage of metal, brittleness, location of hot spots on the casing or other
and short tubes. outer covering of the furnace and boiler.
Furnace wall headers that are partially The surface of tubes should be carefully
exposed to radiant should be inspected inspected to detect bulges, cracks, or any
carefully for any evidence of cracking. Drums, evidence or defective welds. Where there is
tubes, and headers of boilers fired by coal or a high gas velocity, the tubes may become
other fuels containing or producing abrasive eroded by the impingement by particles of
CHAPTER 7 - BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
fuel and ash. A leak from a tube frequently The plant inspector should inspect the boiler
causes serious erosion action on a number for alignment, setting, loss of plumb, or
of tubes in its immediate vicinity. The abnormal movement such as displacement of
exterior of the tubes should be inspected for drums or other pressure parts. He should
scale and deposits. The space between the ensure that provisions are made for expansion
tubes should be made visible by lowering a and contraction of the boiler and setting, that
small light between them for the purpose of external clearances for boiler expansion are
making sure that there is no restriction of unobstructed, and that all supports are in
circulation. proper condition to carry loads imposed on
them. Permanent reference marks or
6.4.10.2 Ligaments Between Tube Holes indicators on drums and headers are
recommended to enable rechecking their
The ligaments between tube holes in the position (both hot and cold). The plant
heads of all fire tube boilers should be inspector should verify that proper expansion
inspected. If leakage is noted, broken movement occurs as the boiler is returned to
ligaments could be the reason. service after an outage. Water sealed
expansion joints between the furnace and ash
6.4.10.3 Manholes and Other Openings pit should be examined for leaks in the baffle
and for accumulation of sludge.
The manholes and other reinforcing plates,
as wel! as nozzles and other flanged or lnspection should be made for evidence of
screwed connections on the boiler, should corrosion of the exterior of drums or tubes and
b~ e inspect:ed interr~allvand externally to see a c:heck m:3de for leaks from root, stacks,
t t)at they are no ~d or deformed. valkfes, or F,ipes. Riveted joints, butt straps,
N lanhole r,ing surf? uld be examined and riveted heads should be examined for
." mm-m,
~ G I GI ..-8
UDIUI I
-..-
at IU LUI I ~ s i o n . Particular
,-
leak3 a
.
UI waataae.
. ,.,A"
made from inside the boiler to check masonry or insulation, periodic testing and
soundness of pipe connections to the boiler. inspection for expansion is recommended.
All opening to external attachments, such as Supporting steel, buck stays, and tie rods
connections to the low water cutoff and should be inspected for condition and possible
opening to safety relief devices, should be shifting from place.
inspected to see that they are from
obstruction. 6.5.2 Piping
6.4.10.4 Fire Surfaces The condition of the main steam header, its
connections to the boiler, and its support units
Firetubes sometimes blister but rarely should be inspected to determine that it is
collapse. The plant inspector should properly supported, that allowance is made for
examine the tubes for such defects; if any expansion and contraction without exerting
are found to have sufficient distortion to excessive stress or strain on the pressure
warrant it, they should be replaced. parts of the boiler, and that the non return and
stop valves in good working condition.
lnspection of firetube boilers include a check
for any impingment of flame on dry sheets, All piping should be inspected for leaks; if any
particularly at the back arch of return tubular are found, it should be determined whether
boiler. The arch should be entirely clear of they are the result of excessive strains due to
the rear tube sheets with sheet metal or expansion or contraction or other causes. The
asbestos rope closing the gap. general arrangement of the piping in regard to
the provisions for expansion and drainage, as
6.5 lnspection of External Surfaces and Part well as adequate support at the proper points
should be carefully noted. There should be no
6.5.1 General pockets in the connecting piping that can hold
water unless they can be drained or equipped
with stream traps.
CHAPTER 7 - BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
The connections between individual boilers Safety is very important and should be
and the supply and return headers should be foremost in the minds of those who are
especially noted to see that any change of assigned to inspect, operate and maintain
position of the boiler due to settling or other power boilers. Only properly trained qualified
causes has not placed an undue strain on the personnel should inspect, operate and repair
piping. power boilers.
The plant inspector should have available an Authorized lnspector and should see that
for the benefit of the lnspector all pertinent all recommendations in such reports are
data on the boiler unit as to design, promptly and carefully considered.
dimensions, age, particulars about previous
defects, modifications, or repairs. 6.7 Repairs
A record of each inspection should be kept When repairs have been made, especially tube
in a uniform manner so that any change of replacement, the plant inspector should observe
condition can be definitely noted and whether the work has been done properly.
compared, especially with reference to the Excessive rolling of tubes, where they are
thickness of scale, corrosion, erosion, accessible, is a common fault of inexperienced
cracks, and other unusual conditions. workmen. However, when it is difficult to reach
Between periodic inspections by the the tube end and observe the extent of the
authorized Inspector, the plant inspector rolling, they are frequently under-rolled. This
should closely observe the operation and inadvertently results in separation of the parts
condition of the boiler and should report and leakage.
immediately to the plant engineer or plant
management any serious defects, doubtful When damage to pressure parts is encountered,
conditions. or unusual occurrences. requiring repairs by processes such as welding,
the review and acceptance of an Authorized
ermanerit Log BIook lnspector should be obtained on the manner in
which the repair is to be made. It may also be
A permanent log book should be provided necessary to contract the Authorized lnspector
for each power boiler in the plant to record prior to retubing and rerolling of tubes. A
maintenance work, inspections, tests, hydrostatic test may be required if repairs are
repairs, and other pertinent data. Brief made, as required by the Authorized Inspector.
details of repairs and other work performed
on the boiler should be recorded. 6.8 Hydrostatic Test.
Performance of tests and inspections
required by jurisdictions or insurance When there is a question or doubt in the extent
companies should also be recorded. of a defect found in a boiler, the Authorized
Inspector, in order to more fully decide upon its
6.6.3.3 Daily Log seriousness, may request the application of a
hydrostatic test.
A daily log for scheduling and recording
work performed and maintenance, testing, Hydrostatic test pressure should not exceed 1-
and inspection is recommended. The routine 112 times the maximum allowable working
work normally performed on power boilers is pressure. During the test, the safety valves
listed. As each portion of the work is should be gagged or removed from the boiler as
completed, the person performing the work should all controls and appurtenances unable to
should enter the date and his initials in the withstand the test pressure without damage. It
appropriate spaces. is suggested that the minimum temperature of
the water be 70°Fand a maimum of 120°F.
The plant inspector should note particularly
any evidence or carelessness in the For new generation Boilers, (Boilers used for
maintenance and operation of the boiler and utility power generation) wher hydrostatic testing
!lated equipment. at 1.5 times Maximum Allowable Pressure
entails costly downtimes and requires
he plant inspector should recommend modification of section, thereby causing major
immediate correc:tion af any unsafe disruptions in plant operations tht adversely
conditions or unde!sirable pr*actices that may affect economic activities, the following testing
be discovered ancj should report promptly procedures is hereby adopted:
and fully on the reaulla
t l t e -6
, e n
his inspection to
his immediate superiors. a. In new installations, before operation,
hydrostatic test at 1.5 times design
The plant inspector should be furnished a pressure.
copy of all reports of inspections made by
CHAPTER 7 - BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
b. Hydrostatic testing shall be conducted at k. evidence of corrosion or erosion:
least every 5 years thereafter at a test
pressure not exceeding 1.5 times but not I. blow-off piping and valges;
lower than 1.2 times the Maximum
Allowable Working Pressure. m. pressure gage, gage cocks1water glass.
The following features of all boilers should be Authorized inspector is defined in 6.1 a.
checked during each inspection: When certification and/or licensi~
required by the jurisdictional authoril
a. safety 1 relief valve nameplate capacity, Authorized lnspector is normally the ir
set pressure, connection to boiler, who will make the required inspections IUI LIIG
discharge line, testing; issuance of the certificate and/or license to
operate.
b. low water fuel supply cut-out, level control
or regulator, water feeder controls W hlen requi~ red by the jurisdictional authority
combined / separate, stop valves in the Authori;zed Inspector should make an
connection lines, testing; internal and external inspection of all power
boilers at Ieast on1ce eachI year and any
c. controls operative, control maintenance additional inspectio~ S
I that the Authorized
Inspector rrlay deern necessary. In some
d. flue and damper arrangement, combustion jurisdictions, 4L.n -..
LI I= a1,Ilual II~~ernal
...I. I.. :-4
inspection
safeguards; may be extended, if certain conditions are
met.
e. burner refractory, flame impingement,
baffles, lining, supports; When required by the jurisdictional authority,
the Authorized lnspector should make an
f. source of feedwater, condition of inspection prior to placing boilers in service for
feedpump, feedwater treatment; the first time. This inspection should be as
outlined in 6.2.
g. condensate return system, amount
returned; The Authorized lnspector should review, for
acceptance, the manner in which repairs or
h. review of boiler maintenance and alterations are to be made to ensure that
operating logs; Code integrity of the power boiler is
maintained.
i. buried line, line leakage;
The Authorized lnspector may require and
j. steam pipe supports, piping free to witness a hydrostatic test whenever repairs
expand and contract; have been made, or when there is a question
CHAPTER 7 - BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
or doubt about the extent of a defect found a. Blow-off piping from a power boiler or
during inspection of a power boiler. miniature shall not discharge directly into
a sewer. A blow-off tank shall be used
The plant inspector should accompany the where conditions do not provide an
Authorized Inspector during his inspection. adequate and safe open discharge.
6.11 Low Water Fuel Cut-Offs b. Blow-off tanks hereafter installed, if made
of metal shall have a plate thickness of not
All automatically-fired system or vapor boilers, less than 8 mm diameter and shall be
excepting boilers a constant attendant who designed for a minimum working pressure
has no other duties while the boilers is in of 0.345 MPa or 3.45 bars.
operation, shall be equipped with an automatic
low-water fuel cut-off and/or water feeding c. The outlet from the blow-off tank shall be
device so constructed that the water inlet twice the area of the inlet pipe and made
valve cannot feed water into the boiler through to extend internally within 203 mm from
the float chamber, and so located as to the bottom of the tank.
automatically cut off the fuel supply and/or
supply requisite feedwater when the surface of d. A vent pipe at least four (4) times the area
the wall falls to the lowest safe water line. of the inlet pipe shall lead to the outer
This point should be not lower than the bottom atmosphere.
of the water glass.
e. Vents shall be as direct as possible to the
Such a fuel of feedwater control device may outer air and discharge at a safe location.
be attached direct to a boiler or to the tapped There shall be no valve or other possible
openings provided for attaching a water glass obstructions such as water pockets,
direct to the boiler, provided that such between the tank and the discharge end
connections from the boiler are non-ferrous of vent pipe.
tees or Y's not less than 12.7 mm diameter
pipe size between the boiler and the water f. All pipe connections between the tank and
glass so that the water glass is attached direct the boiler shall be as direct as possible
and as close as possible to the boiler; the and shall conform to ASME Boiler
straightway tapping of the Y or tee to take the Construction Code or its equivalent.
water glass fittings, the side outlet of the Y or
the tee to take the fuel cut-off or water feeding g. For convenience in cleaning the tank, a
device. The ends of all nipples shall be manhole or an access opening shall be
reamed to full size diameter. Designs provided.
embodying a float bowl shall have a vertical
straight-a-way valve drain pipe at the lowest h. Where a blow-off tank is not vented as
point in the water equalizing pipe connections specified above, it shall be constructed for
by which the bowl and equalizing pipe can'be a pressure equal to that allowed on the
flushed and device tested. boiler to which it is attached or shall be
equipped with a safety valve or valves of
6.12 Safety Gadgets I Cut-Outs sufficient capacity to prevent the pressure
from exceeding the safe working pressure
No person shall remove or tamper with any of the tank.
safety gadgets or components prescribed by '
these rules except for the purpose of making 7.2 Location of Blow-Offs. The discharge of
repairs. The resetting of safety gadgets or safety valves, blow-off pipes and other outlets
components shall be done in the presence of shall be located so as to prevent injury to
an authorized representative of the personnel or avoid making a nuisance to the
government agency concerned. surrounding vicinity.
inspection of the entire shell and heads of b. A suitable screen or guard shall be
the vessel can be made. provided around high-tension bushing and
a sign posted warning of high voltage.
b. Supports. Each unfired pressure vessel This screen or guard shall be located that
shall be supported by masonry or it will be impossible for anyone working
structural supports of sufficient strength around the generator to accidentally come
and rigidity to safely support the vessel in contact with the tension circuits. When
and its contents. There shall be no adjusting safety valves, the power circuit
vibration in either the vessel nr its to the generator shall be open. The
connecting piping. generator may be under steam pressure
but the power line shall be open while the
7.3 Pressure Reducing Valves. operator is making the necessary
adjustments.
a. Where pressure reducing valves are used,
one or more relief safety valves shall be c. Each kW electrical energy consumed by
provided on the low pressure side of the an electric steam generator operating at
reducing valve in case the piping or maximum rating shall be considered the
equipment on the low pressure side does equivalent of 0.093 m2 of heating surface
not meet the requirements for the full of a fire tube boiler when determining the
initial pressure. The relief or safety valves required amount of safety valve capacity.
shall be located adjoining to or as close as
possible to the reducing valve. Proper Section 8.0 Other Testing Methods
protection shall be provided to prevent
injury or damage caused by the escaping For existing boilers within the five (5) year interval of
steam form the discharge of relief or hydrostatic testing, any one of the following methods
safety valves if vented to the atmosphere. may be undertaken. This, however, is not mandatory.
d. It is mandatory that a pressure gage be The test is based on the amount of time it takes
installed on the low-pressure side of a generated sound waves to pass through a
reducing valve. material and back to the source after being
reflected. The difference in time is translated
7.4 Electric Steam Generators. All appliances into thickness measurement of the material
required for electric steam generators shall be being tested. The test shall be performed on all
attached in accordance with the following: tubes with any indication of erosion. Tube
below recommended nominal wall thickness
a. A cable at least as large as one of the shall be repaired using weld overlaid or replaced
incoming power lines to the generators as per currently practiced repair procedures.
shall be provided for grounding the r
generator shell. This cable shall be 8.3 Radiographic Testing
permanently fastened on some part of the
generator and shall be grounded in an X-rays shall be used to penetrate and record on
improved manner. film the imperfection or defects in the boiler tube
CHAPTER 8 - HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING
Chapter 8
-
Liquid Receiver a vessel permanently connected to evaporators (each separate section of which does not
a system by inlet and outlet pipes for storage of a exceed 340 liters of refrigerant containing volume),
liquid refrigerant. expansion coils, compressors, controls headers, pipes
and pipe fittings.
Machinery - equipment including ay or. all of the
following compressor, condenser, generator, absorber, Refrigerant - a substance which absorbs heat at a
receiver, connecting pipe, evaporator, air handling low pressure and temperature and rejects heat at a
units, dehumidifier, humidifier, heat exchanger, high pressure and temperature.
complete unit system.
a. Refrigerating System, Absorption - a
Machinery Room -a specific room in which is refrigerating system in which the refrigerant
permanently installed and operated Refrigerating and gas evolved in the evaporator is taken up in
Air Conditioning machinery. Closets solely contained an absorber and released in a generator upon
within and opening only into a room shall be the application of heat.
considered a part of such room.
b. Refrigerating System, Brine -
an indirect
-
Machine Room, Class 1 a room having machinery refrigerating system employing brine as the
other than flame producing apparatus permanently circulating liquid.
installed and operated and also having:
c. Refrigerating System, Brine Spray - a
a. Doors which are tight-fitting, fire-resisting, and refrigerating scheme for cooling by a mist or
self-closing. spray of brine.
b. Walls which are vapor-tight and of approved fire d. Refrigeration System, Cascade - one
resistive construction. having two or more refrigerant circuits, each
with a pressure-imposing element, condenser
c. An exit door which opens directly to the outer air and evaporator, where the evaporator of one
or through a vestibule-type exit equipped with circuit cools the condenser of another (lower
self-closing, tight-fitting doors. temperature).
d. Exterior openings which, if present, are not e. Refrigerating System, Central Point - a
under any fire escape or any open stairway. system with two or more low sides connected
to a single, central high side; multiple system.
e. All pipes piercing the interior walls or floor of
such room, tightly sealed to the walls or floor f. Refrigerating System, Chilled Water an -
through which they pass. indirect refrigerating system employing water
as the circulating liquid.
f. Emergency remote controls located immediately
outside to stop the action of the refrigerator g. Refrigerating System, Compression a -
compressor. refrigerating system in which the pressure-
imposing element is mechanically operated.
g. Emergency remote controls for the mechanical
means of ventilation located outside. h. Refrigerating System, Direct Expansion a -
refrigerating system in which the evaporator is
Mechanical Joint - for the purpose of this Code, a in direct contact with the refrigerated material
mechanical joint, obtained by the joining of metal parts or space or is located in air circulating
through a positive holding mechanical construction. passages communicating with such spaces.
-
Piping pipe or tube mains for interconnecting the i. Refrigeration System, Flooded - . a
various parts of a Refrigerating System. refrigerating system in which only part of the
refrigerant passing over the heat transfer
Pressure Limiting Device - a valve held closed by a separated from the vapor and recirculated.
spring of other means and designed to automatically
relieve pressure in excess of its setting. j. Refrigerating System, Indirect - ' a
refrigerating system in which a liquid, such as
Pressure Vessel - any refrigerant containing brine or water cooled by the refrigerant, is
receptacle of a refrigerating system, other than the
CHAPTER 8 - HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING
circulated to the material or space refrigerated Tenant - as herein used a tenant shall be construed
or is used to cool air so circulated. as a person, firm, or corporation possessed with the
legal right to occupy premises.
k. Refrigerating System, Mechanical a -
refrigerating system employing a mechanical -
Welded Joint for the purpose of this Code, a welded
compression device to remove the low joint is a gas-tight, obtained by the joining of metal
pressure refrigerant enclosed in the low parts in the plastic or molten state.
pressure side and delivers it to the high
pressure side of the system. Section 2.0 Air Conditioning and
Ventilation Standards
I. Refrigerating System, Multiple - a
refrigerating system using the direct method in 2.1 The temperature and humidity of the air to be
which refrigerant is delivered to two or more used for comfort cooling shall be maintained at
evaporators in separate rooms or 20'-23.3OC effective temperature at an air
refrigerators. movement of from 4,570 to 7,620 mmlmin within
the living zone and 55 to 60% relative humidity.
m. Refrigerating System, Single-Package a -
complete factory made. and factory-tested Table 8.2
refrigerating system in a suitable frame or Desirable Indoor Conditions for
enclosure which is fabricated and shipped in Different Outdoor Temperature
one or more sections and in which no Outdoor Temperature Indoor Temperature OC
refrigerant-containing parts are connected in Dry Bulb OC Effective Dry Bulb
the field. 39 24 28
35 23 27
n. Refrigerating System, SteamJ e t Vacuum a 32 23 27
water vapor refrigerating system in which high 29 22 26
pressure steam, supplied through a nozzle 27 22 25
and acting to eject water vapor from the
evaporator, and produces the requisite 2.2 The indoor air quality in such occupy shall all
pressure on the high side by virtue of times be free from toxic, unhealthful, of
compression in a following diffusion passage. disagreeable gases and fumes and shall be
relatively free from odors and dust; and shall
o. Refrigerating System, Vapor a refrigerating conform with internationally accepted
system employing a condensable vapor as the standards, e.g., American Society of Heating ,
refrigerant. Refrigerating and Air Conditioning
Engineers(ASHRAE)
Heat Pump - uses the same equipment as, a
refrigeration system but it operates for the purpose of 2.3 The air in such occupied spaces shall at all
delivery heat at a high level of temperature. Even times be in constant motion sufficient to
though the equipment used in a refrigeration cycle and maintain a reasonable uniformity of temperature
in a heat pump maybe identical, the objectives are and humidity but shall not cause objectionable
different. The purpose of a refrigeration cycle is to drafts in any occupied portion. The air motion in
absorb heat at a low temperature; that of a heat pump such occupied spaces, and in which the only
is to reject heat a t a high temperature. source of contamination is the occupant, shall
have a velocity of not more than 0.254 meter per
-
Rupture Member a device that will automatically minute as the air enters the living zone or 1,830
rupture at a predetermined pressure. mm above the floor.
-
Soldered Joint for the purpose of this Code, a 2.4 Air in all rooms and enclosed spaces shall be
soldered joint is a gas-tight joint, obtained by the distributed with reasonable uniformity, and the
joining of metal parts with the metallic mixtures or variation in carbon dioxide content of the air
alloys, which melt at temperatures below 538OC and shall be taken as a measure of such distribution.
above 177OC. The carbon dioxide concentration .when
-
Stop Valve a shut-off valve other than a valve for
measured 910 mm above the floor shall not
exceed 100 ppm (parts per million).
controlling the flow of refrigerant.
CHAPTER 8 - HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING
2.5 The quality of air used to ventilate the space 2.8 Refrigerant Classifications:
during the occupancy shall always be sufficient
to maintain the standards of air temperature, air Group 1:
quality, air motion and air distribution. Carbon Dioxide co2
Ventilation requirements shall conform to the Dichlorodifluoromethane R-12 CC12F2
following Table 8.2. Dichloromonofluoromethane R-22 CHCL2F2
Dichlorotetra fluoroethane R114 C2CL2F4
Table I Dichloromethane Carrene Ch2CL2
Outdoor Air Requiremellk No. 1
Liters per Trichloromonofluoromethane R-I I CCL3F
Application secondlperson
Recommended Group 2:
Apartment, average Ammonia NH3
Dicholoroethylene C2H2C12
Barber Shop Ethyl chloride CH3CI
Beauty Parlor Methyl Form?+n HCOOCH3
Board Room Sulfur dioxidc so2
Cocktail Bar
Department Store Group 3:
Director's Room Butane C4H10
Drug Stc)re Ethane C2H68
Factory lsobutane (CH3)3 CH
5 & 10 Stores Propane C3H8
Funeral Parlor
Hospital, Private Room 2.9 Locations in which Refrigeration Systems may
Hospital, Ward be placed are grouped by occupancy as follows:
Hotel Room
Laboratories a. Institutional occupancy like hospitals,
Meeting Room asylums, sanitariums, police stations, jails,
Offices, General court houses with cells, etc.
Restaurant, Cafeteria
Dining Room b. Public assembly like auditorium, assembly
Shop, Retain rooms, ball rooms, broadcasting studios,
Theater churches, department stores, fraternity,
halls, libraries, theaters, etc.
2.6 The desirable temperature in air conditioned
spaces increases as the outdoor temperature c. Residential occupancy apply to portions of
increases as shown in Table 8.1. buildings in which sleeping accommodations
are provided.
2.7 The quantity of outdoor air required to control
body odors satisfactorily decreases as the d. Commercial occupancy applies to portions
volume space per occupant increases. of buildings used for transactions of
Recommended rates of outdoor air supply for business, for rendering professional
different volumes of spaces per occupants are services or for supply of food and drinks.
as follows:
e. Industrial occupancy applies to entire
Table 8.3 building occupied by single tenant, for
Minimum Outdoor Requirements to Remove manufacturing, processing or storage of
Objectionable Body Odors for Sedentary Adult Workers materials or products including chemical,
food, candy, ice cream factories, ice-making
Air Space per Person Outdoor Air Supply per plants, meat packing plants, refineries,
M~ Occupant Ips perishable food warehouses and similar
3 14 occupancies.
- SLIDING SEAN
MECHANIC/VCUP
FIG. 8.3.4
b. Where ducts pass thru walls, floors or
DUCT INSULATION DETAILS
partitions, the space around the duct shall
be sealed with a material fire resistant
property equivalent to that of the wall, floor
or partition, to prevent the passage of flame g. Ducts shall not be built into a building in
or smoke. such a way as to impair the effectiveness of
the fire proofing around steel or iron
c. Ducts which pass thru floors or fire proof structural members, such as placing the
constructions, semi-fire proof construction, ducts between the fire proofing and the
or heavy timber construction, in which members protected.
vertical openings are generally protected,
shall be encased in 100 mm hollow clay tile, h. Ducts shall not be located where they will be
gypsum block or their equivalent. Such subject to damage rupture. Where so
construction, however, shall not be required located, they shall be suitably protected.
for branches, which are cut off from the
main portion of the duct by approved fire i. Ducts shall be substantially supported.
dampers. Hangers and brackets for supporting ducts
shall be metal. Ducts exposed to the
d. No attic, basement or concealed space in a weather shall be wrapped with weather
building shall be used as an integral part of proofing materials.
a duct system unless it conforms to all the
requirements for ducts. j. Approved fire dampers shall be provided
where the air ducts penetrate or terminate at
the openings in the walls or partitions these
CHAPTER 8 - HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING
-
Ihave a fire resistance rating of 2 hours or (lo°C) above the maximum temperature that
lore. Approved fire dampers shall be would normally be encountered with the
provided in all air transfer openings in system in operation or shut down. Hinged
partitions that are required to have fire dampers shall be equipped with spring
resistance rating in which other openings catches and pins of hinges shall be of
are required to be protected. corrosion resistant materials.
he passing of supply and return ducts thru n. An approved fire damper shall be provided
,,re walls should be avoided wherever an opening through a required fire partition.
possible. When ducts or the outlets or inlets
to them pass through fire walls, they shall be o. Where duct system serve two or more
provided with automatic fire dampers on floors, approved fire dampers shall be
both sides of the fire wall through which they required at each direct outlet and in each
pass. On small openings not exceeding 457 branch duct at its junction with the main
mm in diameter, 9.5 mm steel plates may be vertical duct. Dampers are not required in
used instead of fire dampers. branch duct having a cross sectional area of
less than 129 cm2 which supply only air
See page 170 of 2003 conditioning units discharging air or not over
1,220 mm above the floor.
Fig. 8.3.5
p. In systems of over 425 m3 per minute
capacity serving areas where large numbers
Duct Hangar Detail of people congregate or areas having
valuable contents particularly subject to
smoke damage, except when system is
coNcRm SUB
located on the same floor that it serves, it is
D recommended that approved smoke
EXPANSIONSHIELDS
dampers be installed in the main supply duct
and main return duct. Such dampers should
*dl-
-
UANGER RODS
be arranged to close automatically when the
MIN ~7 system is not in operation and also by
,
INSULATION
manual emergency motor stop or by
ANGLE BAR
1 application of a smoke detecting apparatus.
W VARIES -
mm 32 mm q. Dampers provided in ducts used solely for
FIB37 - exhaust of air to the outside shall be
W C T HANGER MTAILS
installed in such a way that they will interfere
with the flow of air in the main duct. No
dampers are required in a system serving
Fire dampers, installed in the system as only one floor and used only for exhaust of
required at other than fire wall openings air outside. Dampers should be designed to
shall be 1.6 mm thick on diameter up to 914 close in the direction of air flow. Where
mm or greater width and 4.55 mm on ducts direction of exhaust air flow is upward, sub-
above 914 mm in diameter or greater width. ducts at least 560 mm in length may be
Louvered type automatic dampers may be carried up inside the main duct from each
constructed of 1.25 mm thick steel, provided inlet of dampers.
the individual louvers are not over 152 mm-
in width and are stiffened by formed-edges. r. Fresh air intakes shall be protected with
approved automatic fire doors or dampers
m. Fire doors and fire dampers shall be except where permission to omit them,
arranged to close automatically and remain because of light exposure is granted by the
tightly closed, upon the operation of a inspection department having jurisdiction.
fusible link or other approved heat actuated When deemed necessary by inspection
device located where readily affected by an department approved heat actuated devices
abnormal rise of temperature in the duct. shall be installed at intake opening to shut
Fusible link should have a temperature fans down in case of exposure fires.
rating approximately 10 degrees centigrade
CHAPTER 8 - HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING
Section 4.0 Heat Gain Calculations Section 6.0 Air Intake and Outlets
4.1 Calculations shall be made in accordance with 6.1 Re-circulating air intakes shall be located at
the American Society of Heating Refrigerating above the floor, except that protected floor inlets
Air Conditioning Engineering (ASHRAE) Guide, may be permitted under seats in theaters.
Air Conditioning and Refrigerating Institute When located less than 2,130 mm above the
Standards, the applicable manuals of the floor, inlet and outlet openings shall be protected
National Warm Air Heating and Air Conditioner by a substantial grill or screen, thru the opening
Association, or other recognized and acceptable of which 13 mm sphere will not pass.
methods.
Fresh air intakes shall be protected by screens
Section 5.0 Refrigeration System of corrosion resistant material not larger than 13
mm mesh. Air shall not be re-circulated from
5.1 Where condenser cooling water causes any spaces in which objectionable quantities of
excessive corrosion, scaling, or obstruction anesthetic gases, toxic gases, flammable
within the piping or equipment, suitable water- vapors, flying, dust or bacteria laden air are
treatment means may be required and piping given off.
used for conveying condenser cooling water
shall be zinc coated. (galvanized copper, or Care should be exercised in choosing the
other corrosion-resistant material acceptable to location of fresh air intakes to avoid drawing in
the FHA field office of the Chief Underwriter). combustible materials to minimize the hazard
from fire in other structures and air conditioning
5.2 All exposed refrigeration piping located less than those listed under Section 8.5.1.
1830 mm above any floor or outside grade shall
be suitably protected to prevent damage to Section 7.0 Air Filters
piping and injury to persons.
7.1 Air filters shall be of approved types that will not
5.3 Clearance shall be provided for all construction burn freely or emit large volumes of smoke or
to permit proper operation, adjustments, other objectionable products.
replacement and repair of equipment.
Liquid adhesive tanks into which removable
5.4 Suitable means shall be provided for the filters are dipped should preferably be located
collection and disposal of condensate from the outside the building or in a separate fire resistive
equipment. The condensate drain shall be at room.
least 19 mm nominal pipe size and shall be
copper, galvanized, steel, or other corrosion- Liquid adhesive coatings used on air filters shall
resistant materials. have a flash point not lower than 177OC. Air
filters shall have a minimum rating of 60%
5.5 Where the cooling coil or air conditioning unit is filtering efficiency and higher efficiency for
located above a living space, or where structural special applications.
damage may result from condensate overflow,
an additional waterlight pan of corrosion- Filters shall be sized to provide not less than
resistant metal shall be installed beneath the 0.093 m2 of total face area per 142 Ips of air and
cooling coil or unit to catch overflow and shall be readily accessible for cleaning or
separate drain, or one pan with standing replacement.
overflow and separate drain maybe provided
with a drain pipe, minimum of 19mm nominal Section 8.0 Noise Abatement
pipe size, discharging at a point which can be
readily observed. Condensate drains shall not 8.1 As a partial index and guide, the sound level
be directly connected to a plumbing drainage due to operation of the equipment, as measured
system. on the 40 decibel weighted network in the center
of conditioned space 914 mm above the floor
5.6 Refrigerating piping, with or without insulating shall not be higher than 45 decibels ,for a
covering shall be exposed to view, excepting for normally furnished room of 50 decibels for an
mechanical protection. unfurnished room.
CHAPTER 8 - HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING
Section 9.0 Cold Storage and 10.5 Cast iron shall conform to American Society for
Refrigeration Testing Materials, designation A-136-30 Class B
higher strength gray iron with not less than 206
9.1 Cold storage shall mean the storage or keeping 700 ~ / tensile
m ~ strength.
of all articles of food at a temperature, not to
exceed -6"C, above 00 in a cold storage 10.6 Bushing may be used in fittings when the
warehouse; cold storage warehouse shall mean reduction is two or more pipe sizes. For single
any place artificially cooled at a temperature not pipe size reduction, reducing fittings must be
to exceed -6°C in which all articles of food may used.
be stored or placed for an indefinite period of
time. 10.7 Pipe bends shall be substantially circular in
section and free from injurious wrinkles, kinds
Refrigerated Storage shall mean the storage or and creases. They shall not be constructed as
keeping of articles of food at a temperature not barring corrugated pipe bends made of suitable
to exceed above zero in refrigeration, ice boxes, material.
and 4°C other similar devices artificially cooled
at a temperature not to exceed 4OC in which 10.8 Standard pipe size copper or red brass not less
preserved meat, pork, fowl, butter, shrimps, than eighty (80) percent may be used.
lobsters, crabs, etc., may be stored or kept.
10.9 Copper tubing used for refrigerant piping
9.3 An ice plant is closely associated to Cold erected on the premises shall conform to
Storage and Refrigerated Storage but should be American Society for Testing Materials
treated as a Process Plant rather than in an designation B-88-33, grades K or L for
accessory to a building or buildings. dimensions, and shall be absolutely free from
scale and dirt.
Section 10.0 Refrigerant Piping, Valves, 10.10 Copper tubing used for refrigerant piping
Fittings and Related Parts erected on and 16 mm nominal sizes in the
same standard series as grades K or L of
10.1 Materials American Society for testing and Materials
designation B-88-33, shall be considered as
All materials used in the construction and meeting the requirement of Section 8.10.8.
installation of Refrigerating System shall be
suitable for the refrigerant used, and no 10.11 Soft annealed copper tubing used for refrigerant
materials shall be used that will deteriorate due piping erected on the premises shall not be used
to the chemical action of the refrigerant or the in sizes larger than 18 mm nominal size. It shall
oil, or the combination of both. conform to grades K or L of American Society
for Testing Materials designation B-88-33.
10.2 Standard weight steel or wrought iron pipe may
be used for Design Working Pressures not 10.12 Rigid metal enclosures shall be provided for soft
exceeding 1,724.0 kPa, provided lap welded or annealed copper tubing used for refrigerant
seamless pipe is used for sizes larger than 500 piping erected on the premises, except that
mm (iron pipe size) and extra heavy pipe is used flexible metal enclosures may be used at bends
for liquid lines for sizes 38 mm (iron pipe size) or terminals if not exceeding 1,830 mm in
and smaller. length.
10.3 Pipe joints may be screwed, flanged or welded. 10.13Threaded joints on copper or brass pipe of
Screw joints shall conform to U.S. or R.P. standard pipe size shall be made with extra
Standard. Exposed threads shall be tinned or heavy brass fittings.
otherwise coated to inhibit corrosion.
10.14 Joints on annealed copper tubing not exceeding
10.4 d.Valves, flanges and fittings may be made of 19 mm in outside diameter may be made with
cast iron, malleable iron, bronze or brass, and flared compression fittings or approved type,
shall be of the design and material listed by the provided that all such fitting shall be exposed for
manufacturer for the particular refrigerant visual inspection.
service.
CHAPTER 8 - HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING
10.15 Joints on hard drawn copper tubing, if of the d. Stop valves placed where it is not obvious
sweated capillary type, may be made with an what they control shall be suitably labeled.
alloy having a melting point greater than 538OC Numbers may be used to label the valves
or with solder melting at a point below 240°C but provided a key to the numbers is located
above 177OC. near the valves.
10.16 Fittings used in sweated capillary joints shall be 10.20 Pipe and Tube Supports
cast red bras or die pressed brass of copper or
wrought brass or copper, or extruded brass or a. All refrigerant piping shall be securely
copper. supported by means of metal hangers,
brackets, straps, clamps or pedestals, in
10.17 Soldered joints in pipe or tubing erected on the such manner as to relieve joints of harmful
premises shall remain mechanically intact when strains and vibration. The supports shall be
subjected to a pull apart test equivalent to used for no other purpose. Hangers for
pressure of not less than 2,067 kPa gage with a refrigerant piping above 22 mm outside
temperature of not less than 14g°C, except that diameter shall not be less than 0.806 cm2
this requirement shall not apply to soldered cross section.
joints in pipe or tubing of 13 mm nominal size or
smaller when used in systems containing not 10.21 Location of Refrigerant Piping
more than 9.09 kg of refrigerant.
a. Refrigerant piping crossing an open space
10.18Any evaporator located in an air duct of an air which affords passageway in' any building
conditioning system for human comfort shall be shall not be less than 2,290 mm above the
constructed to withstand without leakage a floor unless against the ceiling of such
temperature of 538OC. space.
1. Each inlet and each outlet pipe of 10.22 Design and Construction
each compressor.
a. Every part of a Refrigerating System, except
2. Each inlet and each outlet pipe of pressure gauges and control mechanism,
each liquid receiver. shall be designed, constructed, and
assembled to withstand the test pressures
3. Each liquid and each suction branch specified in Table 8.7, without being
header. stressed beyond one-third (113) of its
ultimate strength.
c. Stop valves with soft annealed copper
tubing or hard drawn copper tubing 19 mm b. Equipment listed by a recognized
nominal size or smaller shall be securely engineering testing laboratory having a
mounted independent of tubing fastenings follow-up inspection service, shall be
or supports. considered as conforming with the
requirements of Section 8.9.21.3.
CHAPTER 8 - HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING
c. Refrigerant containing vessels which are not discharge capacity determined by test with
a part of equipment listed by a recognized the outlet open to the atmosphere and with
engineering testing laboratory having a a differential pressure across the restraining
follow-up inspection service shall be member equal to twice the marked pressure
constructed in accordance with the rules of setting of the pressure relief valve.
Chapter 7 (Unified Pressure Vessel).
b. The rated discharge capacity of rupture
d. Every systems, except as provided in members and discharge piping shall be as
Sections 10,V.d., l l . A and 11.B, shall be given in Table 8.6.
protected by a pressure relief device unless
so constructed that pressure due to fire 11.7 Required Capacity
conditions will be relieved safely by soldered
joints, lead gaskets, fusible plugs, or their a. The minimum required rated discharge
parts of the system. capacity of pressure relief device for a
refrigerant containing vessels shall be
Section 11.0 Pressure Relief Devices determined by the following formula:
1.2 Each pressure vessel having a gross volume of L = Length of the vessel in mm.
0.142 m3 or less, containing liquid refrigerant
and which may be shut off by valves from all f = Factor dependent upon kind of
other parts of a refrigerating system, shall be refrigerant as follows:
protected by an approved pressure relief device
or an approved fusible plug. Kind of Refrigerant Value of "P'
Ammonia(NH3) 0.041
11.3 The requirements of Section 10.V.d and 1.1 Dichlorodifluoromethane,(R-I2,R-22) 0.163
shall not apply to flooded evaporators located in R-134a, R500
a refrigerator cabinet.
11.8 Pressure Setting Test
11.4 Each pressure vessel shall have the Design
Working Pressure stamped thereon if its gross a. The pressure setting of relief devices for
volume exceeds 0.142 m3. refrigerant containing vessels shall be tested
with the outlet open to the atmosphere and
11.5 Compressors operating above 103.35 kPa the relief device shall function at a pressure
gauge and having a displacement exceeding not more than ten (10) percent above the
2.83 m3 per minute shall be equipped by the pressure marked thereon, if such marking is
manufacturer with a pressure relief device of 689 kPa or more, or at not more than 6839
adequate size to prevent rupture of the kPa above the pressure marked thereon, if
compressor, located between the compressor such marking is less than 689 kPa.
and stop valve on the discharge side. The
discharge from such relief device may be vented 11.9 Marking
to the atmosphere or into the low pressure side
of the systems. a. All pressure relief valves for refrigerant
containing vessels shall be set and seated
11.6 Capacity Rating by the manufacturer. The name or trade of
the manufacturer, the pressure setting
a. The rated discharge capacity of a pressure expressed in kPa, the rated discharge
relief valve, expressed in points of air per capacity expressed in kilogram of air per
minute shall be one-fifth (115) of its minute, and the minimum equivalent length
CHAPTER 8 - HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING
of discharge piping that can be attached to a. Where ammonia is used, the discharge may
the pressure relief valve without loss of be into a tank of water which shall be used
discharge capacity, shall be cast or stamped for no purpose except ammonia absorption.
on the device, or on the metal plate At least 3.78 liters of fresh water shall be
permanently thereto. provided for every 0.45 kg of ammonia in
the system. The water used shall be
b. Each rupture member for refrigerant prevented from freezing. The tank shall be
containing pressure vessels shall have cast substantially constructed shall be greater
or stamped on the device or on a metal than one-half (112) the height. The tank
plate of the manufacturer and the bursting shall have a hinged cover, or, if of the
pressure of the rupture member expressed enclosed type, shall have vent hole at the
in Pascal or Kilopascal. top. All pipe connections shall be through
the top of the tank only, the discharge pipe
II. I 0 Installation Requirements from the pressure relief valves shall
discharge the ammonia in the center of the
a. A rupture member may be located between tank near the bottom.
a pressure relief valve and a pressure
vessel. 12.4 Sulfur Dioxide Discharge
b. No stop valve shall be located between any Vhen sulfur dioxide is used, the discharge
automatic pressure relief device and the part nay be into tank of absorptive brine which
or parts of the system protected thereby, shall be used for no purpose except sulfur
except when the parallel relief devices dioxide absorption. There shall be 3.378
mentioned in Section 10.V.d are so liters of standard dichromate brine 1.14 kg
arranged that only one can be rendered sodium dichromate per 3.78 liters for every
inoperative at a time for testing or repair 0.46 kg of sulfur dioxide in the system.
purposes. Brines made with caustic soda or soda ash
may be used in pace of sodium dichromate
c. All pressure relief devices shall be provided the quantity and strength give the
connected as nearly as practicable directly equivalent sulfur dioxide absorbing power.
to the pressure vessels or other parts of the The tank shall be substantially constructed
system protected thereby, and shall be of not less than 3.15 mm iron or steel. The
placed above the liquid refrigeration level. tank shall have a hinged cover, or if of the
enclosed type, shall have a vent hole at the
d. The seats and discs of pressure relief top. All pipe connections shall be through
device for refrigerant containing vessels the top or the tank only. The discharge pipe
shall be constructed of suitable material to from the pressure relief valve shall
resist refrigerant corrosion. discharge the sulfur dioxide in the center of
the tank near the bottom.
Section 12.0 Discharge from Pressure
Relief Devices Section 13.0 Pressure Limiting Devices
12.1 Pressure relief devices and fusible plus on all 13.1 Pressure limiting devices are required on all
systems containing more than 13.64 kg of systems containing more than 9.09 kg of
refrigerant, except those used to protect refrigerant and operating above atmospheric
compressors, shall discharge to the outside of pressure, and on all Water Cooled Systems so
the building in an approved manner. constructed that the compressor or generator is
capable of producing a pressure in excess of the
12.2 The size of the discharge opening and pipe from test pressure.
the pressure relief device shall not be less than
the size of the relief device inlet. The discharge 13.2 Pressure limiting devices shall stop the action of
from more than one relief device may be run into the compressor at a pressure less than ninety
a common header, the area of which shall be (90) percent of the pressure relief devices
not less than the sum of the areas of the pipes setting but more than ninety (90) percent of the
connected thereto. test pressure given in Table 8.6.
13.3 Pressure limiting devices shall be connected of the refrigerant at 46.1I0C. In no case
between the compressor and the top valve on shall the test pressure be less than 206.7
the discharge side. kPa by gauge.
a. n the system in
lnstructions for shutting dow~
case of emergency.
. .,,rr~geranr containing part of every system
shall be tested and proved tight by the b. The name, address and day and night
manufacturer at not less than the minim test telephone numbers for obtaining service.
pressure shown in Table 8.7.
c. The name, address and telephone number
b. Every refrigerant containing part of every of the municipal inspection department
system that is erected on the premises, having jurisdiction and instruction to notify
except compressors, safety devices, said department immediately incase of
pressure gauges, and control mechanism, emergency.
that are factory tested, shall be tested and
proved tight after complete installation and Table 8.7
before operation at not less than the Test Pressures
minimum pressures shown in Table 8.7.
Minimum Test
14.5 Test Medium. No oxygen or any combustible Refrigerant Pressure
gas or combustible mixture of gases shall be Kilopascal
fused for testing. Low
ChemicalHigh Pres. Pres.
Name
Formula Side Side
14.6 Refrigerant not Listed
a. For refrigerants not listed in Table 8.7, the Ammonia NH3 2 067 1 003.5
Test Pressure for the high pressure side Butane C4H1 620.1 344.5
shall be not less than the saturated vapor Carbon dioxide co2 10 355 6 890
pressure of the refrigerant at 57OC. The test Dichlorodifluoromethane
pressure for the low pressure side shall be (Freon-I2) CCCI2F2 1 619.15 999.05
not less than the saturated vapor pressure Dichloromethane (CarreneC2CI2F4 551.2 344.5
CHAPTER 8 - HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING
hlc
- enthalpy of saturated
liquid at condensing pressure, kJ/kg.
VAPORATOR
Solution:
Note: The subscripts I and v denotes liquid and vapor, RE = Refrigerating effect per kilogram of
respectively. circulating refrigerant
he, = enthalpy of refrigerant entering the
cooling coil
CHAPTER 8 - HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING
hlc = enthalpy of refrigerant leaving cooling Section 20.0 Energy Conservation for
coil Ventilating, Refrigeration & Air
18.5 Refrigeration CapacitylTon of Refrigeration Conditioning
All Refrigerating Capacities shall be expressed 20.1 To conserve on energy consumption, energy
in kilowatts (kw). For 1 Ton of Refrigeration recovery and saving devices, as recommended
(TR), this would be equal to 3.517 kilowatts by the American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers
18.6 Work of compression - The work of (ASHRAE), Air Conditioning and Refrigeration
compression, shall be given by the formula: lnstitute (ARI) and/or any internationally
recognized organization in the field of Heating,
Ventilating, Air Conditioning and Refrigeration,
shall be used.
where: Table 8.8
Some Properties of Refrigerant 12
W, = work of compressor
m = mass of refrigerant, kgls Tempe- Absolute Gas Liquid Gas Gas
rature Pressure Volume Enthalpy Enthalpy Entropy
hvd= enthalpy entering compressor
C KNI~' m31kg kjlkg kjlkg kjlkg K
hve=enthalphy leaving compressor
0 308.6 0.0554 36.05 187.53 0.6966
18.7 Coefficient of Performance - the ratio of the 5 362.6 0.0475 40.69 189.66 0.6043 8
energy removed at the evaporator (refrigerating 35 847.7 0.0206 69.55 201.45 0.6839 5
rn
effect) to the energy supplied to the compressor. 40 960.7 0.0182 74.59 203.20 0.6825
Hence. 5 308.6 0.0564 190.77 0.7081
+
40 847.7 0.0212 205.21 0.6950 2
E
COP = hve-JIc=RE 45 847.7 0.0218 208.96 0.7078 5
h d - hve 50 847.7 0.0224 212.72 0.7196
Cycle p.179
~efr~geration
Wc = 1 KWIKW of refrigeration
COP Section 21.0 Montreal Protocol
18.8 Energy Efficiency Ratio - The ratio of energy 21.1 Considering that the Philippines is one of the
removed at the evaporator (refrigerating effect) signatories in the Montreal Protocol, all
to the electrical energy consumed. This shall refrigerants banned by the said protocol shall
conform with the standards set by the not be used effective the date set forth by the
Department of Energy. same.
EER = Refrigerating Effect (kW) 21.2 Alternatives suggested by the Air Conditioning
Electricity Consumption (kW) and Refrigeration lnstitute shall be used in lieu
of the banned refrigerants which destroys the
ozone layer of the earth. It is further encouraged
Section 19.0 Anti-Pollution for Heating, that extensive researched be made in the field
Ventilating, Refrigeration & Air of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration in order to
Conditioning save the environment.
Table 8.9
Com~arativePerformance of Refriaerants at 5OC Condensina at 40°C
C Fn
Name of Refrigerant
I-
0
u d V)
An azeotopic mixture 5" 6.678 16.77 2.51 101.0 0.026 0.259 0.1631
CHAPTER 9 - FlRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION
Chapter 9
Class Ill Commodity is defined as wood, "Sprinkler System Design Curves for Solid
paper, natural fiber cloth, plastic products on Pile, Palletized and Bin Box Storage over 12
wood pallets, products may be contain a ft. (3.7 m), and Shelf Storage 12 ft. (3.7 m) to
limited amount of plastics. Wood dressers 15 ft. (4.6 m) high, shall be in accordance with
with plastic drawer glides, handles, and trim Figure 9-1.1" (6-1.2)
are examples of a commodity with a limited
amount of plastic.
Vertical 10 fl
or at I 5 fl. and 25 fl None 7-10.1 c 30ft Yes 0.30 035
Horizontal 10 fl
Vertical 10 fl Vertical 30fl
7-10.ld Yes 0.30 0.40
Horizontal 10 ft Horizontal 10 fl
Vertical 20 fl Vertical 20ft
1, 11 & 111 7-10.le Yes 2000sqfl 0.30 0.40
Horizontal 10 fl Horizontal 5R
Vertical 25 fl Vertical 25ft Higher than
7-10.1 f 25ft No 0.30 0.40
Horizontal 5 fl Horizontal 5 fl
Horizontal barriers at 20 fl. Vertical
Intervals - 2 lines of sprinklers
7-10.1 g Yes 0.30 0.40
under barriers - maximum
horizontal spacing 10 fl. staggered
Vertical 15 fl Vertical 20fl
7-10.lh Yes 0.35 0.45
Horizontal loft Horizontal IOfl
Vertical 20 fl Vertical 20 fl
- i Higher than No 0.35 0.45
Horizontal 5 ft Horizontal 5 fl 2000 sq fl
' , I 25 f l
Horizontal barriers at 15 ft. Vertical
-
Intervals 2 lines of sprinklers
7-10.1 j Yes 0.35 0.45
under barriers - maximum
horizontal spacing 10 ft. staggered
2. Palletized
On side or tread 9 to 20 See Figure 4 - 1.2
20 to + 30 0.3 plus high 3,000
Expansion foam
Notes:
1. Sprinkler discharge densities and areas of application are based on a maximum clearanceof 10 R (3.1 m) between sprinkler defectors and the
maximum available height of storage.
2. The densities and areas provided in the table are based on fire tests using standard response; standard orifice (112 in.) and large orifice (17132 in.)
sprinklers. In buildings where "old style" sprinkler heads exist, discharge densities shall be increased by 25%. For use of other types of sprinklers,
consult the authority having jurisdiction.
b. Fire Protection Standard for Storage of Heavy Weight Class. Includes paper board
Rubber Tires. This provision contained in and paper stock having a basis weight [weight
this standard apply to new facilities for tire per 1,000 sq.ft. (93 m.sq.)] of 20 Ib. (9.1 kg.) or
storage and when converting existing greater.
facilities to tire storage occupancy.
Medium Weight Class. Includes the broad
c. Fire Protection Standard for the Storage range of papers having basis weight [weight
of Roll Paper. The purpose of this standard per 1,000 sq.ft. (93 m.sq.)] from 10 Ib. (4.5 kg.)
is to provide a reasonable degree of to 20 Ib (9.1 kg.)
protection for the storage of roll paper when
stored in buildings or structures through Light Weight Class. Includes all papers
installation requirements based upon sound having basis weight [weight per 1,000 sq.ft.
engineer principles and test data. (93 m.sq.)] less than 10 Ib (4.5 kg) and
tissues.
Classification o f Roll Paper:
CHAPTER 9 - FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION
NOTE: Densities andlor areas may be interpolated between any 5 fi storage height increment.
SI Units: 1 fl = 0.3048111; 1 gpmlf12= 40.746 (L/min)lm2
Extra Combustible - Materials, which, either by Occupant Load - The maximum number of
themselves or in combination with their persons that may be allowed to occupy a
packaging, are highly susceptible to ignition and particular building, structure, or facility or portion
will contribute to the intensity and rapid spread thereof.
of fire.
Shall - Indicate a mandatory requirement.
Moderate Combustible - Materials or their
packaging, either of which will contribute fuel to Should - Indicates a recommendation or that
fire. which is advised but not required.
Non-Combustibles - Materials and their Sprinkler System - A sprinkler system, for fire
packaging which will neither ignite nor support protection purpose, is an integrated system of
combustion. one or more water supplies for fire use,
underground and overhead piping designed in
The word SHALL is intended to indicate accordance with fire protection engineering
requirements. standards. The portion of the sprinkler system
above ground is a network of specially sized or
The words IT IS RECOMMENDED indicate hydraulically designed piping installed in building
advisory provisions. APPROVED refers to structure or area, generally overhead, and to
approval by the authority having jurisdiction. which sprinklers are attached in a systematic
pattern. The valve controlling each system riser
Approved. Acceptable to the "Authority having is located in the system riser or its supply piping.
jurisdiction". Each sprinkler system includes a device for
actuating alarm when the system is in operation.
Authority Having Jurisdiction. The "authority The system is usually activated by heat from a
having jurisdiction" is the organization, office or fire and discharges water over the fire area.
individual responsible for approving equipment,
an installation or procedure. Warehouse - Any building or area within a
building used principally for the storage of
Class A Fire - Fire involving ordinary commodities.
combustible materials such as wood, cloth,
paper, rubber and plastics 2.3 Classification of Storage
Class 6 Fire - Fire in flammable liquids and a. Type I Storage. Type 1 storage is that in
gases. which combustible commodities or non-
combustible commodities involving
Class C Fire - Fire involving energized combustible package or storage aids are
electrical equipment. stored over 4,550 mm but not more than
6,400 mm high in solid piles or over 3,650
Class D Fire -Fire involving combustible mm but not more than 6,400 mm high in
metals, such as magnesium, sodium, potassium, piles that contain horizontal channels. Minor
titanium and other similar metals. quantities of commodities of hazard greater
than ordinary combustibles may be included
Dry Stand Pipe - a type of stand pipe system in without affecting this general classification.
which the pipes are not normally filled with
water. Water is introduced into the system thru b. Type II Storage. Type II storage is that in
Fire Service connections when needed. which combustible commodities or non-
combustible commodities involving
Fire Service - An organization or a component combustible packaging or storage aids are
of the Philippine National Police Fire Department stored not over 4,500 mm high in solid piles
personnel in-charge with the mission of fire or not over 3,650 mm high in piles that
prevention, fire protection. contain horizontal channels.
c. Type Ill Storage. Type II storage is that in Section of the warehouse occupied as boiler
which the stored commodities packaging room, engine room, or garage shall be cut
and storage aids are non-combustible or off from other sections of the warehouse by
contain only a small concentration of construction having a fire resistance of at
combustibles which are incapable of least two hours.
producing a fire that would cause
appreciable damage to the commodities Adequate access shall be provided to all
stored or to non-combustible wall, floor or portions of the premises for fire fighting
roof construction. Ordinary combustible purposes. Frangible wall sections for fire
commodities in completely sealed non- department or other emergency access or
combustible containers may qualify in this exit should be considered where doors are
classification subject to the authority having not practical.
jurisdiction. General commodity storage that
is subject to frequent changing and storage b. Areas. Fire areas of warehouses should be
of combustible packaging and storage aids limited to maintain the total value of the
is excluded from this category. commodity within reasonable limits yet not
be too restrictive for low value commodities.
2.4 Building Arrangement Conversely, high value and vital
commodities. Should be restricted to smaller
a. Construction. One-storey buildings without areas than for average value commodities
basement storage areas are preferable for such as found in the usual general
warehouses because of greater efficiency warehouse. The combustibility of the
for fire fighting and salvage operations. commodity and its packaging or storage aids
Long narrow buildings provide greater ease should be taken into account. Other
in protection and fire fighting than large considerations are the difficulty encountered
square buildings. Multi-storey buildings may in fire fighting and salvage operations in
be subject to the spread of fire from lower to large undivided areas.
upper floors and water used on upper floors
may cause damage on lower floors. Type I and Type I1 Storage. When
protected in accordance with this standard,
Newly-constructed warehouses over one- 4,645 m2 is considered the maximum area
storey in height should be of not less than for average value commodities enclosed by
three-hour fire-resistive construction. exterior walls or combination of exterior
walls and fire walls. A multi-storey building
Fire wall construction shall be parapet at having three-hour fire-resistive construction
least 910 mm above the building roof, shall be considered as having each floor a
except the parapet may be omitted where separate fire area. A multi-storey building of
the wall fits tightly to the underside of a fire- less than three-hour fire resistance at each
resistive roof deck. In buildings having floor shall be considered to be one fire area
combustible exterior walls, intersecting fire with the floor area per level being
walls shall extend at least 1,850 mm in total cumulative.
length. Fire walls should preferably be
without openings, but if openings are Type Ill Storage. Warehouses constructed
necessary they shall be provided with self- and protected in accordance with this
closing or automatic fire doors on each side standard may be of any reasonable area.
of the wall. Such doors shall be suitable for
openings in the particular fire wall. c. Ventilation. Consideration should be given
to the provision of roof vents and curtain
A wall or partition separating the warehouse boards, particularly in large one-storey
from other occupancy shall have fire warehouses where distance to exterior wall
resistance rating sufficient to protect the openings makes it difficult to place hose
warehouse from the fire exposure of the streams in service.
other occupancy. Door openings shall be
equipped with automatic closing fire doors d. Protection of Stairways and Shafts.
appropriate for the fire resistance rating of Stairways and other vertical shafts shall be
the wall or partition. enclosed with fire-resistive construction or
sealed at each floor level with construction
CHAPTER 9 - FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION
having the same fire resistance rating as the means of an exterior balcony, the
floor. door assembly to the stair shall
have a I-112-hour fire protection
Where stairways are required for the exit of rating and shall be self-closing or
occupants, such stairways and doors in shall be automatic-closing by
interior partitions enclosing stairways shall actuation of a smoke detector.
be adequately protected. Openings adjacent to such exterior
balconies shall be protected as
e. Stairways and Shaft of High Rise required and as follows:
Buildings Shall Be Smoke Proof
Enclosures. Smoke proof enclosures shall 2. Every vestibule shall have a
be a stair enclosure so designed that the minimum net area of 16 sq. ft. (1.5
movement into the smoke proof enclosure of sq.m.) of opening in an exterior
the product of combustion produced by a fire court, yard or public space at least
occurring in any part of the building shall be 20 ft. (6.1 m) in width.
limited andlor eliminated.
3. Every vestibule shall have a
The smoke proof enclosure may be minimum dimension not less than
accomplished by using natural ventilation, the required width of the corridor
by using mechanical ventilation leading to it and a minimum
incorporating a vestibule or by pressurizing dimension of 72 in. (183 cm) in the
the stair enclosure. direction of travel.
located not more than 6 in. (15.2 shall also be initiated by the following, if
cm) down from the top of the trap provided.
and shall be entirely within the
smoke trap area floors, when in the 1. Water flow signal from a complete
open position, shall not obstruct automatic sprinkler system.
duct opening. Duct opening may be
provided with controlling dampers if 2. General evacuation alarm system.
needed to meet the design
requirements but are not otherwise Standby Power. An approved self-
required. contained generator set to operator
whenever there is a loss of power in a
4. The vestibule ceiling shall be at normal house current shall provide standby
least 20 in. (50.8cm) higher than the Power for mechanical ventilation. The
door opening into the vestibule to generator shall be in separate room having
serve as a smoke and heat trap and a minimum- 1 hour fire resistive occupancy
to provide an upward moving air separation and shall have minimum fuel
column. The height may be supply adequate to operate the equipment
decreased when justified by for 2 hours.
engineering design and field testing.
k. Testing. Before the mechanical equipment
5. The stair shall be provided with a is accepted by the authority having
damper relief opening at the top and jurisdiction, it shall be tested to confirm that
supplied mechanically with sufficient the mechanical equipment is operating im-
air to discharge a minimum of 2500 compliance with these requirements.
cu. Ftlmin. (70.8 cu mlmin) through
the relief opening column in the stair I. Emergency Lighting. The stair shaft and
relative to atmosphere with all doors vestibule shall be provided with emergency
closed and a minimum of 0.10 inch lighting.
water column (25 Pa) difference
between the stair and the vestibule. m. Exposure Protection. Adequate protection
against exposure shall be provided where
Stair Pressurization. Smoke proof the warehouse or its contents are subject to
enclosures by stair pressurization shall damage from external fire. Depending upon
comply with all of the following: the severity of the exposure, such protection
should consist of parapet masonry walls
1. The building shall be protected without openings, wire glass in metal framed
throughout by an approved windows andlor open sprinklers.
supervised automatic sprinkler
system. n. Drainage of Floors. Upper floors of multi-
storied buildings should be made water tight
2. There shall be an engineered and provided with floor drainage facilities.
system to pressurize the air
enclosure capable of developing o. Piles Containing Horizontal Channels
0.05 in. (12.5 Pa) in addition to the
maximum anticipated stack p. Type I and Type II Storage. Horizontal
pressure relative to other parts of channels formed by rack arrangement
the building measured with all the should be suitably fire-stopped by means of
enclosure doors closed. barrier at intervals of 7,620 mm unless
additional automatic sprinklers are provided
Activation of Mechanical Ventilation at intermediate levels to protect the storage.
System.
Horizontal channels of palletized storage
For both mechanical and pressurized stair should be perpendicular to the aisle. No
enclosure systems, the activation of the part of such horizontal channels shall be
systems shall be initiated by smoke more than 7,620 mm from an aisle
detectors and by manual controls accessible measured along the length of the channel. It
to the fire department. The required system
CHAPTER 9 - FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION
Density - gpmlsq ft
Bars or more and shall have the following every part of the exterior of each building not
features standard equipment. covered by standpipe protection for every
part of each building by the use of lengths of
b. There are two types of standard fire pump hose normally attached to the hydrants.
used for the protection service, the There shall be sufficient hydrants to
centrifugal and the vertical turbine type, concentrate the required fire flow above any
either horizontal or vertical mounted are important building protected. An adequate
permitted to obtain water on positive suction hose houses shall be placed nearby the
head only. The vertical turbine type is hydrants with standards accessories as
practically suitable for fire pump service follows:
when the water is located below ground
where it would be difficult to install any other 2 - Approved adjustable spray-solid
type of pump below the minimum water stream nozzles equipped with
level. shut-off for each size of hose 65
mm.
Diesel engine drive when used to drive
either centrifugal or vertical turbine fire pump 1 - Fire Axe with brackets
shall be specifically listed for fire pump
service by the testing laboratories. Engines 1 - Hydrants Wrench
shall be acceptable for horse power rating
with listed controllers and standard 4 - Coupling spanners for each sized
accessories, such as angle gear drive, hose provided, 65 mm
governor, over speed shutdown devices,
tachometer, oil pressure gage, temperature 2 - Hose Coupling gaskets for each
gage, instrument panel, factory wiring, size of hose, 65 mm
electrical starter, two (2)sets of batteries with
battery charger, engine cooling exchanger 3.6 Dry Stand Pipe and Hose Systems
system, fuel tank, exhaust muffler and
others. a. Standpipe systems are none of the best
internal means for extinguishing fires in
c. Pressure Maintenance (jockey or make buildings and structures. Even in buildings
up) Pumps. Jockey pumps shall have rated equipped with automatic sprinkler systems,
capacities not less than any normal leakage standpipe is necessary. Standpipes are
rate they shall have discharge pressure required in places such as the upper storey
sufficient to maintain the desired fire of high buildings or large areas, low height
protection system pressure. buildings, and in other structures where
construction, size of other features limit the
3.5 Outside Protection use of hose streams from the exterior.
Class I - For use by fire department Minimum water supply for Class
and those trained in handling heavy I and Class Ill service shall be
fire streams 65 mm hose. 1,893 Lpm for 30 minutes.
Class II - For use primarily by the Minimum water supply for Class
buildings occupants until the arrival II service shall be 380 Lpm at 30
of the fire department 38 mm hose. minutes.
Class Ill - For use either by fire 3.7 Local Fire Code Requirements
department and those trained in
handling heavy hose streams 65 a. Fire Code of the Philippines, which is the
mm or by the building occupants 38 Presidential Decree No. 1185, requires that
mm hose. the iollowing establishments be protected
with automatic water sprinkler system.
Standpipe system may be wet-type
or dry standpipe. 1. High Rise Buildings. Structures
or facilities, fifteen (15) meters or
Standpipe systems for Class I and more, measure from the grade level
Ill services shall be sized for a to the floor of the topmost storey, for
minimum flow of 1,893 literlmin every new or old building.
where more than one standpipe is
required, all common 1,893 literlmin 2. Places of Assembly. Stage
for each additional standpipe, the equipped with fly galleries gridirons
first standpipe plus 946.5 literlmin. and rigging for movable theater-
for each additional standpipe, the type scenery and every enclosed
total not to exceed 9,462 Lpm. platform larger than 46.5 square
meters in area.
Standpipe not exceeding 23 m in
height shall be at least 100 mm in 3. Educational Building.
size. Standpipe in excess of 23 mm
in height shall be at least 150 mm in (a) Below the floor of exit discharge.
size. Standpipe shall be limited to
84 meters in height and buildings in 4. General Storage, Boiler, oil furnace
excess of 84 meters shall be zoned rooms, fuel storage, janitor closets,
accordingly. maintenance shop including wood
working and painting areas,
Standpipe systems for Class Ill laundries, and kitchen, (if these
service. Each standpipe shall be areas are not separated from the
sized for a minimum flow of 380 other parts of building with one hour
Lpm. fire resistance material rating and all
openings, are not protected with
Standpipe and supply piping shall self-closing door).
be either hydraulically designed to
provide the required water supplies (a) Any flexible plan or open
at a minimum residual pressure of building in which the travel
4.5 Bars at the topmost outlet. distance to exits exceeding forty
six (46) meters.
(a) Number of Standpipe. The
number of hose stations for (b) Underground and windowless
Class I, II and Class Ill services buildings.
in each building divided by the
walls shall be such that all 5. Institutional Occupancies and
portions of each storey of the Residential Areas. Throughout all
building are within 9 meters of a hospitals, nursing homes; and
nozzle attached to not more residential custodial care facilities
than 30.5 meter of hose. including hazardous areas.
CHAPTER 9 - FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION
(c) Throughout floors below the 1. Class A Fires. Are fires in ordinary
street floor having 232.5 sq. m combustible materials such as
when used for the space, wood, cloth, paper, rubber and
storage or handling of many plastics.
combustible goods and
Merchandise. Extinguishers for protection of Class
A hazards shall be selected from the
7. Business Occupancies. All following: water types, foam, loaded
business occupancy buildings over stream, and multi-purpose dry
15 meters high shall be provided chemicals. The maximum travel
throughout with automatic sprinkler distance to such extinguishers shall
protection. not exceed 22.8 m.
6. Adequate clearance space between All electrical equipment and installation shall
storage piles and any highways and conform to the provisions of the Philippine
railroads. Electrical Code.
4.5 Material Piling. Materials shall be stored in unit All heating equipment shall conform with
piles as low in height and small area as in established fire prevention standards.
consistent with good practice for the material Salamanders, braziers, portable heaters or other
stored. The maximum height will be determined open fires shall not be used.
by the base of pile and type of packaging,
stability of the material and limit of the effective Smoking shall be strictly prohibited in any
reach of hose streams. location where the practice might cause fire.
"No Smoking" signs shall be posted throughout
Aisles shall be maintained between individual the storage area except in specific locations
piles, between piles and buildings and the designated as safe for smoking purposes.
boundary line of the storage site. Sufficient
driveways, having a width of at least 4,500 mm 4.9 Storage and Use of Motor Vehicles Using
shall be provided to permit the travel of fire Gasoline or Liquefied Petroleum Gas as Fuel.
equipment to all portions of the storage area. Vehicles should be garaged in a separate
Aisles shall be not less than 3,000 mm wide to detached building. Storage and handling of fuel
reduce danger of spread of fire from pile to pile shall conform to approved standards of
and to permit ready access for fire fighting, Flammable and Combustible liquids and
emergency removal of materials or for salvage approved standards for the storage and
purposes. Extra combustible materials will Handling of Liquefied Petroieum Gases. Repair
require wide aisles and roads dependent upon operations shall be conducted outside the yard
the height' of the pile and the degree of unless separate masonry walled building is
combustibility. For extra combustible materials, provided. If vehicles are to be greased,
the width of aisles should be equal to the height repaired, painted or otherwise serviced, such
of the pile but not less than 3,000 mm. work shall be conducted in conformance with
standards as approved by the authority having
4.6 Fences. The entire property shall be jurisdiction.
surrounded in the fence or other suitable means
to prevent access of any unauthorized persons. Tarpaulins, used for protection of storage
against the weather, shall be of approved flame
4.7 Buildings. Buildings in outside yards shall be proof fabric.
located with as much clear space to open yard
storage as is practicable but shall be not less Coal-fired steam locomotives shall not be
than 4,500 mm from open yard piling unless allowed to enter the yard where combustible
buildings have blank exterior masonry walls. material is stored unless the smokestack is
Buildings of wood frame construction or protected by a spark arrester and the ash pan is
containing hazardous operations shall be at protected by screens to prevent hot coals from
least 15.2 m from the nearest storage pile; and escaping.
explosion vents, blower outlets, etc., not be
directed toward the yard storage. Oil-fired steam locomotives and Diesel
locomotives from which glowing particles or
4.8 Yard Maintenance and Operations. The entire carbon are emitted from the exhaust stacks shall
storage site shall be kept free from accumulation not be permitted in the yard.
of unnecessary combustible materials. Woods
and grass shall be kept down and regular 4.10 Fire Protection. Provisions shall be made by
procedure provided for the periodic clean-up of some suitable means for promptly notifying the
the entire area. public fire department or private fire brigade in
case of fire or other emergency.
Adequate lighting shall be provided to allow
supervision of all parts of the storage area at Provisions shall be made to permit direction of
night. an adequate number of hose streams on. any
pile or portion of the storage area that may be
involved in fire. Unless adequate protection is
provided by a Municipal fire department,
CHAPTER 9 - FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION
sufficient hose and other equipment shall be a. Regular fire safety audit in every workplace.
kept on hand at the storage property, suitably
housed and provision be made for trained b. Seasonal fire hazard review, like fire
personnel constantly available to put it into prevention month assessment.
operation. Monitor nozzles shall be provided at
strategic points where large quantities of highlv c. Fire prevention awareness shall be
combustible materials are stored. promoted through pamphlets and posters.
Hydrants and all fire fighting equipment shall bc d. Employers shall teach workers to operates
accessible for use at all times. No temporary machines properly and to report any
storage shall be allowed to obstruct access to problems that could cause fire.
fire fighting equipment.
e. Workers shall be empowered to do fire
4.11 Watch Service. Standard watch service shall hazard inspection near machines in their
be provided and continuously throughout the workplace to supplement supervisor, safety
yard and storage area at all times while the yard audit.
is otherwise unoccupied. It is required that there
be some suitable means of supervising the f. A clean workplace program following 5s
watchman's activities to be sure that he makes standard and emphases (sorting, sweeping,
his required rounds at regular intervals. standardizing, and systemizing) and self-
discipline.
Attention is directed to the value of strategically
placed watch towers in large yards where a 7.2 Fire prevention is a term for the many safety
watchman, stationed at a point of vantage, can measures used to keep harmful fires from
keep the entire property under observation. starting this is being carried out by several
Such towers shall be connected to the fire alarm programs in fire safety, like
system so that prompt notification of fire may be
given. a. Laws and specifications.
Section 5.0 Anti-Pollution for Standards b. Inspection of buildings and others company
for Indoor and Outdoor General Storage properties.
Chapter 10
PUMPS
c. Suitable air valve to take out or caused it to move up thru the piping and out of
replenish air in tank should be installed the nozzles or opening.
on top of tank.
2.4 Hydrodynamics is a general term, and is
d. A tank should be designed for maximum generally associated with the science of the
total dynamic pressure required force exerted by water in motion, such as driving
multiplied by two to provide for water a turbine connected to an electric generator.
hammer. Factor of safety should not be
less than five. 2.5 Atmospheric Pressure is due to the weight of
the atmosphere on the earth. At sea level the
e. For tanks of 3785 liters or more a atmospheric pressure is 14.7 PSI, or 29.9
separate air compressor should be inches of Mercury column (Hg), which is
installed to replenish air absorbed by the commonly designated as one atmosphere.
water. Atmospheric pressure diminishes with elevator
above sea level. It is atmospheric pressure on
f. For figuring equipment, pipes fittings an open body of water that forces the water up
and valves, the right pressure ratings in pump suction pipe in those cases when a
should correspond to total dynamic pump takes suction under lift. (A pump should
head multiplied by two to cover water always take a suction under water pressure at
hammer effect. atmospheric pressure).
2.2 Hydrostatics is the science of water at rest. A No matter how many square inches are covered
good example is a gravity tank filled with water by a column of water one foot high, the pressure
and supplying water to closed valve. Until the is still 0.433 pounds per square inch or 0.433
valve is opens, the water is at rest, but its weight PSI. 2.31 is the reciprocal of 0.433.
has potential energy and exerts a definite force,
or static pressure against the closed valve. Pressure is force applied to liquids, or force
developed by the weight of the liquids. Pressure
2.3 Hydrokinetics is a science of water in motion. is also called "head". Pressure is measured in
When the valve in the preceding example two ways:-
opens, the potential energy of static pressure
becomes kinetic energy. The weight of water a. The number of feet the pressure will
force a column of liquid up to rest. This
CHAPTER 10 - PUMPS
is called head in feet, and designated as (or in meters) of mercury (Hg). Differential
h in feet. (closed) manometers, may be used for
measuring differences in pressure, such as the
b. The number of pounds of force exerted difference between two points in a pipe or
on one square inch. This is called between the total and normal pressure at the
pounds per square inch and designed same point in pipe.
as p (PSI) and/or kilogram per square
meter (kg/m2). 2.12 Pilot Tube. (named for its inventor Pilot) is
used to measure the pressure of water
discharging from a nozzle or flowing in a pipe by
having its open end in the water and the other
Bourdon tube -Zero position end connected to a gauge or manometer. The
Pressure Position tube is generally about one-sixteenth inch in
diameter, bent at right angles, and mounted with
a gauge or manometer connected to the long
I
I
end. The short end is held by hand in a hose
I
1
stream, nozzle or flowing water. (See figure
10.2.1; 10.2.2; 10.2.3; and 10.2.4).
The two pressure measurements for water 2.14 Capacity is the rate of flow of liquid measure
are related in this way: per unit of time, usually gallons per minute
(GPM) or liters per minute (LPM).
P (in PSI) = 0.433 h (in feet)
to datum, plus the velocity head at the point of Where: g is the acceleration due
gage attachment. to gravity = 32.17 feet
per second square.
2.17 Velocity Head (Hv) is figured from the average
velocity (v) obtained by dividing the discharge in
cubic feet per second (cfs) or cubic meter
second (cms) by the actual area of the pipe
cross section in square feet or square meter and
determined at the point of the gage connection. and V is average velocity in the
It is expressed by the formula: pipe in feet per second.
a
Tube attachment.
column pipe used to connect the bowls to the They are available as horizontal o
discharge head on which the pump driver is vertical pumps, single or multi-stage
mounted. for wide flow ranges.
m
2.29 Aquifer. An underground formation that Axial-flow units, often called
contains sufficient saturated permeable material Axial-Flow propeller pumps, develop most of
to yield significant quantities of water. their head by lifting action of vanes,
are usually vertical, and best suited
2.30 Aquifer Performance Analysis. A test for low heads, large capacities.
designed to determine the amount of
underground water available in a given field and For clear liquids, turbine pumps,
either horizontal or vertical, fill a
proper well spacing to avoid interference in that Regenerative need between other centrifugal and
field. Basically, test results provide information usual rotary designs. They are low-
concerning transmissibility and storage to-medium-capacity high head.
coefficient (available volume of water) of the
aquifer.
THESE QUICK GUIDES TO THE WORLD OF PUMPS Crank-and-flywheel pumps are one
SHOW THE MAJOR CLASSES AND TYPES IN USE form of reciprocating power pump,
TODAY: Flywheel so designated to distinguish. them
from power pumps using, for
rn
example, an eccentric as drive
Volute The majority of centrifugal pumps mechanism.
built today are the volute type.
CHAPTER 10 - PUMPS
A. CENTRIFUGAL:
Self-priming
Mixed Flow - Semi-open impeller
2.
Radial Flow
I Jet (edudor) I
Gas lift
B. SPECIAL EFFECTS
t 7 1
Stream double acting
-
C.RECIPROCATING: 1. Piston
Plunger
Power
LI multiplex I
2 Diaphragm
multiflex
Piston
D. ROTARY i screw
Circumferential Piston
CHAPTER 10 - PUMPS
-
Casing Gives direction to the flow from defined as the speed in rpm at which a
the impeller and converts this velocity given impeller would operate if reduced
energy into pressure energy which is usually proportionately in size, as to deliver a rated
measured in feet of head. capacity of 1 GPM against a total dynamic
head of one foot. The visualization of this
-
Shaft Transmit power from the driver to definition, however has no practical value for
the impeller. specific speed if used to classify impellers
as to their type or proportions and as a
-
Stuffing Box This is a means of throttling means of predicting other important pump
the leakage which would otherwise occur at characteristics, such as the suction limitation
the point of entry of the shaft into the casing. of the pump.
Usually not a separate part, but rather made
up of a group of small details. The effect of suction lift on a centrifugal
pump is related to its head, capacity and
1. Packing - This is the most common speed. Impellers for high head usually have
means of throttling the leakage low specific speeds. Impellers for low heads
between the inside and outside of usually have high specific speeds. The
the casing. specific speed is found to be very valuable
criterion in determining the permissible
-
2. Gland To position and adjust the maximum suction lift, or minimum suction
packing pressure. head. Abnormally high suction lifts beyond
the suction rating of the pump, usually
Seal Gage (also called water-seal causes serious reductions in capacity and
of lantern ring) - Provides passage efficiency, which often leads to serious
to distribute the sealing medium trouble from vibration and cavitation. For a
uniformly around the portion of the head and capacity, a pump of low specific
shaft that passes through the speed will operate safely with greater
stuffing box. This is very essential suction lift than one of the higher specific
when suction lift conditions prevail speed. Pumps at the higher speeds without
to seal against in leakage of air. proper suction conditions often cause
serious trouble from vibration, noise and
4. Mechanical Seal. Provides a pitting.
mechanical sealing arrangement
that takes the place of the packing. The equation for specific speed of a centrifugal
Basically, it has one surface rotating pump is expressed as follows:
with the shaft and one stationary
face. The minute close clearance Specific Speed, I-
-
Shaft Sleeve Protects the shaft where it
where:
passes through the stuffing box. Usually
used in pumps with packing but often
eliminated if mechanical seals are Ns = specific speed of pump in
employed. RPM
Ns = rated speed of pump,
Wearing Rings - Keeps internal
Q
RPM
= pump capacity in GPM
recirculation down to a minimum. Having
these rings as replaceable wearing surfaces (Note: I gallon = 3.785 liters)
permits renewal of clearances to keep pump H = pump head per stage, feet
efficiencies high. On small types only one Stage (Note: 3.28 ft = 1 meter)
ring is used in the casing and on larger
sizes, companion rings are used in the For double suction pumps the Q value is
casing and on the impeller. determined by dividing the given capacity by 2,
which is then substituted in the formula.
c. Specific Speed. Specific speed is a type
For multi-stage pumps the H value is determined
characteristic of centrifugal pumps and is
by dividing the total head by the number of
CHAPTER 10 - PUMPS
Law a1 Q1 = Capacity
H I = head at N1 RPM or with impeller
Diameter
Dl
Q2 = Capacity
Law a2 H2 = head at N2 RPM or with impeller
Diameter
-H
1 = N
-1 D2
H2 N2
Law a3 Law a1 applies to the Centrifugal, Angle Flow,
Propeller, Peripheral, Rotary and Reciprocating
pumps.
RATED SPEED
3. Foot Valve and Strainer. These
should also be installed at the end
Fig. 10.9 Chart showing effect of speed change on of the suction pipe. The foot-valve
centrifugal pump performance. should be of a size at least equal to
the size of the suction pipe. The
the discharge flow constant clear area of the strainer should be
throughout the length of the stroke at least three times the area of the
and going down to zero value at the suction pipe in order to minimize
instant or reversal of the piston at head loss at this point.
the end of each stroke.
c. Head, Capacity, Efficiency. The total head
2. Crank and Flywheel - as defined for centrifugal pumps also
Reciprocating Pump. This type is applies to reciprocating pumps. It is general
driven by compound, cross- practice of manufacturers of reciprocating
compound, or triple-expansion pumps to state capacities in terms of piston
steam engines. In large sizes such or plunger displacement without deduction
units are known as pumping for the piston rod area or slippage.
engines. Volumetric efficiency is defined as:
3. Power Driven Pumps. This type where:
receives its forward and backward
motion of the piston and plunger Q = actual volume of liquid discharged
from the rotary motion of a revolving
crankshaft by means of a crank and Q+ = true piston or plunger displacement
connecting rod.
Q includes all losses of capacity due to leakage
Reciprocating pumps can be single past piston packing, stuffing boxes, and valves
acting or double acting. They and also that loss due to delayed closing of
can be simplex, duplex, triplex, etc., valves. All losses of capacity given in
depending on the number of water percentage of the displacement are referred to
cylinders on the machine. Due to as slip (1 - e, ). In new pumps the slip is of the
the manner of operation of direct- order of 2%.
acting steam pumps, practically
almost all direct-acting steam 3.5 Deep Well Pumps
pumps are built double acting.
a. Deep well may be divided into plunger or
b. Accessories of Reciprocating Pumps. reciprocating, turbine, ejector-centrifugal
The reciprocating pumps need some types and air lifts.
accessories for better and safe operation
CHAPTER 10 - PUMPS
The water horsepower is: There are several metric methods of specifying
pressure. The most basic is the newton per
WHP = QWH When Q is expressed in square meter (N/m2). However, it is convenient
33 000 gPm to use the term pascal (Pa) which represent one
Newton per square meter; by doing this pascal
or is associated with pressure and not with stress.
Segments of the fluid power industry prefer the
WHP = QH for water at standard term bar, which is equal to 100 000 pascals.
3960 temperature i.e., one gallon The following relationship can be used for
of water weighs 8.334 Ibs. converting to metric:
For liquids other than water or for water at other 1 bar = 100 000 Pa
temperatures than the standard: = 100 000 N/m2
= 14.5 psi
WHP = Q x H x Sp. Gr. 1 inch mercury (at 60°F) = 0.034 bars
3 960
Other manufacturers of fluids power equipment
Where specific gravity of the liquid considered at prefer to express gauge pressure in units of
the corresponding temperature. kglcm2. For basis of comparison
When pressure, expressed in psi, is considered
instead of head, H, in feet, for water H = 2.31 P Ipsi = 0.07045 kgcm2
for standard conditions.
Customarily, fluid flow has been expressed as
WHP = Qx2.31 P = QP gallons per minute for liquids and cubic feet per
3 960 1714 minute for gases. For liquid in metric units,
cubic meter per minute or liters per minute are
When pumping any liquid having a specific usable quantities. The following relationships
gravity against a pressure (P) in psi, the WHP represent relative magnitudes.
equation becomes:
Igpm = 3.785 Iiterslmin. = 0.003785 m3/min.
Power, KW = Qx Wx H
6 130.25
Due to the various losses in the flow of water where:
thru pump, the friction in piping both suction and
discharge, and due to turbulence of the water Q = pump capacity in literslmin.
and the energy, to create the velocity of flow, the W = weight of fluid in kgslliter
brake horsepower required by the pump is much H = total head in meters
greater than the water horsepower. The relation
is:
For cold water, W = 1 kg per liter
BHP = WHP
efficiency hence eq (1) becomes
thus, KW = Q x Hx sp. ~ r a v i t y
6 130.25
= 0.7 ft P x 10
Pressure head = 30 psi x 2.31 Power = Q x sp. Gr. x sp. Gr.
= 69.3 ft. 6 130.25
5.3 Summary of Pump Data. The following table rechecked periodically. To facilitate accurate
10.5.3(a) indicates the minimum recommended field alignment, most manufacturers either do
pipe sizes for the following pump with rated not dowel the pumps or drivers on the base
capacities: plate before shipment, or at most dowel the
pump only.
Table 10.5.3(a) Summary of Pump Data
After the pump and driver unit has been placed
Minimum Pipe Sizes (Nominal) on the foundation the coupling halves should be
Relief Water
disconnected. The coupling should not be
Pump Suction Discharge Relief Valve Valve Meter reconnected until the alignment operations have
Rating
gpmLlmin in.' (mm) in.' (mm) in. (mm) Discharge Device been completed.
in. (mm) in.
1 114
25 (95) 1 (25) 1 (25) 314 (19) 1 (25) A flexible coupling should not be used to
(32)
50 (189) 1 112 (38) 1 114 (32) 1 114 (32) 1 112 (38) 2 (50) compensate for misalignment of the pump and
2 112 driver shafts. The purpose of the coupling is to
100 (379) 2 (50) 2 (50) (38) (50) (65)
150 (568) 2 112 (65) 2 112 (65) 2 (50) 2 112 (65) 3 (75) compensate for temperature changes and to
200 (757) 3 (75) 3 (75) 2 (50) 2 112 (65) 3 (75) permit end movement of the shafts without
interference with each other while transmitting
power from the driver to the pump.
must be taken to have the straight edge parallel the piping of the unit has been connected, the
to the axis of the shafts. alignment should be checked again.
Checking Angular Alignment After the units have been in operation for about
10 hours or three months, the coupling halves
When the alignment is correct, the foundation should be given a final check for misalignment
bolts should be tightened evenly but not too caused by pipe or temperature strains. If the
firmly. The unit can then be grouted to the alignment is correct, both pump and driver
foundation. The base plate should be should be dowelled to the base plate. Dowel
completely filled with grout, and it is desirable to location is very important and the
grout the leveling pieces, shims, or wedges in manufacturer's instructions should be obtained,
place. Foundation bolts should not be fully especially if the unit is subjected to temperature.
tightened until the grout is hardened, usually
about 48 hours after pouring.
Chapter 11
PIPING
Section 1.0 Scope has a plate so suspended that the reverse flow aids
gravity in forcing the plate against a seat, shutting off
This chapter provides general and specific reverse flow.
requirements not only for plant or building piping but
also for general piping installations. It includes Power Compression Joint - A multi-piece joint with cup
Piping System Design and pipe color coding for safety shaped threaded nuts which, when tightened.
and proper fluid identification in the system. compress tapered sleeves so that they form joint on
the periphery of the tubing they connect.
Section 2.0 Definitions
Cross-Over - A small fitting with a double offset, or-
Pipe and Tube -The fundamental difference between shaped like the letter U with the ends turned out. It is
pipe and tube is the dimensional standard to which only made in small sizes and used to pass the flow of
each is manufactured. A pipe is a tube with a round one pipe past another when the pipes are in the same
cross section conforming to the dimensional plane.
requirements for nominal pipe size as tabulated in
table for Pipe Schedules. Expansion Loop - A large radius bend in a pipe line
to absorb longitudinal expansion in the pipe line due to
A tube is a hollow product of round or any other cross heat.
section having a continuous periphery. Round tube
size maybe specified with respect to any two, but not Galvanized Pipe - Steel pipe coated with zinc to
all three of the following: outside diameter or bell at resist corrosion.
one end into which the plain or spigot end of another
- piece is inserted when laying. The joint is then made Gate Valve - A valve a gate, wedge-
tight by cement, oakum, lead, or rubber caulked into fluid when the gate is lifted
the bell around the spigot. from the seat. Such valves have less resistance to
flow than globe valves.
Black Pipe - Steel pipe that has t l v r uGGI I galvanized.
Globe Valve - One with a somewhat globe shaped
~~~l and spigotJoint - The commonly used joint in body with a manually raised or lowered disc which
cast-iron pipe. Each piece is made with an enlarged when rests On a seat as prevent passage
diameter or bell at one end into which the lain or of a fluid.
spigot end of another piece is inserted when' laying.
The joint is then made tight by cement, oakum, lead, Header - A large pipe Or drum which each of a
or rubber caulked into the bell around the spigot. group of boilers is connected. Also used for a large
pipe
. . from which a number of smaller ones are
1 1T~~ - A tee the branch of which is larger
~ ~ ~~~d connected in line and from the side of the large pipe.
than the run.
Malleable Iron - Cast iron heat-treated to reduce its
Butt Weld Joint - A welded pipe joint made with the brittleness. The process enables the materials to
ends of the two pipes butting each other, the weld stretch extent and stand greater
being around the beriphery.-(~efer to Chapter 14
Section 14.3.3.27 no. 6) Manifold - A fitting with a number of branches in line
connecting to smaller pipes. Used largely- . as an
Carbon Steel Pipe - Steel pipe which owes its interchangeable term with header.
properties chiefly to the carbon which it contains.
Medium Pressure - When applied to valves and
Check Valve - A valve designed to allow a fluid to fittings, implies they are suitable for a working
pass through in one direction only. A common type pressure of from 862 to 1207 kPa. (125 to 175 psi).
-
CHAPTER 11 PIPING
Mill.Length - Also known as random length. Run-of- 3.3 All piping to headers shall come from below
mill pipe is 4 880 mm to 6 000 mm in length. Some rack.
pipe are made in double lengths of 9 150 to 10 675
mm. 3.4 All piping from headers shall go up above rack.
Relief Valve - One designed to open automatically to 3.5 All piping above or below racks shall be
relieve excess pressure. supported on separate racks.
Run - A length of pipe made of more than one piece 3.6 All piping should run with slight inclination for
of pipe; a portion of a fitting having its ends in line or drainage of main headers.
nearly so, in contradistinction to the branch or side
opening, as of a tee. 3.7 All piping on racks shall have a sufficient
spacing for pipe or chain wrenches so that any
Saddle Flange - A flange curved to fit a boiler or tank single line can be altered without disturbing the
and to be attached to a threaded pipe. The flange is rest of the piping on rack.
riveted or welded to the boiler or tank.
3.8 All piping 63.5 mm and above shall be flanged
Screwed Flange - A flange screwed on the pipe while smaller sizes can be screwed.
which it is connecting to an adjoining pipe.
3.9 On long headers a pair of flanges shall be
Socket Weld - A joint made by use of a socket weld provided for every three lengths of 6 000 mm of
fitting which has a prepared female end or socket for pipes 63.5 mm and above.
insertion of the pipe to which it is welded.
3.10 On long headers a pair of unions shall be
Standard Pressure - Formerly used to designate provided for every three lengths of 6 000 mm of
cast-iron flanges, fittings, valves, etc., suitable for a pipes smaller than 63.5 mm.
maximum working steam pressure of 862 kPa.
3.11 All piping subject to varying temperature shall be
Street Elbow - An elbow with male thread on one provided with expansion joints or expansion
end, and female thread on the other end. loops to take care of expansion.
Stress-Relieving - Uniform heating of a structure or 3.12 No galvanized piping shall be used for steam.
portion thereof to a sufficient temperature to relieve
the major portion of the residual stresses, followed by 3.13 No piping material shall be used that is easily
uniform cooling. corroded by material passing thru.
Wrought lron - lron refined to a plastic state in a 3.14 All piping shall be clamped by "U" bolts or
puddling furnace. It is characterized by the presence clamps to supporting racks except steam piping.
of about 3 percent of slag irregularly mixed with pure
iron and about 0.5 percent carbon. 3.15 Piping supports shall be placed on a 3 000 mm
intervals or less.
Wrought Pipe -This term refers to both wrought steel
and wrought iron. Wrought in this sense means 3.16 All steam piping shall be supported on rollers or
worked, as in the process of forming furnace-welded sliding support for expansion.
pipe from skelp, or seamless pipe from plates or
billets. The expression wrought pipe is thus used as a 3.17 All piping carrying pressure shall be of sufficient
distinction from cast pipe. When wrought-iron pipe is bursting strength for the pressure applied. A
referred to, it should be designated by its complete minimum factor of safety of 4 for working
name. pressure applied shall be used.
Section 3.0 General Requirements 3.18 A minimum factor of safety of 4 for working
pressure applied shall be used.
3.1 All piping shall be run parallel to building walls.
3.19 For conveying liquids subject to water hammer,
3.2 Grouped piping shall be supported on racks additional safety factor of a minimum of 100% of
either on horizontal or vertical planes. working pressure shall be used.
-
CHAPTER 11 PIPING
Mill.Length - Also known as random length. Run-of- 3.3 All piping to headers shall come from below
mill pipe is 4 880 mm to 6 000 mm in length. Some rack.
pipe are made in double lengths of 9 150 to 10 675
mm. 3.4 All piping from headers shall go up above rack.
Relief Valve - One designed to open automatically to 3.5 All piping above or below racks shall be
relieve excess pressure. supported on separate racks.
Run - A length of pipe made of more than one piece 3.6 All piping should run with slight inclination for
of pipe; a portion of a fitting having its ends in line or drainage of main headers.
nearly so, in contradistinction to the branch or side
opening, as of a tee. 3.7 All piping on racks shall have a sufficient
spacing for pipe or chain wrenches so that any
Saddle Flange - A flange curved to fit a boiler or tank single line can be altered without disturbing the
and to be attached to a threaded pipe. The flange is rest of the piping on rack.
riveted or welded to the boiler or tank.
3.8 All piping 63.5 mm and above shall be flanged
Screwed Flange - A flange screwed on the pipe while smaller sizes can be screwed.
which it is connecting to an adjoining pipe.
3.9 On long headers a pair of flanges shall be
Socket Weld - A joint made by use of a socket weld provided for every three lengths of 6 000 mm of
fitting which has a prepared female end or socket for pipes 63.5 mm and above.
insertion of the pipe to which it is welded.
3.10 On long headers a pair of unions shall be
Standard Pressure - Formerly used to designate provided for every three lengths of 6 000 mm of
cast-iron flanges, fittings, valves, etc., suitable for a pipes smaller than 63.5 mm.
maximum working steam pressure of 862 kPa.
3.11 All piping subject to varying temperature shall be
Street Elbow - An elbow with male thread on one provided with expansion joints or expansion
end, and female thread on the other end. loops to take care of expansion.
Stress-Relieving - Uniform heating of a structure or 3.12 No galvanized piping shall be used for steam.
portion thereof to a sufficient temperature to relieve
the major portion of the residual stresses, followed by 3.13 No piping material shall be used that is easily
uniform cooling. corroded by material passing thru.
Wrought lron - lron refined to a plastic state in a 3.14 All piping shall be clamped by "U" bolts or
puddling furnace. It is characterized by the presence clamps to supporting racks except steam piping.
of about 3 percent of slag irregularly mixed with pure
iron and about 0.5 percent carbon. 3.15 Piping supports shall be placed on a 3 000 mm
intervals or less.
Wrought Pipe -This term refers to both wrought steel
and wrought iron. Wrought in this sense means 3.16 All steam piping shall be supported on rollers or
worked, as in the process of forming furnace-welded sliding support for expansion.
pipe from skelp, or seamless pipe from plates or
billets. The expression wrought pipe is thus used as a 3.17 All piping carrying pressure shall be of sufficient
distinction from cast pipe. When wrought-iron pipe is bursting strength for the pressure applied. A
referred to, it should be designated by its complete minimum factor of safety of 4 for working
name. pressure applied shall be used.
Section 3.0 General Requirements 3.18 A minimum factor of safety of 4 for working
pressure applied shall be used.
3.1 All piping shall be run parallel to building walls.
3.19 For conveying liquids subject to water hammer,
3.2 Grouped piping shall be supported on racks additional safety factor of a minimum of 100% of
either on horizontal or vertical planes. working pressure shall be used.
-
CHAPTER 11 PIPING
Where:
tm = minimum pipe wall thickness in mm
P = maximum internal service pressure in kPa
t = nominal pipe wall thickness in mm
D = outside diameter of pipe in mm
S = allowable stress in materials in kPa
C = allowance for threading, mechanical
strength or corrosion in mm, see Table
11.6.4a
Y = co-efficient for values, see Table 11.6.4b
1-- PlPE
/-
COLOR BANDS EVERY 4500rnrn
7
SEE WAGE 230 OF 2003 ED./
6.7 Pipe
Welded Material:
Fumace Welded
Carbon Steel
Lap Welded A 120 8,800 8,600 8,200 7,800 7,600
Butt Welded A 120 6,500 6,350 6,100 5,850 5,700
Automatically Welded
Sustenitic Stainless
Steel
18% chromium,
8% Ni. -Ti A 312 TP321
18%chromium, 75,000 15,950 15,950 14,450 13,450 12,9000 12,650 12,600
8% Ni. - Cb A 312 TP347
Seamless Material
Carbon steel A 120
5%chrom1urn,-
%% Mo. :: }
A 369
P5
P5b ) 60,000
10,800
15,000
10,600
15,000
10,200
15,000
9,800
15,000
9,600
Seamless
Red brass B 43 8,000 8,000 7,000 3,000
Copper -
2 in.& smaller B 42 6,000 5,500 4,750 3,000
Copper -
over 2 in. B 42 6,000 5,500 4,750 3,000
Copper Brazed Steel A 254 Class 1 42,000 6,000 5,500 4,750 3,000
Class 11 42,000 3,600 3,300 2,850 1,800
Cast iron3
Centrifugally
Cast FSB Types 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000
Metal Molds WW-P-421 I & II
Sand-lined Molds ASA A 21.6 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000
Pit cast ASA B 21.8
ASA A 21.2 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000
h he several types and grades of pipe tabulated above shall not be used at temperature in excess of the maximum temperatures for
which the S values are indicated. (See also specific requirements for service conditions contemplated.) Allowable S values for
intermediate temperatures may be obtained by interpolation.
3~ast-ironpipe shall not be used for lubricating oil lines for machinery and in any case not for oil having a temperature above 300 F.
"For steam at 250 psi (405 F) the values given may be used.
Note: Multiply S in psi by 6.895 to get S in kPa or Divide S in psi by 0.145 to get S in kPa.
CHAPTER 11 PIPING -
Table 11.6.5
Allowable Stresses for Pipe in Power Piping Systems
Note: Where welded construction is used, consideration should be given to the possibility of graphite forrnat:gn ;- t+e following
steels: Carbon steel above 775 F; Carbon-mdybdenum steel above 875 F; Chrome molybdenum steel (with ckrc+uT under 0.60)
above 975 F.
Killed Carbon Steel KC55 55,000 12,400 11.900 10,850 9,200 7.000
KC60 60,000 13.500 12.900 11,650 9,700 7.000
KC65 65,000 14.600 13,950 12,450 10.250 7,000
KC70 70,000 15.750 14,950 13,250 10,800 7,000
Carbon Molybdemun Steel CM65 65.000 14.600 14.600 14,600 14,100 12,950 11,250
CM70 70,000 15.750 15,750 15,750 15,200 13,500 11,450
CM75 75,000 16.850 16,850 16,850 16,200 14,300 11,700
112%chrom.. 112% moly steel 112CR 65,000 14.600 14,600 14.600 14.100 12,950 11,250 9,000 5,600
1%chrom.. %% moly steel 1CR 60,000 13.500 13.500 13,500 13.250 12,750 11.800 9,000 6,750 4.500 2,500
1 %% chrom.. %% moly steel 1 114CR 60.000 13.500 13,500 13,500 13,500 12,950 11,800 9,000 7,000 4,950 3,600
2 %% chrom., 1% moly steel 2 114CR 60,000 13.500 13.500 13.500 13.500 12,950 '11,800 9,000 7,000 5,200 3.750 2.700
Electric Resistance
Welded:
Carbon Steel A53 A3 48.000 10.200 10,200 9.100
B~ 60,000 12.750 12,750 11,000
A 135 A3 48,000 10,200 10.200 9.100
B~ 60.000 12.750 12.750 11,000
Automatically Welded
Stainless Steel:
18% Cr-8% Ni-Ti A 312 TP321 75,000 Note6 12.550 12.550 12.350 12,150 12,000 11,750 11,500 11,150 750 6,450 4,250
18% Cr-8% Ni-Cb TP347
Seamless Material
Carbon Steel A53 A 48.000 12,000 11.650 10.700 9.000 7,100 5,000
A 53 B 60.000 15,000 14.350 12.950 10.800 7,800 5.000
Note: Where welded construction is used, consideration should be given to the possibility of graphite forrnat:gn ;- t+e following
steels: Carbon steel above 775 F; Carbon-mdybdenum steel above 875 F; Chrome molybdenum steel (with ckrc+uT under 0.60)
above 975 F.
Killed Carbon Steel KC55 55,000 12,400 11.900 10,850 9,200 7.000
KC60 60,000 13.500 12.900 11,650 9,700 7.000
KC65 65,000 14.600 13,950 12,450 10.250 7,000
KC70 70,000 15.750 14,950 13,250 10,800 7,000
Carbon Molybdemun Steel CM65 65.000 14.600 14.600 14,600 14,100 12,950 11,250
CM70 70,000 15.750 15,750 15,750 15,200 13,500 11,450
CM75 75,000 16.850 16,850 16,850 16,200 14,300 11,700
112%chrom.. 112% moly steel 112CR 65,000 14.600 14,600 14.600 14.100 12,950 11,250 9,000 5,600
1%chrom.. %% moly steel 1CR 60,000 13.500 13.500 13,500 13.250 12,750 11.800 9,000 6,750 4.500 2,500
1 %% chrom.. %% moly steel 1 114CR 60.000 13.500 13,500 13,500 13,500 12,950 11,800 9,000 7,000 4,950 3,600
2 %% chrom., 1% moly steel 2 114CR 60,000 13.500 13.500 13.500 13.500 12,950 '11,800 9,000 7,000 5,200 3.750 2.700
Electric Resistance
Welded:
Carbon Steel A53 A3 48.000 10.200 10,200 9.100
B~ 60,000 12.750 12,750 11,000
A 135 A3 48,000 10,200 10.200 9.100
B~ 60.000 12.750 12.750 11,000
Automatically Welded
Stainless Steel:
18% Cr-8% Ni-Ti A 312 TP321 75,000 Note6 12.550 12.550 12.350 12,150 12,000 11,750 11,500 11,150 750 6,450 4,250
18% Cr-8% Ni-Cb TP347
Seamless Material
Carbon Steel A53 A 48.000 12,000 11.650 10.700 9.000 7,100 5,000
A 53 B 60.000 15,000 14.350 12.950 10.800 7,800 5.000
Note: Where welded construction is used, consideration should be given to the possibility of graphite formation in the following steels:
Carbon steel above 775 'F; carbon-molybdenum steel above 875 OF; Chrome-molybdenum steel (with chromium under 0.60) above 975 O F .
'To change 'Wt of Water in Pipe (Iblft) to kglmeter of water, multi. by 1.488
*T3 change sq Wft to sq mlmeter, multiply by 0.305
+ S is designation of standard wall pipe
X s h e ;-ation of extra strong wall pipe
-
CHAPTER 11 PIPING
b. For pressure above 1724 kPa, but not specifications A-1 93. For
above 4137 kPa, pipe shall be: temperature exceeding 400°C, only
bolts studes are recommended.
1. Seamless steel in accordance with When cast iron flanges are used,
ASTM specification A-1 06. bolting material shall be of carbon
steel conforming to ASTM
2. Electric-fusion welded steel pipe of specification A-307, Grade B, or A-
ASTM specification A-1 55. 107, Grade 1120.
equivalent to ASTM A-307 Grade B, without a. Piping and equipment shall be supported in
heat-treatment othen than stress relief. a thoroughly substantial and workman like
When bolting such flanges together using manner, rigid enough to prevent excessive
full face gasket, the bolting may be heat vibration and anchored sufficiently to
treated carbon steel (ASTM A-261) or alloy prevent undue strains on boilers and the
steel (ASTM A-1 93). equipment served. Hangers, supports, and
anchors shall be made of durable materials.
e. 2069 kPa steel flanges may be bolted to In tunnels and buildings of permanent fire
cast-iron valves, fittings, or other parts proof construction, piping may be supported
having either integral Class 1724 kPa cast- on or hung from wood structures if all piping
iron flanges or screwed Class 1724 kPa used for conveying fluid at temperatures
Cast-iron companion flanges without any above 121°C us spaced or insulated from
changes in the raised faces on either flange. such wooden members to prevent
Where such construction is used, the bolting dangerous heating.
shall be of carbon steel equivalent to ASTM
A-307 Grade B, without heat treatment other b. Hangers and supports shall permit free
than stress relief. expansion and contraction of the piping
between anchors. All piping shali be carried
6.10 Fittings on adjustable hangers properly leveled
supports, and suitable springs, sway
a. The minimum meal thickness of all flange or bracing, vibration dampeners, etc. shall be
screwed fittings and the strength of factory- provided where necessary.
made welding fittings shall not be less than
that specified for the pressure and 6.13 Pipe Sleeves
temperatures in the respective American
Standards. a. Where steam pipe pass through walls,
partitions, f!oors, beams, etc., constructed of
b. All fittings in nominal sizes above; 80 mm for combustible material, protecting metal
pressures above 1724 kPa but not above sleeves or thimbles shall be provided to give
2758 kPa; 50 mm for pressures above 2758 a clearance of not less than 6.35 mm under
kPa but not above 4137 kPa, and 40 mm for hot and cold conditions all around the pipe,
pressures above 4137 kPa but not above or pipe and covering. When steam pipes
17238 kPa shall have flanged ends or pass through metal partitions, etc., a
welding ends. clearance of at least 6.35 mm under hot and
cold conditions shall be left all around the
6.11 Gaskets pipe, or pipe covering. In any cases, if the
fluid temperature exceeds 121°c, the pipe
a. Gaskets where required, shall be of material shall be insulated inside the sleeve with a
that resists attack by the fluid carried in the covering of at least standard thickness.
pipe line, shall be strong enough to hold the
pressure, and perform the purpose intended Walls, floors, partitions, beams, etc., shall
throughout the temperature range not be cast solidly to or built up around and
encountered. Gaskets shall be as thin as the in contact with a steam, hot water, or hot oil
finish of the surface that will permit to pipe. Where such pipe must be installed in a
reduce possibility of blowing out. concrete floor or other building member, it
shall be protected for the entire buried
b. Paper, vegetable fiber, rubber or rubber length with a suitable protecting pipes
inserted gaskets shall not be used for sleeve of steel, cast iron, wrought iron, or
temperatures in excess of 121"C. tile; exception maybe taken to the preceding
rules where pipes pass through walls, floors,
c. Asbestos composition gaskets may be used partitions, etc., that must be kept water tight.
as permitted in the American Standard for
steel pipe flanges and flange fittings. This 6.14 Drains, Drips, and Steam Traps
type of gaskets shall not be used on lines
carrying oil or other a. Suitable drains or drips shall be provided
wherever necessary to drain the condensate
6.12 Hangers, Supports, Anchors from all sections of the piping and
-
CHAPTER 11 PIPING
equipment whenever it may collect. Suitable If a hydrostatic mill test pressure for pipe is
drains shall also be provided to empty water, not stated in any of the specifications
lines, water storage tanks, equipment enumerated in Table 11.6.2, the pipe shall
containing water, etc., when such piping and be capable of meeting a minimum internal
equipment is out of service. At least one hydrostatic test pressure determined from
valve shall be placed in each drip or drain the formula.
line.
the discharge line from each trap. ex(:eed 17 238 kPa for sizes
2. Weight of pipe, fittings and valves, a. Piping systems shall be designed to have
containing fluid and insulation, and sufficient flexibility to prevent thermal
other external loadings such as expansion from causing:
wind.
1. Failure from over-stress of the
3. Thermal expansion of the line. piping material or anchors
A = Mean Coefficient of Thermal Expansion x 1ob (In.llnlF] in Going from 70 F to Indicated Temperature
B = Linear Thermal Expansion (ln.1100Ft)
I I
Temperature Range - 70 F to
ate rial Coefficient
70 200 300 600 1 700 1 800 1 900 1 1000 1 1100 1 1200 1 1300 1 1400
Carbon Steel:Carbon-molv steel A -- 1 6.38 1 6.60 7.23 1 7.44 1 7.65 1 7.84 1 7.97 1 8.12 1 8.19 1 8.28 1 8.36
low-chrom; steels (thru 3%cr)
h)
h)
m Monel
67 Ni.- 30 Cu
Monel
66 Ni
Aluminum
Bronze
Brass
Wrought iron
Wrought iron
Notes: "C = O F- 32
1.82
CHAPTER 11 PIPING -
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-
CHAPTER 11 PIPING
Where the sum of these stresses is less C = cold spring factor varying
than Sh the difference between Sh and this from zero for no cold
sum may be added to the term 0.25 Sh in spring to one for 100 per
the above formula. The longitudinal cent cold spring
pressure stress Sep shall be determined by SE = maximum computed
dividing the end force due to internal expansion stress
pressure:
Ec = modulus of elasticity in the
cold condition
R = range of reactions
corresponding to the full
expansion range based on
EC.
D = nominal outside diameter of pipe, mm Section 7.0 Industrial Gas and Air Piping
Systems
1. The reactions (forces and moments)
Rh and R, in the hot and cold 7.1 This industrial air and gas in mines, power
conditions, respectively, shall be plants, industrial and gas manufacturing plants.
obtained as follows from the
reactions R derived from the a. Piping with metal temperature above 2 3 2 ' ~
flexibility calculations based on the or below - 2.9 OC.
- CHAPTER 11 PIPING-
Unreinforced -
0.9
1 h213
fabricated tee 1.2
,t = minimum pipe wall thickness in mm, i.e., Alternatively, the effective yield strength maybe
nominal wall thickness less the determined by internal hydrostatic pressure
manufacturing tolerance for the tests on finished lengths of pipe or on cylindrical
thickness. Where available from on samples cut from the results of such tests in
hand or in stock, the actual measured accordance with the following formula:
wall thickness maybe used to calculate
the maximum allowable operating K =m
pressure. 2t
C = corrosion in millimetre obtained from the Where: K =effective yield strength in kPa
following:
CHAPTER 11 PIPING -
Py =pressure at the yield strength Electric furnace or
open hearth (Class
of the pipe in kPa. 1) API 5L 9,000 7,800
Grade A ASTM A-155 14.400 12,500 b. For refrigerants not listed in Table 11.8.2.1
Grade B ASTM A-155 16,200 14,050 the design pressure for the high-pressure
Grade C ASTM A-155 18,000 15,600
Ordinary 14,400 side shall be not less than the saturated
Grade A ASTM A-139 16,800 12,500 vapour pressure of the refrigerant at 54 OC.
Grade B ASTM A-139 0.48~~ 14,550
ASTM A-134 0.42Y3 The design pressure for the low-pressure
side shall be not less than the saturated
Double-submerged arc API ~ L X ' 0.60Y3
welded vapour pressure of the refrigerant at 32 OC.
For refrigerant not listed in Table 11.8.2.1 &
Electric Resistance- having a critical temperature below 54Oc,
welded steel:
Grade A ASTM A-135 18,000 15.600 the design pressure for the high pressure
Grade B ASTM A-135 21,000 18.190 side shall be not less than 1.5 times the
Grade A ASTM A-53 18,000 15.600
Grade B ASTM A-53 21,000 18.190 critical pressure and the design pressure for
Grade A API -5L 18,000 15.600 the low-pressure side shall be not less than
Grade B API -5L 21,000 18,190
API ~ L X ' 0.51Y3
the critical pressure. In no case shall be
design pressure be less than 270 kPa.
Lap-Welded Steel:
High Low
Material pressure pressure
Formula Side
Side
Where: Group I
tm= minimum pipe wall thickness in mm Carbon dioxide cos 1,500 1,000
Dichlorodifluoromethana CClpFp 170 85
(Freon- 12)
P= maximum internal service pressure in
kPa (plus allowance for temperatures Dichloromethane (Carrene
as provide in Sec. 11.8.2.4 and water No.1) Methylene chloride) CHZCIZ 30 30
hammer allowance for cast-iron pipe
as provided in Sec. 11.8.2.3). The Dichloromonofluoromethane
(Freon - 21) CH CI2F 50 30
value of P shall not be taken at less
than 689.5 kPa for any condition of Dichlorotetrafluoromethane
service or material. (Freon - 114) CzCIzF4 55 30
principle of intrinsic safety. They must "fail safe" a. The inlet and outlet piping can reduce the
or not at all. Therefore, the solution to problems capacity of the device below a safe value.
in pressure relief piping must be based on
sound design practices. Because failure is b. The operation of the device maybe
intolerable, simplicity and directness of design adversely affected to the point where the
should be encouraged as a mass to reliability. opening or closing pressure is altered. In the
case of safety valves*, premature leaking or
There are at least four good reasons why the "simmering" may occur at pressures less
installation of pressure safety valves and disc than the set pressure or chattering may
should be engineered with care: occur after the valve opens.
Table 11.8.3 c. The reaction thrust at the same time the
Allowable S Values for Pipe and Tubing
device starts to discharge can cause
in Refrigerating Systems
mechanical failure of the piping.
Values of
Material Specification
S PSI d. Good design saves maintenance pesos.
Steel Pipe (Grade A) ASTM A - 53 - Pipe
and tubing 8.5 Safety Valve Inlet Piping
Seamless - -
ASTM A 83 Tube
ASTM A - 120 - Pipe
ASTM A - 179 - Tube In order to operate satisfactorily, a safety valve
-
ASTM A 192 - Tube must be mounted vertically. It should be directly
ASTM A - 106 - Pipe
API 5L - Pipe on the vessel nozzle or on a short connection
Steel Pipe (Grade B) and - -
ASTM A 53 Pipe fitting that provides direct and unobstructed flow
Tubing
Seamless ASTM A - 106 - Pipe between the vessel and the valve. Safety valves
ASTMA-210-Tube protecting piping systems should of course be
Steel Pipe, Lap Welded ASTM A - 53 - Pipe
-
ASTM A 120 - Pipe mounted in a similar manner. The device may
API 5L - Pipe never be installed on a fitting having a smaller
Steel Pipe, Butt Welded - -
ASTM A 53 Pipe inside diameter than the safety valve inlet
-
ASTM 120 Pipe
Steel Pipe, or Tube, ASTM - 135 - Pipe connection.
Electric-Resistance Grade A
Welded Grade B 121750
ASTM A - 178 ) Tube 10,200 Water Hammer
ASTM A - 214 -Tube 10,200 Pipe Diameter Sizes
Allowance, kPa
-
ASTM A 226 -Tube 10,200
Steel, or Pipe Seamless
Alloy ASTM A - 312 - Pipe 100mm to 250mm incl.
Grades TP 321
TP 347 ASTM A- 213 - Tube 18,750 300mm to 350mm incl.
Steel Tube-Electric 400mm to 450mm incl.
Resistance-Welded
Alloy, Grades TP 321 ASTM a-249 15,900 500mm
TP 347 600mm
(Note: 0.85 joint Efficiency)
Steel Tube, cooper Brazed -
ASTM A 254
750mm
. . Class I 6.000 ,900mm
Class II 3,000
Wrought Iron, Lap Welded ASTM A - 72
API 5L 8.000
Wrought Iron, Butt welded ASTM A - 72 6.000 8.6 Pressure Drop
Cast-Iron Pipe, Pit-Cast' ASA 21.2 4.000
Cast-iron, Centrifugally Cast
or cast horizontally The pressure drop between the vessel and
in Green Sand Molds FSBWW-P-421 6.000
safety valve inlet flange should not be so large
"Brass Pipe, Seamless that the valve is "starved" or chattering will
Red Brass ASTM B -43 7.000 result. The following limitations are suggested:
**Copper Pipe, Seamless ASTM B -42 6,000
"Copper Tubing, Seamless ASTM B -88 6.000
ASTM B -68 6.000 a. The pressure drop due to friction should not
ASTM B -208T 6,000
exceed 1 percent of the accumulated
*Cast-iron is allowed only for non-volatile refrigerants. relieving pressure.
**Brass pipe, copper pipe seamless copper tubing seamless, b. The pressure drop due to velocity head loss
temperature limit 250 o (12IoC).
should not exceed 2 percent of the
NOTE: Multiply values by 6.895 to get S in kPa. accumulated relieving
-
CHAPTER 11 PIPING
Safety valves, although they may not be 2 Vertical risers shall be supported from
included under heading of "delicate the building construction by means of
instruments", nonetheless instruments. They are approved pipe clamps of U-bolts at
required to measure within three percent and to every floor. Provide slide guides for
perform a specific control function. Excessive pipes subject to thermal expansion.
strain on the valve body adversely affects its Supports shall be of adequate. size
ability to measure and control. structural steel shapes or sections
where pipe clamps are too short to
Supports for discharge piping should be connect to the building.
designed to keep the load on the valve to a
minimum. In high temperature service, high B. Pipe Anchors and Restraints:
loads will cause permanent distortion of the
valve because of creep in the metal. Even at low 1. Where piping is subject to thermal
temperature, valve distortion will cause the valve expansion and where expansion
to leak at pressures lower than the set pressure loops, expansion joints and offsets are
and result in faulty operation. The discharge indicated, provide suitably designed
piping should be supported free of the valve and pipe anchors to limit pipe thermal
carefully aligned so that the forces acting on the expansion and over stressing of pipe
valve will be at minimum when the equipment is and adjacent connecting structures.
under normal operating conditions. Expansion
joints or long radius bends of proper design and a. Rigid pipe anchors shall either be
cold spring should be provided to prevent welded type construction or clamp
excessive strain. bolted type whichever is suitable
to the requirement..
The major stresses to which the discharge pipe
is subjected are usually due to thermal b. Directional type pipe anchors
expansion and discharge reaction forces. The where pipe movement is allowed
sudden release of compressible fluid into a in any one plate shall be designed
multi-directional discharge pipe produces an to prevent excessive stresses to
impact load and bourdon effect at each charge the pipe and interference with
of direction. The piping must be adequately adjacent pipes or structure. .
anchored to prevent sway or vibration while the
valve is discharging. 2. Piping restraints shall be provided to
prevent unnecessary pipe movements
CHAPTER 11 PIPING -
due to vibration and seismic forces negligible. However, since it is usually
and damage to pipe joints such as possible to trap air or gas in any pressure
cast iron pipe, soldered copper pipes system, it is recommended that K = 104 be
and others as required. used in the above formulas as a basis
design for liquid service.
8.8 Reaction Forces
Here are values of K which can be safely
The total stress imposed on a safety valve or its - used for common fluids.
piping is caused by the sum of these forces:
a. Internal pressure
Air and diatomic gases 1.4 0.53
b. Dead weight of piping Steam 1.3 0.55
NH3, C02, CH4, and SO2 vapors 1.3 0.55
c. Thermal expansion or contraction of either Helium, Argon 1.67 0.49
the discharge line of the equipment upon
which the valve is mounted and 8.9 Compressor Piping
d. The bending moment cause by the reaction Piping in a compressor circuit should connect
thrust of the discharge. directly point to point; bends instead of elbows
give less friction loss and less vibration;
All of these stresses except the latter are angular branch connections eliminate hard
common to practically every problem in tees and give a smoother flow; double offsets
piping stress analysis. for directional change should be avoided;
closely integrated intercoolers with the
The magnitude of the reaction force machine minimizes piping; pulsation
resulting from the instantaneous release of a dampeners should be located on the cylinders
compressible fluid maybe calculated from without any interconnecting pipe; knockout
the two simple formulas given below. drums should be adjacent to the machine;
several aftercoolers or exchangers in the
For safety valve: circuit should be stacked as much as possible
for a direct gas flow; and equipment in the
circuit should be in process flow sequence.
Chapter 12
METROLOGY
Section 1.0 Purpose and Scope second-ampere). In 1960 the CGPM, formerly
named this system the Systeme International d'
To familiarize all practitioners with the concepts and Unites, for which the abbreviation is SI in all
techniques of measuring instruments. It covers the languages.
application of metrology in all industries, which
concerns with the fundamental standards and At the present time most of the industrially
techniques of measurements, and with the scientific advanced metric-using countries are changing
principles of the instrumentation involved. from their traditional metric system to SI.
Section 2.0 Definitions The SI, like the traditional metric system, is
based on decimal arithmetic. For each physical
CorrectnesslAccuracy - Degree of conformity of a
quantity, units of different size are formed by
measured or calculated value to some recognized multiplying or dividing a single base value by
standard or specific value. The difference between the powers of 10.
measured and true value is the error of the
measurement. Precision is the repeatability of the The SI is a coherent system, because the
measuring process, or how well identically performed product or quotient of any two units' quantities in
measurement agree, which concept applies to a set of the system is the unit of the resultant quantity.
measurements. For example in a coherent system in which the
meter is the unit of length, the square meter is
TolerancelAllowance - Tolerance is the amount of the unit of area.
variation permitted in the part of total variation allowed
in a given dimension while allowance is the minimum A system of measurements, such as the Le
clearance space intended between the mating parts Systeme lnternational d' Unites (SI) satisfies
and represents the conditions of tightest possible fit. certain concepts, where units are used. The SI
system is a decimal system composed of six
Standard - Something that is set up and established base units, two supplemental units and
by authority as a rule for the measure of quantity, additionally derived units as given in Table 12.1,
weight, extent, value or quality. SI System of Measurements in Table 12.2 for
easy reference, Table 12.3 are some conversion
SensitivitylReadibility - Sensitively and readibility factors commonly used, and Table 12.4 Multiple
are primarily associated with the measuring process. and Sub-Multiple Units.
Sensitivity is the ability of a measuring device to detect
small differences in a quality being measured, while 3.2 Mechanics
readibility is the susceptibility of a measuring device to
having its indication converted to a meaningful a. The use of the Metric SI System in
number. Mechanics Calculations. The SI system is a
development of the traditional metric system
based on decimal arithmetic; fractions are
Section 3.0 Measurement Concepts avoided. For each physical quantity, units of
different size are formed by multiplying or
3.1 The lnternational System of Units (SI). dividing a single base value by powers of
10. Thus, changes can be made very simple
The Conference Generale des Poids et by adding zeroes or shifting decimal points.
Measures (CGPM) which is the body For example, the meter is the basic unit .of
responsible for all international matters length; the kilometre is a multiple (1,000
concerning the metric system, adopted in 1954, meters); and the millimetre is a sub-multiple
a rationalized and coherent system of units, (one-thousandths of a meter).
based on the four MKSA units (meter-kilogram-
CHAPTER 12 METROLOGY-
In the older metric system, the simplicity of a applied without introducing such numbers as
series of units linked by powers of 10 is an 550 in power calculations, which, in the
advantage for plain quantities such as English system of measurement have to be
length, but this simplicity is lost as soon as used to convert units. Thus, conversion
more complex units are encountered. For factors largely disappear from calculations
example, in different branches of science carried out in SI units, with a great saving in
and engineering, energy may appear as the time and labor.
erg, the calorie, the kilogram-meter, the liter-
atmosphere, or the horse power-hour. In 1. Mass, weight, force, load. SI is an
contrast, the SI provides only one basic unit absolute system, and consequently
for each physical quantity, and universality is it is necessary to make a clear
thus achieved. distinction between mass and
weight. The mass of a body is
There are six base-units, and in mechanics measure of its inertia, whereas the
calculations three are used, which are for weight of a body is the force exerted
the basic quantities of length, mass, and on it by gravity. In a fixed
time, expressed as the meter (m), the gravitational field, weight is directly
kilogram (kg), and seconds (s). The other proportional to mass, and the
three base-units are the ampere (A) for distinction between the two can be
electric current, the Kelvin (K) for thermo- easily overlooked. However, if a
dynamic temperature, and the candela (cd) body is moved to a different
for luminous intensity. gravitational field, for example, that
of the moon, its weight alters, but its
The SI is a coherent system. A system of mass remain unchanged. Since the
units is said to be coherent if the product or gravitational field on earth varies
quotient of any two unit quantities in the from place to place by only a small
system is the unit of the resultant quantity. amount, and weight is proportional
For example, in a coherent system in which to mass, it is practical to use the
the foot is a unit of length, the square foot is weight of unit mass as a unit of
the unit of area, whereas the acre is not. force, and this procedure is adopted
in both the English and older metric
Other physical quantities are derived from systems of measurement. In
the base-units. For example, the unit of common usage, they are given the
velocity is the meter per second (mls), which same name, and we say that a
is a combination of the base units of length mass of 1 pound has a weight of 1
and time. The unit of acceleration is the pound. In the former case the pound
meter per second squared ( m l s ' ) . ~ ~ is being used as a unit of mass, and
applying Newton's second law motion - in the latter case, as a unit of force.
force is proportional to mass multiplied by This procedure is convenient in
acceleration - the unit of force is obtained some branches of engineering, but
which is the kg m2/s2.This unit is known as leads to confusion in others.
the Newton, or N. Work, or force times
distance, is the kg m2/s2,which is the joule, As mentioned earlier, Newton's
(1 joule = 1 newton-meter) and energy is second law of motion states that
also expressed in these terms. The force is proportional to mass times
abbreviation for joule is J. Power, or work acceleration. Because an
per unit time, is the kg m2/s2, which is the unsupported body on the earth's
watt (1 watt = 1 joule per second = 1 surface falls with acceleration g (32
newton-meter per second). The abbreviation ft/s2 approximately), the pound
for watt is W. (force) is that force which will impart
an acceleration of g ft/s2 to a pound
The coherence of SI units has two important (mass). Similarly, the kilogram
advantages. The first is that of uniqueness (force) is that force which will impart
and therefore universality, has been an acceleration of g (9.8 meters per
explained. The second is that it greatly second2 approximately), to a mass
simplifies technical calculations. Equations of one kilogram. In the SI, the
representing physical principles can be newton is that force which will
CHAPTER 12 METROLOGY -
impart unit acceleration (lm/s2) to a meters is RL Nm, or RL joules.
mass of one kilogram. It is therefore If this work were converted
smaller than the kilogram (force) in entirely into kinetic energy we
the ration 1:g (about 1:9.8). This fact could write RL = 1/2 M V and
~ it is
has important consequences in instructive to consider the units.
engineering calculations. The Remembering that the N is the
factory now disappears from a wide same as the kg m/s2, we have
range of formulas in statics where it (kg m/s2) x m = kg (m/sy which
was formerly absent. It is however is obviously correct. It will noted
not quite the same g, for reasons that g does not appear
which will now be explained. anywhere in these statements.
The basic unit Nlm2 is very small, it Secttion 5.0 Graduated Manual Measuring
is on1 0.15 x 10 lb/in2, hence the ~~~l~
Y-
kN/m (- 1o6 N/m2) are much more
frequently encountered. The latter is
sometimes written as N/mm2. In Rules - the most generally used graduated
some countries the bar = l o 5 N/m2 measuring instrument in the industrial metrology
and hectobar = l o 7 N/m2 are field for approximately determining linear
employed. The safest rule is to dimensions, which are made with various
convert to the basic unit before dimensions, graduations, and accuracies. Rules
starting any calculations. shall be manufactured or carbon steel or
stainless steel.
4.0 Classification of the Common
Measuring lnstruments Used in Industry a. Shrink Rules - commonly employed in the
pattern-making trade where the casting of
4.1 Linear Measurement metals are involved, which automatically
take into consideration the shrink
a. Direct Reading allowances of the materials being cast.
fixtures work necessitate accurately measuring blade shape which are used for checking the
or marking off vertical distances. root diameter of circular form tools as well
as the diameter of circular form tools as well
a. Vernier Depth Gages - provide long range as the diameter and depth of narrow slots,
accuracy for determining the depths of keyways, recesses, etc.
holes, slots, and recesses as well as
measuring from a plane surface to d. Quick-adjusting micrometers - allow the
toolmaker's buttons in locating center spindle to be slid quickly to any point within
distances. their range which makes them particularly
efficient thousandths-reading micrometers
b. Gear Tooth Vernier Calipers - used to for checking work where a variety of
check the pitch line thickness of gear teeth dimensions are involved.
by measuring the tooth chord at a specific
distance (chordal addendum) from the top of e. Sccrew thread micrometers - are designed
the gear tooth. The Gage consists of two to measulre the pitch diameter of screw
independently actuated Vernier calipers, ~ ~ a .u+,Lv athousandths accuracy by the use
t h.-,.-An
each having its own movable slide, but the of a pointed spindle and double V-anvil
beams and the stationary jaw are made of a which are available for varying diameters of
common single piece. One of the slides has work and each size normally covers a range
the form of a plate, called the tongue of the of the threads-per-centimeter.
instrument, which contacts the top of the
gear tooth, by moving this slide, the Gage f. Inside micrometer - used for measuring
can be adjusted to operate at the desired the diameters of holes and other inside
addendum distance. The second slide, dimensions, consists of a permanent contact
integral with the movable jaw, carries out the micrometer head and a set of
actual chordal thickness measurement at interchangeable rods in various increments
the pitch line. which are seated snugly in the opposite end
of the head against a shoulder and locked
5.4 Micrometer Calipers - most useful close securely.
tolerance measuring devices for quick and
accurate measurements to the thousandth part 5.5 Protractor consists of a rectangular head
of a centimeter. graduated in degrees along a semicircle, with a
blade pivoted on the center pin, any angle from
a. Outside Micrometer - precision-measuring 0 to 180" can be set.
instruments used in determining outside
measurements, and classified into (a) a. Combination protractor and depth gage
Interchangeable anvil micrometers, (b) is a combination of a movable graduated
Multiple anvil micrometers (c) High precision blade (depth gage) and a graduated
micrometers, (d) Dial indicating protractor head.
micrometers, (e) Direct reading
micrometers, (f) V-anvil micrometers, (g) b. Universal bevel protractor consists of a
Disc-type micrometers, (h) Blade type round body with a fixed blade, on which a
micrometers, (i) Quick-adjusting graduated turret rotates. The turret is slotted
micrometers, and (j) Screw thread to accommodate an 18 or 30-centimeter
micrometers. non-graduated blade. Through a locking
mechanism any desired angle and the blade
b. Direct-reading micrometers - are read length can be seen. This tool has a vernier
directly in thousandths from figures reading to 5 minutes and can be furnished
appearing in small windows on the barrel of with or without a fine adjustment feature.
the micrometer, "tenths" (of thousandths) The dial of the protractor is graduated
direct reading micrometers, however, around a complete circle and an angle up to
employ a vernier for establishing the "tenths" 360°can be laid out accurately.
figures.
5.6 Dial Indicator - a dial indicator is composed.of
c. Blade-type micrometers - are an a graduated dial, spindle, pointers and a
adaptation of standard micrometers in which satisfactory means of supporting or clamping it
'the anvil and spindle ends are thinned to a firmly, which is used to measuring inaccuracies
CHAPTER 12 METROLOGY-
in alignment eccentricity, and deviations on transferred to a graduated measuring tool to
surfaces supposed to be parallel. In gaging determine measurement required.
work, it gives a direct reading of tolerance
variations from the exact size. Dial indicators are 6.2 Bevels - consists of two three-non-graduated
classified as American Gage Design standard slotted blades with one or two screws and
indicators and dial test indicators. knurled nuts connecting them, by loosening the
nuts, the blades can be set to varying angles.
a. Dial Test Indicators - commonly known as With this tool, one can easily transfer angles
the toolmaker's indicators which are smaller from a master to a work piece or vice versa with
than the smallest A.G.D. standard indicator moderate accuracy.
and because of its small size and its thin
tapered body, it can be employed in many 6.3 -
Trammels used in sizes beyond the range of
places not accessible with other indicators dividers, consist of a long bar on which two arms
and also used as an accessory with many or trammels slide. Trammels are designed for
machine tools. layout work and use inside, outside or divider
legs and some are furnished with ball points, to
5.7 Planimeter - the planimeter (planekator) is a permit working from holes. Some are also
tool for checking the flatness of plane surfaces furnished with an adjustable screw on one of the
to tenths-of-thousandths of a centimeter and trams, for fine adjustment of the point for easy
consists of a diabase straight edge, an setting.
adjustable mounting for the straight edge, and a
0.00005 cm. reading indicator. The straight edge 6.4 Gages - a gage is a device used to determine
is always in the same reference plane at every whether the part has been made to the tolerance
position on the surface being checked. Readings required and does not usually indicate a specific
are taken under the straight edge and recorded dimension.
directly into the contour chart of the plane being
checked. Points of equal height are connected a. Telescoping gages cover a range from 4
to form a visual picture of the high and low mm to 150 mm. Two types are commonly
points in the plane. Extreme care shall be taken used in industry. One type has a handle with
in handling this gage to retain its accuracy and one stationary contact and one spring
not to damage the surface being checked. plunger contact with locking device set at
right angles to the handles while the other
Section 6.0 Non-Graduated Manual one has a handle with two plunger-contacts
Measuring Tools at right angles to the handle.
7.1 Tap and Drill Gages - consist of a flat rectangle directed into the part to be tested to determine
of steel with holes accurately drilled and the metal thickness precisely.
identified according to their size. These cover
letter size, number size, fractional size and 8.6 Eddy Current Testing. This method is useful
National Fine and Coarse Thread Series. for flaw detection, sorting by metallurgical
properties such as hardness and thickness
Wire Gages - are round steel plates with slots measurement. The changes of magnitude and
of ascending width along their edge. Each hole phase difference can be used to sort parts
is numbered according to its size in terms of according to alloy, temper, and other
various standard gages. In the tap and drill metallurgical properties.
Gage and wire Gage, the drill, tap, or wire is
placed through the hole or in the slot and the Section 9.0 Pressure and Vacuum
smallest hole or slot which will accommodate the Measurements
piece denotes the size of the measured item.
7.3 Screw Pitch Gages - consist of a metal case In industrial applications pressure is normally
containing many separate leaves. Each leaf has measured by means of indicating gages or recorders
teeth corresponding to a definite pitch. By and are classified as mechanical, electro-mechanical,
matching the teeth with the thread on work, the electrical or electronic types. Mechanical instruments
correct pitch can be read directly from the leaf. maybe further classified as:
7.4 Radius Gages - are individual leaves or a set of 9.1 Pressure measurement by balancing an
leaves in a case and are designed to check both unknown pressure against a known force is the
convex and concave radii. simplest and oldest method that will
automatically balance the static pressure being
7.5 ThicknesslFeeler Gage - consists of a number measured against a resisting force whose
of thin bladeslleaves of different thickness and magnitude can be read directly from the
used in checking clearances, backlash in gears instrument or can be easily computed.
and for gaging in narrow points or places.
a. Liquid-Column Gages - The liquid-column
pressure gage used mostly in industry is
Section 8.0 Non-Destructive Inspection some type or either U-type or well-type of
manometer. The U-type is made of glass or
8.1 Hardness Measurement. In determining the some other type of transparent tubing with
hardness of mild steel and non-ferrous alloys, a an inner bore of 6 mm or larger diameter
penetration hardness tester is utilized and and a wall thickness adequate to withstand
mostly semi-portable. the pressure for which the manometer was
in designed. The well-type is similar to the
Magnetic Particle Inspections. In this type of
U-type, however, one leg of the U-type is
inspection, cracks, voids, and material replaced by a well. The inclined manometer
discontinuities can be detected through the or draft gage is a well manometer whose
setting up to intense magnetic field in the parts vertical leg is placed in an almost horizontal
to be inspected. This method is used to indicate position so that a very slight difference of
surface imperfections in any material that can be change in the pressure of the gas or air in
magnetized. the well causes a very large change in the
measured level of the liquid in the inclined
8.3 Radiographic Inspection. This is
tube. The barometer, a special type of well
accomplished by exposing a part to either X- manometer is an upright measuring tube
rays, gamma rays, or radioisotopes and viewing which is vacuum and sealed on the upright
the image created by the radiation on a end and the open end in inserted in a well
fluoroscope or film. filled with liquid mercury.
8.4 Fluorescent Penetrants. These are used to b. Limp-Diaphragm Gages - are used for
find surface defects in almost any material. measuring low pressure in boiler houses
and on other implications where low
8.5 Ultrasonic Testing. In ultrasonic testing a high pressures must be accurately measured.
frequency vibration or supra-audible signal is They are also designed for measuring draft
pressure of combustion gases.
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CHAPTER 12 METROLOGY
c. Bell-type Gages - designed for measuring transmit the live steam pressure to the gage,
low pressure. This type of Gage utilizes the thus preventing gage error and damage
large area of a liquid- sealed bell chamber to caused by the elevated temperature of live
provide the force necessary to actuate an steam. !n applications involving rapid
indicating or recording mechanism and can fluctuations or pulsations in pressure, gage
be made sensitive to the smallest change of snubbers shall be used to throttle the
pressure likely to be significant in an pulsations without seriously obstructing the
industrial application, and yet be rugged passage to the gage. Care shall be taken so
enough to endure considerable that the throttling orifice is not too small
mistreatment. because, if the liquid or gas contains dirt or
foreign materials, the orifice may clog and
d. Piston Gapes - suitable for pressure up to block the line to the gage. Pressure gages
350 kg/cm and higher but limited largely to shall not be mounted on equipment
hydraulic applications where oil is the fluid subjected to excessive vibration. External
under pressure. The Bailey power-operated vibrations cause excessive wear and
dead-weight piston Gage is designed for use inaccuracies in gage indications. Wherever
as a master pressure Gage in powerhouse possible, use only gages least effected by
service where a power-operated, sensitive vibration. All pressure gages installed on
Gage with a highly suppressed scale is steam boilers shall have a dial range of less
desirable. than one and one-half (1 %) times and not
more than twice the maximum allowable
9.2 Pressure measurement by deformation of an working pressure and the face of the Gage
elastic membrane is the most universally used shall not be less than 75 mm.
for measuring high and medium-pressure
because of its simplicity, compactness and b. Helical Type of Pressure Gage - variations
maintenance-free property. It is also widely used of the simple Bourdon type of pressure gage
in the field of low-pressure measurement where wherein the element or tube is wound in the
a large actuating force is not needed. form of a spiral having four or five turns. This
increases the travel of the tip considerably
a. Bourdon tube gage is the most widely used and for npact unit easily constructed
industrial pressure Gage applied to both and ins a pressure gage.
pressure and vacuum, either separately or in
a compound Gage. It is usually used c. Spiral type o f element in bourdon type of
whenever the maximum of the required Pressure Gage - the elements is of
range exceeds 1.7 kg/cm2 for measuring Bourdon type of tube wherein it is wound in
combined pressure and vacuums, for the form of a spiral having several turns
continuous pressure measurements rather than restricting the length of the tube
exceeding 5.6 kg/cm2 and up to 3500 kg/cm2 to approximately 270" of arc. This
or more direct pressure measurements, and arrangement in no way alters the theory of
especially where sudden pressure the Bourdon tube but simply has the effect
fluctuations occur which could cause below of producing a tip movement equivalent to
or normal diaphragm to rupture. Bourdon the summation of the individual movements
tubes may be made of any type of materials that would result from each segment of the
that has the proper elastic characteristics spiral considered as a Bourdon tube.
suitable for the pressure range and the Although this construction is more difficuit
corrosive resistance of the media to be and expensive to build, it has such an
measured in the application. When bourdon advantage for recording pressure gages that
tube gages are used with corrosive chemical it is almost universally used for all low-and
liquids of liquids that solidity at normal room medium-pressure records. The helical type
temperature diaphragm shall be placed in and the spiral type of elements are widely
the line and the gage line filled with water or used for recording thermometers.
oil and sealed. The sealed system then
senses the diaphragm movement and d. Metallic-diaphragm Pressure Gage -
indicate the pressure. When these gages consists of a metal diaphragm built into
are used to measure steam pressure, a loop diaphragm housing with one side of the
shall be placed in the gage line so that the diaphragm exposed to the pressure to be
liquid condensate is trapped and used to measured and the other under atmospheric
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CHAPTER 12 METROLOGY
pressure. The pressure transmitted to the scale reading. The standard tilt high
Gage dial by means of a linkage connected precision McLeod gage has been modified
to the center of the diaphragm. to simplify its operations, use less mercury,
be more rugged and compact, and still retain
e. Sector Gear Arrangement - has a large its precision. The newer modified gage is
sector gear mounted at right angles to a link known as the adjustable closed and
connecting the sector gear arm and the improved McLeod gage.
bourdon tube tip movement. A small pinion
gear, to which the pointer is attached, is b. Pirani Gage. The Pirani Gage is a hot wire
then matched to the sector gear. The sector vacuum gage. This gage employs a
gear and the pinion gear are commonly wheatsone bridge circuit to balance the
made of bronze and may be machined, resistance of a tungsten filament or resistor
broached, or stamped, depending on the sealed off in a high vacuum against that or a
quality and accuracy required of the gage. tungsten filament which can lose heat by
conduction to the gas whose pressure is
f. Cam and Roller Arrangement - employs a being measured. In this circuit the zero drifts
cam sector and a Helicoid roller to which a caused by slight deviations of the bridge
pointer is attached. The Helicoid stainless voltage are compensated for the resistor
steel roller is long wearing and used sealed in the high vacuum. A change in the
especially in services on engines, turbines, filament temperature. This causes a change
blower, hydraulic presses, pumps, and in the filament resistance and unbalances
compressors where violent pressure the bridge. The bridge unbalance is then
pulsations or severe mechanical vibrations read across Rg as the dry air pressure, by
occur. means of a micrometer, calibrated in
pressure units. The useful range for the
9.3 Electromechanical pressure instruments usually Pirani gage is from l m m to 100 mmHg. The
employ a mechanical means for detecting the Pirani gage has the advantage of being
pressure, and an electrical means for indicating compact, simple to operate, and can be
or recording the detected pressure. They are opened to the atmosphere without burnout
combinations of mechanical bellows, metallic failure. The main disadvantage is that the
diaphragms, or bourdon tubes with electrical calibration depends on the type of gas in
sensing, indicating, recording, or transmitting which the pressure is being measured.
devices employing pressure transducers, These gages are useful for pressure
inductive transducers, and oscillating measurements involving acetylene, air,
transducers. argon, carbon dioxide, helium,, hydrogen,
and water vapour for the general pressure
9.4 Electronic pressure measuring instruments range of 1 to 200pm (Imm = 1 x meter
normally depend on some physical change that which is equal to 1 x l o 3 mm) and is most
can be detected and indicated or recorded useful and accurate in the 20 to 200 vm
electronically. range.
9.5 Vacuum Gages-Mechanical, Electrical and c. Knudsen Type Vacuum Gage. The
Electronic. The pressure gages used primarily Knudsen Gage operates on the principle of
for measuring pressure below atmospheric heated gases rebounding from a heated
pressure, which is most often referred to as surface and bombarding a cooled movable
vacuum, are McLeod gages, Pirani gages, surface (vane) spaced less than a mean free
Knudsen gages, thermocouple gages, Phillips path length from the heated surface. The
gages, and ionization gages. The different types, gas particles rebound from the cool vane
except for the Knudsen Gage. with less energy than from the heated vane
which tends to rotate the cool vane away
a. McLeod Gage. The McLeod Gage is a from the heated vane within the restriction of
mercury Gage for the measurement of a suspension system designed to carry a
absolute pressure. It is one of the most galvanometer mirror for producing a reading
basic type and has a measurement range on a fixed scale. The particular advantage of
from 2 vm to mmHg. There are three types the Knudsen Gage operating principle is that
of McLeod gages. The swivel McLeod gage the Gage response is relatively independent
has an accuracy of 3% of reading or mm of of the composition of the gas whose
CHAPTER 12 METROLOGY-
pressure is being measured. In spite of this relatively good accuracy. The disadvantages
very desirable feature, the Gage is not of these gages is that the filament can burn
widely used because the torsion system is out quickly if it is heated before the pressure
[ather delicate and sudden inrushes of air is at low enough vacuum, and to have an
'cannot be tolerated. New developments are automatic cut out to protect the ionization
being investigated that may make the Gage tube in case of a system leak or break.
.more acceptable for industrial applications
The Alphatron Gage (National Research
d. Phillips Vacuum Gage - Phillips gages are Corporation) uses a radium source
cold cathode ionization gages which provide sealed in a vacuum chamber where it is
direct measurement for pressure values in equilibrium with its immediate decay
both above and below 1vm. These gages products. This provides a constant
cover the 0.05 to lo-' mmHg pressure source of alpha particles for ionizing the
range. The schematic shows the basic Gage gas particles present in the vacuum
circuit. The pressure measurement is a chamber. The alpha particles collide
function of the current produced by a high with the gas molecules in the same
voltage discharge. The electrons drawn from manner as the electrons in the hot
the cold cathode are caused to spiral as filament tube just discussed. The
they move across a magnetic field to the advantages of this Gage are the same
anode. This spiral motion greatly increases as those of the hot Gage, but it
the possibility of collisions with the gas overcomes the burnout problem, the
molecules between the cathode and anode, fragility, and the emission instability.
and produces a higher sensitivity by creating Some of the disadvantages are that at
a higher ionization current. The output is very low pressure a preamplifier is
read out on a micrometer calibrated directly required to give an undistorted output
in pressure units. The range is divided into and the current produced are in order of
four separate outputs with direct reading for 1 0 to 10-l3 and are directly
each portion of the total range. The proportional to the numbers of ions
advantages of this Gage are the wide range collected on the grid in a given time.
that it can cover, absence of filaments to With proper circuitry the response of the
burn out, rugged metal construction, and gas, within its range, and the indicator or
ease of cleaning and maintenance. The recorder can be made linear with
disadvantages are that cold cathode tubes respect to the pressure, regardless of
are slower to outgas than hot filament tubes, the nature of the gas under
they are adversely affected by mercury, and measurement.
there is a higher breakdown of organic
vapors at higher voltages. These factors All electrical and electronic vacuum
limit the use of these gages, to applications gages now employ the latest solid state
in which oil diffusion pumps are used. circuitry to maintain the constant
currents and voltages. This type of
The ionization tube is primary detector and circuitry had added to both the stability
is constructed of glass. It contains an anode, and accuracy of measurements.
a grid, and a filament are attracted to the
grid, pass through the grid, and form ions by e. Vacuum Gage Calibration. The majority of
collision with the molecules present between industrial vacuum application do not require
the grid and the anode. The positive ions are the ultimate in vacuum calibration
collected on the anode, and the electrons techniques. To calibrate the most industrial
are collected on the grid. The positive ion vacuum gages and equipment, a
current created is proportional to the amount comparison gage that covers the calibration
of gas present, if the electron current is kept points from the one I m to lo-' mmHg range
constant rate by means of a grid current is sufficient. A precision McLeod gage can
regulator. The advantage of this type of be used as the standard. The calibration
Gage is that very low pressures can be points plotted for the vacuum gage is being
detected and measured in vacuum furnace calibrated as the manifold system is
and mass spectrometer applications. The evacuated. Care must be exercised to
ionization Gage can be used in the 1 micron ensure that a sufficient low pressure is
to 2 x mmHg pressure range with reached with hot filament vacuum gages to
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CHAPTER 12 METROLOGY
prevent filament burn out. Care must also be a. Thermocouple pyrometers in which the
taken to guarantee that filament gages are voltage, generated at the junction of two
properly outgassed during the calibration dissimilar metal wire indicates the degree of
procedure. temperature, the voltage at the junction
increasing proportionally with the
Where calibration are needed for very high temperature.
vacuum technique measuring gages, a
calibrated precision ionization gage should 1. Specifications in the selection of
be used as the standard. This type of Gage thermocouple materials:
has a range down to pressure of 10-13torr.
This type of calibration equipment is (a) Thermocouple wires shall be
expensive and finds applications in the chosen in such a way that they
industrial laboratory rather than in process produce a large electromotive
or manufacturing systems. There are some force that varies linearly with
exceptions such as mass spectrometer temperature,
application for isotopes, and used in special
electron welding chambers. (b) they shall be corrosion - and
oxidation-resistant in the
Section 10.0 Thermometry and Pyrometry atmosphere and temperature
range where they shall be used,
10.1 Indicating and Recording Thermometer -
(c) they shall be resistant to change
pressure-actuated instrument that uses the
energy available in the form of increased in characteristics that shall
pressure or volume a substance to indicate and affect their calibration,
record the change in temperature that liberated
this energy. (d) they shall be free from parasitic
currents,
10.2 Proper location of an indicating and recording
thermometer - (e) required readings shall be
reproducible within the accuracy
a. The thermometer bulb shall be located in limits,
such a way as to permit the recorder to be
removed for repair. (f) they shall be physically strong
enough to withstand high
b. The recorder shall have enough tubing to temperature, rapid temperature
permit the bulb to reach a convenient changes.
location for the test bath.
2. Temperature limitations in the
c. The thermometer tubing shall be properly selection of thermocouple materials
fastened and out of the way of damage from
operators, mechanics, and pipe fitters who (a) Copper-Constantan
may have occasion to work near the commonly used in the 185 to
installation. 300°C temperature range and
superior for measurement of
d. The angle of the tube at the neck of the bulb relatively low temperatures,
shall be protected. especially subzero temperatures
and stand up well against
e. The tubing shall never be in contact with hot corrosion and are reproducible
steam pipes or stacks which would increase to a high degree of precision.
the chance of ambient-temperature errors. (b) Iron-Constantan - used in
reducing atmosphere where
f. The location of bimetallic recording there is a lack of free oxygen
thermometers shall be carefully checked for and useful in the -18 to 760°C
dirt and dust in the air. the rate of oxidation increases
rapidly, and so heavier wire
10.3 Types of Temperature-measuring shall be used for 540°C
Instruments: applications, and protection
*
CHAPTER 12 METROLOGY-
wells shall be used to cover the (e) Where is danger of a couple
thermocouple. Unprotected iron fusing from the high
constantan thermocouples shall temperature, it shall be partially
only be used up to 35°C in immersed on order to keep it
reducing atmosphere. cool.
(d) The measurements can be made The phenomenon usually measured is either
with great rapidity, and temperature pressure differential or velocity in the pipe.
gradients easily determine along
any visible part of a heated object. 1. The differential-pressure meters-
Table 12.5
Classification of Temperature - Measuring Instrument
measured and for nominal line The flow of the liquid around the cylinder
pressures. Selection of a meter shall be is restricted by four small semi-circular
based on the flow rate, line pressure, buckets built into flutes in the cylinder
and allowable pressure drop for the surface and free to rotate about center
intended application. pivots fastened to the meter body, so
that they rotate about their own pivots
b. Rotary Sliding-Vane Flowmeter - simultaneously with the rotation of the
volumetric meter constructed similarly to cylinder upon which they are mounted.
the standard vane type of vacuum The outer edge of the buckets makes a
pump, wherein the design requires that close fit with the meter body and seals
the meter body be in the shape of a the meter at all times from any liquid by-
closed drum with shaft carrying a pass. As a result of the rotation of the
smaller cylinder arranged to rotate cylinder and buckets, the liquid trapped
inside the meter body. This shaft is in the buckets or between the buckets
mounted eccentrically with respect to and is therefore metered volumetrically,
the center of the meter chamber, and and the number of revolutions of the
the cylinder is slotted to permit the one rotating cylinder is directly proportional
or more vanes to project from the to the flow.
cylinder to the wall of the meter body.
The rotation of the vanes carries the e. Screw Type of Flowmeter - consist of
liquid across the meter and forces it out three meshed screws or rotors mounted
on the opposite side because of the vertically and rotating in a measuring
reduction in volume caused by the chamber. The center, or power, screw
eccentric position of the drum with is approximately twice as large in
respect to the meter body. A counter on diameter as the two idler rotors and has
the rotating shaft gives a direct a large thread of special shape
indication of the total flow of liquid designed to seal the meter completely
through the meter. This type of meter by meshing with the idler rotors and
works successfully on the liquid that is provide maximum meter capacity. The
not abrasive or dirty. Dirty liquids are metering chamber is shaped to seal the
very destructive because of the outer edge of the three screws against
comparatively high rotative speeds and any possible by pass of the liquid. The
the large areas subject to wear. screws are located in a straight line, and
hence the chamber cross section is that
c. Oscillating-Piston Flowmeter-consists of a large circle with diametrically
of the hollow piston arranged to oscillate opposite smaller segmented section cut
about the center abutment which is in the large chamber to seal the two
encircled by a confining ring housed in a other idler screws. The head pressure
drum-shaped meter body. Capacity of of the meter forces the liquid in at the
this type of flowmeter ranges fro 8gpm bottom of the screws where it caused
to 7,00Ogpm, and the error due to the latter to rotate and in so doing is
density or viscosity variation is small. carried up through the measuring
As the rotating parts are close fit, the chamber and out at the top of the meter.
liquid measured must be clean and free The meter counter or register is driven
from abrasive materials. off by the large power rotor through a
gear train which is oil enclosed to
d. Rotating-Bucket Flowmeter - a prevent contact with the liquid in the
positive-dislpacement of a volumetric meter. This type of flowmeter is used in
meter consisting of a meter with a drum liquid with low viscosity; otherwise the
type of body having the outlet and inlets pressure drop across the meter may be
ports side by side with a dividing baffle excessive.
between them. A center cylinder is
suspended concentrically inside the f. Spiral-Vane Flowmeter - consists of
meter body with a close clearance on metering chamber in which a rotor i s
the sid3es of the meter chamber and the mounted with a hallow shaft which
diameter approximatelya quarter smaller admits the liquid into a meter. The rotor
than the diameter of the meter body. is similar in design to that of a
CHAPTER 12 METROLOGY-
centrifugal air blower with curved blades give a true indication of the volume of
mounted between disc attached to the gas discharged.
rotating shaft. As the liquid flows into
the buckets formed by the spiral blades i. Roots Type of Volumetric Gas Meter
of the rotor, a rotating action takes place - consist of a set of two rotors having a
something like that which occurs in a cross -sectional area (at right angles to
simple water wheel. If the flow is not the rotating shaft) in the approximately
great enough to fill the meter and in this shape of a figure eight. The rotors are
way flood the spiral vanes, then the so mounted in the right meter body so
rotation of the rotor is a direct indication as to mesh at right angles to each other
of the quantity of fluid flowing, and a by means of two gears mounted outside
counter, or register, on the rotor shaft the meter body on extensions of the
will give the total flow. rotor shafts. The gas is admitted at the
top of the meter, and the head pressure
g. Bellows-Type Gas Flowmeter - causes the rotors to revolve. In so
designed primarily and exclusively for doing they trap a certain of gas between
gas-receiving bellows having metal the rotors and the meter body. The gas
slides and tanned sheepskin flexible is prevented from by-passing the meter
connections between the metal slides. between the rotors by the close mesh of
These two bellows are mounted the rotors, which almost but not quite
vertically in a tin or steel case and touch at all times. As a result, this
connected through pipes to two slide meter is a true volumetric meter, and the
valves mounted on a vertical plate revolutions of either shaft are a direct
above the bellows and inside the steel indication of the flow.
case. The gas flows from the inlet pipe
alternately into one or the other of the j. Turbine-Type Current Flowmeters -
two bellows. It is in then exhausted into used for measuring flows ranging from
the outer chamber and then passes out 0.003 to 15000 gallmin as standard
of the meter through an outlet pipe liquid flowmeters, and 20 to 9000 cu.
connected to the gas chamber. A Wmin as gas flowmeters. Standard and
counter or register of a typical gas-meter pipeline meters flows are dependent on
type is also driven from the crank or the viscosity of the liquid being
gear mechanism. Adjustments are measured, and gas meters on the
usually provided for the stroke of the density of the gas being measured.
bellows and for the timing of the valves Operationally, the turbine rotor is held
to aid in calibrating the meter. between two sets of concentric cylinders
which serve to guide the flow and to
h. Water-Sealed Rotary Gas Meter - position the rotors in the pipe mounting.
consists of a drum-shaped meter body As the turbine rotors resolves, each
slightly more than half full of water. A vane generates a pulse and represent a
rotor with spirally shaped vanes very unit volume for flow totalization. These
similar to those used in the center of the meters generate a digital electrical
rotor shaft and below the level of the output which is detected by a flowmeter
water which is maintained somewhat or tachometer pick-up coil. The total
above the shaft. It then discharges number of rotor revolution or output
through a short vertical pipe just above pulses is related to the total output or
the water level, after which it is trapped volume of flow. The frequency of the
in the chamber formed by the spiral pulses generated is directly proportional
vane which has both ends submerged to the flow rate of the material being
under the water; the pressure of the gas monitored' or measured. The pulses
causes the rotor to revolve. When one generated in the pickup coil are of sine
vane emerges from the water and wave form and can be transmitted
releases the pressure, the next vane electrically over a great distances to a
form a closed chamber and continues to variety of readout devices for
cause the rotor to revolve. If the water computing, indicating, recording,
level is exactly correct, there will be no controlling, and automation.
by-pass, and the rotation of the rotor will
CHAPTER 12 METROLOGY-
C. Installation of Volumetric Flow Meters. when speed is important. This type of scale is
also a weight balance, but the weights are
All volumetric flowmeters that are subjected to mounted on bent levers, and the movement of
high head pressures should be protected by these pendulum levers are magnified and
means of a by-pass check valve which will transmitted to pointers that swing in a full circle.
relieve the pressure in case the meter should The effective lengths of the two arms of the
become jammed owing to foreign materials. pendulum lever are constantly changing; hence
Otherwise, excessive pressure may be built up to secure uniformly divided scale dials, a cam
and serious damage is done. !t is also must be interposed between pendulum and
desirable to install the meter in a by-pass pointer. Some form of damping mechanism
circuit which will permit its removal for such as a fluid dashpot is used with pendulum
servicing without shutting down the process. scales because of their high sensitiveness.
Where a relief valve is installed to by-pass the
meter, it is essential to check it periodically to 12.3 Electrical Scales are combinations of
see that it does not stick, since, if this should mechanical elements and electrical measuring
happen, the meter would develop a serious devices. Weighing can also be accomplished by
error. Where the liquid metered is hot and supporting the load on hydraulic pistons,
likely to solidify in the meter and pipe line if diaphragms, or bellows units and measuring the
allowed to stand, it is necessary to blow the resulting hydraulic pressure with any convenient
meter with steam after each run. In this case pressure gage.
care must be exercised to blow the line clear
by means of a by-pass and then to clear the Section 13.0 The Three Common Methods
meter with only a short period of blowing. If of Rational Speed Measurements
too much pressure is used in blowing out the
meter, it is likely to race in and cause damage
to the moving parts. This is due to the excess 13.1 Counter and Timer - a common type of
speed that may be developed and to the fact revolution counter wherein the rubber of steel tip
that the steam may purge the meter of all is applied directly to the shaft center and friction
lubrication and cause galling of the parts in is relied upon to drive the spindle. Since the
sliding contact with each other. The piping counter is a direct reading revolution counter,
manifold should also have a draw-off the starting and stopping errors are the chief
connection to permit calibration of the meter in inaccuracies in speed measurements. The
service. Calibration may be done speed indicators averages the speed over a
volumetrically by observing the time required short period of time and indicates directly the
to fill a container by using a scale to check the speed in rpm. A single button winds and starts
delivery by weight. the watch, connects the drive shaft to the
counting after a definite period of time. With the
chronometric tachometer, the operator presses
Section 12.0 Measurement of Weight a button to start the timing mechanism, but the
disengagement and speed indication are
Weight is a primary method of measuring force and automatic, and the duration of the reading is
volumetric devices are calibrated initially by weighing. only one (1) second. The I-second reading are
Scales have been constructed to weigh a million automatically repeated by the instruments as
kilograms or more, while the chemical balance, at the long as the counting and timing mechanism are
opposite extreme will easily weigh a millionth of a engaged.
kilogram.
13.2 Tachometer gives a direct and continuous
12.1 The common Platform Scale used in the indications of speed and is therefore the most
laboratory consists of a compound leverage convenient for observing speed variation or
system. A series of standard weights hung on fluctuations and for general observations in
one end of the leverage system serves to which a high degree of accuracy is unnecessary.
balance an unknown weight at the other end of It is made to record and applied to such
the system. Knife-edge fulcrums are ordinarily machines as turbogenerators, conveyors, paper
used, although torsion bands or flexure plate are machines and gas engines for purposes of
introduced in large scales to eliminate friction. control and record of performance. The electric
tachometers are made in wide variety and have
12.2 Pendulum Scales give automatic indication on the advantage of distant location, consistent
over a wide range and are extensively used accuracy and ease of adaptations to recording
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CHAPTER 12 METROLOGY
and integrating. The actuating mechanism of looms, and one additional hygrometer
the common tachometer is (1) a centrifugal for every 500 or part of 500 looms, in
device similar in construction to a centrifugal excess of 500.
flyball governor; (2) an electric generator or
magneto; (3) a centrifugal fan, or (4) a vibrating 2. Other departments - One hygrometer
red. for each room of less than 8 500 cubic
meters capacity and one extra
13.3 Stroboscope utilizes the phenomenon of hygrometer for each 5 600 cubic meters
persistence of vision when an object is viewed or part thereof, in excess of this.
intermittently. This is used for speed
measurement with indicating dials calibrated 3. One additional hygrometer shall be
throughout the range 700 to 14 000 rpm and provided and maintained outside each
especially valuable where it is inconvenient to cotton spinning and weaving factory
make a connection or contact with the rotating wherein artificial humidification is
shaft or for light powered machinery where the adopted, and in a position approved by
load to drive speed measuring instruments affect the inspection, for taking hygrometer
the operation of the machine. shade readings.
3. No part of the wet bulb shall be within 3. no water shall be applied directly to the
75 mm from the dry bulb or less than 25 wick or covering during the period of
mm from the surface of the water in the employment.
reservoir shall be below it, on the side of
it away from the dry bulb. e. An inaccurate thermometer must not be
used without fresh certificate. If an Engineer
4. The bulb shall be spherical and of gives notice in writing that a thermometer is
suitable dimensions and shall be freely not accurate, it shall not, after one month
exposed on all sides to the aid of the from the date of such notice, be seemed to
room. be accurate unless and until it has been re-
examined as prescribed and fresh certificate
5. The bores of the streams shall be really obtained which certificate shall be kept
distinguishable at a distance of 60 cm. attached to the Humidity Register.
1. the wick and the muslim covering of the 2. Such pipes shall be as short as is
wet tube shall be renewed once a week; reasonably practicable.
2. the reservoir shall be filled with water 3. All hangers supporting such pipes shall
which shall be completely renewed once be separated from the bare pipes by an
a day. The Engineer 1 Manager may efficient insulator not less than 15 mm in
.
direct the use of distilled water or pure thickness.
rain water in any particular mill or mills
in certain localities; 4. No uncovered jet from such pipes shall
project more than 100 mm beyond the
outer surface of any cover.
-
CHAPTER 12 METROLOGY
Chapter 13
Section 1.0 Purpose and Scope Shaper - is ordinarily used for finishing flat or
partly curved surfaces of metal pieces few in
To identify each every equipmentlmachinery and tools number and not over 305 mm or 610 mm long.
in a machine shop and the corresponding operating The cutting tool has a reciprocating (forward and
principles involved. return motion) and cuts on the forward stroke
only. The work is held in a vise bolted to the
Machine shop practice consists of certain mechanical work table and the regular feed is accomplished
principles that are a part of all machine shop work by causing the work table to move automatically
everywhere such as the principles of cutting tools, at right angles to the direction of the cutting tool.
cutting speeds and feeds, actions of gears, screws, The construction of the tool head permits of
cams, etc., applied in the construction of certain down feed at right angles to the regular feed, or
machines and tools and in the various machine at any other angle if desired.
operations: that is, in the methods of holding and
doing work. 2.4 Planer - a machine tool used in the production
of flat surfaces on pieces too large or too heavy
A machine shop is a room or space with sidings and or cannot be held in a shaper. The table or
roofs where metal parts are cut to siza required and platen, on which the work is securely fastened,
put together to form mechanical units or machine, has a reciprocating (forward and return) motion.
which are made to be used in the pi-oduction of the The tool head may be automatically fed
necessities of civilization. One or more machines horizontally in either direction along the heavily
constitute a machine shop. supported cross rail over the work and
automatic down feed is also provided.
Section 2.0 Standard Machine Shop
2.5 Grinding Machine - a machine tool in which an
Equipment abrasive wheel is used as a cutting tool to obtain
a very high degree of accuracy and a smooth
2.1 Lathe - a metal turning machine tool in which finish on metal parts, including soft and
the work, while revolving on a horizontal axis, is hardened steel.
acted upon by a cutting tool which is made to
move slowly (feed) in a direction more or less Vertical Boring Mill - a machine purposely
parallel to the axis of the work (longitudinal designed for finishing holes, the work table
feed), or in the direction at right angles to the revolves on a vertical axis and the cutting tool
axis of the work (cross feed). Either feed may be (which may be a drill or a boring tool or turning
operated by hand or by power (automatically) as tool) is arranged above the table and may be fed
desired. Straight turning is when feeding laterally (toward or away from the centre of the
direction is parallel to the axis of the work. When table) or up or down in any position.
the cut is in a direction at a slight angle to the
axis of the work a taper is the result, more of an 2.7 Horizontal ~~~i~~ill - a machine for finishing
angle results in turning to an angle. The cut at holes where the cutting tool revolves on a
right angles to the axis of the work (cross feed horizontal axis. The spindle which carries the
operation) is called facing or squaring. Cutting cutting tool may be fed longitudinally through the
inside of a hole is boring. spindle head and in the more recent designs the
spindle head may be fed vertically. The work
2.2 Drill or Drill Press - a machine tool used table may be fed longitudinally or transversely.
mainly for producing holes in metal. In this The horizontal boring mill, while designed
machine the work is securely held while a primarily for boring holes, may also be used for
revolving cutting tool is fed into it. The cutting finishing horizontal and vertical flat surfaces by
tool is termed drill. means of a suitable milling cutter fastened to the
spindle.
CHAPTER 13 - MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
2.8 Universal Milling Machine - a milling machine horizontal machines are usually of the pull type,
designed and constructed that the table may be but vertical machines are available as pull-up,
swivelled to a considerable angle in a horizontal pull down, or push down types. Most of these
plane to permit the milling of spiral (twisted) machines can be arranged for efficient
grooves, such as are cut in twist drills, spiral production of the quantities required and where
mills, etc., the work table may be moved necessary semi-automatic operations can be
longitudinally, by hand or automatically, in either employed. In these machines, the broaches are
direction, called the longitudinal feed or table stationary, a continuous chain conveyor with
feed. The saddle is arranged on the knee that it fixtures carrying the work pieces past the
may be owned transverse by hand or power in broaches.
either direction, called cross feed. The vertical
movement of the knee may be used as a vertical 3.3 Mechanical Presses - are classified on the
hand feed in either direction and in the larger basis of the construction of the frame, the
sizes automatic vertical feed is provided. mechanism for providing motion to the ram, and
whether or not it is provided with the auxiliaries
2.9 Plain Milling Machine - a machine very similar required by an automatic press. On the basis of
in appearance and construction to the universal frame design, the presses are classified as gap
milling machine, differing chiefly in that it lacks or C frame, arch type, straight side, and pillar
the swivel table construction. Many of the presses. Most presses in small and medium
attachments made for the universal milling sizes are mounted in vertical position or in a
machine can be used on the plain milling titled or even horizontal position to facilitate
machine. stock removal. Motion to the ram may be
provided by cranks, eccentrics, cams, toggles,
2.10 Vertical-Spindle Milling Machine - a machine screws, knuckles, joints, and in one instances by
used of any end-milling and face milling a Scoth crosshead. Mechanical presses are also
operations, it is more adaptable than the classified as single-action, double action, or
machine with the horizontal spindle, because triple-action presses in which case reference is
the cutter and the surface being machined are in made to the number of moving slides or rams.
plain view, instead of over in back of the work.
The axis of rotation of the spindle is vertical. 3.4 Hydraulic Presses - are built in sizes varying
from % ton bench-type to huge 15,000 ton four-
2.11 Metal-Cutting Band Saws - a machine tool post presses. Unlike mechanical presses, the
designed to cut everything all the time, because rated force or tonnage capacity is available over
it employs an endless band with of sharp teeth the entire length of the stroke. The available
moving in one direction. There is no back stroke. operating stroke of hydraulic presses is
It cuts direct to layout lines, can saw, file and substantially longer than the corresponding size
polish work to completion using the proper and of mechanical press. The economical
right band tool. applications of hydraulic presses are used
successfully on many competitive high
Section 3.0 Special Tools and Machinery production, deep drawing jobs. They have also
in a Machine Shop of a Manufacturing found extensive use in the aircraft industry in
Plant connection with rubber dies. Small and medium-
sized are usually built square platens varying in
dimensions from 5161 mm2on up to several mm
3.1 Turret Lathe - a production lathe primarily
on a side.
consist of multiple-station tool holders or turrets,
in place of a lathe compound rest and tailstock. 3.5 Shaper. Shaper cutting Tools: The variety of
These turrets permit the presetting of the total cuts that may be made in a shaper on any
number of cutters required for the job and allow
metals used in machine work calls for tools of
multiple and combined cuts from both turrets to
various shapes. Shaping on a shaper, can be
operate on the work piece. done to the right or to the left. It also includes
roughing cuts, finishing cuts, slotting,
3.2 Broaching Machine - There are two board
contouring, under-cutting, dovetailing, and a
classes of broaching machines available for variety of operations. Tools can be made from
performing almost any variety of broaching solid bars of steel, or they may be made from
operations, the vertical and the horizontal, either smaller pieces of tool steel, called bits, which
of which may have one or more rams, drives are are ground to the desired shapes and hold by
either hydraulic or mechanically operated. Plain
CHAPTER 13 - MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
being clamped in a tool holder. The large, solid the tool from digging. Most shaper and planer
tools are specially good for heavy work because manufacturer recommend this type of tool for
they carry away the heat from the cutting edge general work.
of the tool more rapidly, there are also tool
holders using forged bits, the tool holder with the
ground bit is probably the most popular
combination on a shaper.
SlDE blank
ANGLE
i. Gooseneck Finishing Tool for Cast lron the corners after most of the metal has been
(Fig.3-20.) Made of high-carbon steel. For removed by tool 9. This tool is not so well
finishing flat surfaces in any metal, this tool, suited for general dovetail roughing as is
in combination with a very shallow cut and tool 9, because the sharp corners
of coarse feed, is most satisfactory. breakdown. Made of high-speed steel.
o. Left-Hand Dovetail End-Cutting Finishing Section 4.0 Sizes of Motors for ~~- ~
Tool for Cast Iron (Fig. 3-26.) Made of Machine Shop Equipment and Forging
high-carbon steel. Companion to tool 13.
Use after tool 10 and 12. Feed from left to Machinery
right (fig. 3-26b.)
4.1 The machines for which suitable types and sizes
of motors listed below are typical applications for
machine shop equipment and are based upon
information supplied by Westinghouse Electric
Corporation. The kilowatt values shown are for
average practice. They may be decreases for
very light work and must often be increased for
heavy work.
Soft Steel Thickness KW Rating (4) Horizontal Boring, Drilling & Milling Machines
mm mm (Type of Motor: A, B or C)
6.35 6.35 0.37 to 0.75
9.525 9.525 0.37 to 1 Spindle Horsepow Spindle KW
12.7 12.7 0.5 to 2.2 Diam., mm er Diam., mm Rating
15.875 15.875 1 to 1.5 88.9 - 114.3 11 - 18.5 165.1 15 - 22
19.05 19.05 0.75 to 3.7 127 15-22 177.8-241.3 22-30
22.225 22.225 1 to 3.7
25.4 25.4 1.5 to 4.5
31.75 25.4 2.2 to 6
(e) Hydraulic Wheel Presses
38.1 25.4 5.5 (Type of Motor: B or C)
44.45 25.4 7.5
50.8 25.4 7.5
Capacity, Capacity,
57.15 28.575 7.5 to 11
Ratin Ratin
57.15 34.925 11 to 15
2.2 - 2.6 5.5 - 7.5
63.5 38.1 11 to 15
200 7.5- 11
76.2 50.8 15 to 18.5
300 4.5 - 5.5 9.3- 11
101.6 38.1 18.5
152.4 38.1 30
CHAPTER 13 - MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
..... .....
44.45 3.7 to 7.5 88.9 15 to 30
50.8 5.5 to 9 101.6 22 to 37 IS0 DR 911 and the unit in parenthesis has the
57.15 7.5 to II relationship, 1 kgf = 9.80665 Newtons. These
minimum strengths are applicable to the finished
(g) Bolt Heading, Upsetting and Forging Machinery products. Steel machine screws conform to the
(Type of Motor: D, E or F) requirements for strength grade designation 4.8.
The strength grade designation system for
Size, mm KW Ratin Size, mm KW Ratin machine screws consists oftwo figures, the first
31.75 is 1/10 of the minimum tensile strength in
kgflmm2, the second is 1/10 of the ratio
101.6
50.8 127 45 between the yield stress and the minimum
63.5 18.5 152.4 55 tensile strength expressed as a percentage'
1/10 minimum tensile strength of 40 kgflmm
1
(h) Bulldozers or Forming or Bending Machines gives the symbol " 4 ; 1/10 ratio giving the
strength grade
(Type of Motor: D or E)
short for the thread lengths are threaded as fast with cut threads are normally finished with a
as possible up to the head. In these the length chamfer conforming to the dimension. At the
of unthreaded shank under the head does not option of the manufacturer, the ends of screws
exceed 2 '% pitches for lengths up to twice the smaller than M6 (6mm diameter) may be
diameter and 2 pitches for longer lengths, and is finished, with a radius approximately equal to 1
defined as the distance from the leading face of 'XI times the nominal diameter of the shank.
a nut which has been screwed as far as possible
onto the screw by hand to: 1) the junction of the
basic major diameter and the countersunk
portion of the head on countersunk and raised
countersunk head; 2) the underside of the head
on other types of heads. Screws of nominal
thread diameter M I , M 1.2 and M 1.4 and Circular Thickn
Circular Pitch
screws of larger diameters which are too short
for the thread lengths are threaded as far as Chordal Thick
possible up to the head. In these the length of Chordal Adde
unthreaded shank under the head does not
exceed 1 % pitches for lengths up to twice the
diameter and 2 pitches for longer lengths, and is Section 6.0 Gearing
defined as the distance from the leading face of
a nut which has been screwed as far as possible 6.1 Definition of Gear Terms - The terms which
onto the screw by hand to: 1) the junction of the follow are commonly applied to various classes
basic major diameter and the countersunk of gearing.
portion of the head on countersunk and raised
countersunk heads; 2) the underside of the head a. Addendum - Height of tooth above pitch
on other types of heads. circle of the distances between the pitch
circle and the top of the tooth.
5.6 Diameter of Unthreaded Shank on Screws -
The diameter of the unthreaded portion of the b. Arc of Action - Arc of the pitch circle
shank on screw is not greater than the basic through which a tooth travels from the first
major diameter of the screw is not greater than point of contact with the mating tooth to the
the basic major diameter of the screw head and pitch point.
not less than the minimum effective diameter of
the screw thread. The diameter of the c. Arc of Approach - Arc of the circle through
unthreaded portion of shank is closely which a tooth travels from the point of
associated with the method of manufacturer; it contact with the mating tooth to the pitch
will generally be nearer the major diameter of
the thread for turned screws and nearer the d. Arc of Recess - Arc of the pitch circle
effective diameter for those produced by cold through which a tooth travels from its
heading. contact with the mating tooth at the pitch
point to the point where is contact ceases.
5.7 Radius Under the Head of Screws - The
radius under the head of pan and cheese head e. Axial Plane - In a pair of gears it is the
screws runs smoothly into the face of the head plane that contains the two axes, in a single
and shank without any step of discontinuity. A gear, it may be any plane containing axis
true radius is not essential providing that the and the given point.
curve is smooth and lies wholly within ine
maximum radius. Any radius under the head of Backlash - The amount by which the width
countersunk head screws runs smoothly into the of a tooth space exceeds the thickness of
conical bearing surface of the head and the the engaging tooth on the pitch circles. As
shank without any step or discontinuity. actually indicated by measuring devices,
backlash may be determined variously in the
5.8 Ends of Screws - When screws are made with transverse, normal or axial planes, and
rolled threads the "lead" formed by the thread either in the direction of the pitch circles or
rolling operation is normally regarded as on the lines of action. Such measurements
providing the necessary chamfer and no other should be converted to corresponding
machining is necessary. The ends of screws
CHAPTER 13 - MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
values on transverse pitch circles for Clearance - The amount by which the
general comparisons. dedendum in a given gear. It is also the
radial distance between the top of a tooth
Base Circle - The circle from which an and bottoms of the mating tooth space.
involute tooth is generated or developed.
Central Diameter - The smallest diameter
Base Helix Angle - The angle, at-the base on a gear tooth with which the mating gear
cylinder if an involute gear, that the tooth makes contact.
makes with the gear axis.
Contact Ratio - The ration of the arc of
Base Pitch - In an involute gear it is the action to the circular pitch. It is sometimes
pitch on the base circle or along the line of thought of as the average number of teeth in
action. Corresponding sides of involute teeth contact. For involute gears, the contact ratio
are parallel curves, and the base pitch is the is obtain most directly as the ratio is obtain
constant and fundamental distance between most directly as the ratio of the length of
them along a common normal in a plane of action to the base pitch.
rotation. The normal Base Pitch is the base
pitch in the normal plane, and the Axial Cycloid - The curve formed by the path of a
Base Pitch is the base pitch in the axial point on a circle as it rolls along a straight
plane. line. When this circle tools along the outer
side of another circle, the curve is called an
Center Distance - The distance between Epicycloid; when it rolls along the inner side
the parallel axes of spur gears and parallel of another circle it is called a Hypocycloid.
helical gears, or between the crossed axes These curves are used in defining the
or crossed helical gears, or between the American former Standard composite tooth
crossed axes or crossed helical gears and form.
worm gears. Also, it is the distance between
the centers of the pitch circles. Dedendum - The depth of tooth space
below the pitch circle of the radial dimension
Central Plane - In a worm gear this is the between the pitch circle and the bottoms of
plane perpendicular to the gear axis and the tooth space.
contains the common perpendicular of the
gear and worm axes. In the usual case with Diametral Pitch - The ratio of the number
the axes at right angles, it contains the of teeth to the number of millimetres of pitch
worm axis. diameter-equals number of gear teeth to
each mm pitch diameter. Normal Diametral
Chordal Addendum - The height from the Pitch is the diametral pitch as calculated in
top of the tooth to the chord subtending the the normal plane and is equal to the
circular-thickness arc. diametral pitch divided by the cosine of helix
angle.
Chordal Thickness - Length of the chord
subtended by the circular thickness arc (the Effective Face Width - That portion of the
dimension obtained when a geartooth face width that actually comes into contact
caliper is used to measure the thickness at with mating teeth, as occasionally one
the pitch circle. member of a pair of gears may have a
greater face width than the other.
Circular Pitch - Length of the arc of the
pitch circle between the centers or other Efficiency - The actual torque ratio of a
corresponding points of adjacent teeth. gear set divided by its gear ratio.
Normal Circular Pitch is the circular pitch in
the normal plane. External Gear - A gear with teeth on the
outer cylindrical surface.
Circular Thickness - The length of arc
between the two sides of a gear tooth, on Face of Tooth - That surface of the tooth
the pitch circles unless otherwise specified. which is between the pitch circle in the top
Normal Circular Thickness is the circular of the tooth.
thickness in the normal plane.
CHAPTER 13 - MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
z. Face Width - The length of the teeth in the point of contact moves during the action of
axial plane. The effective face width is the the tooth profile.
width which actually makes contact with the
mating gear. When herringbone gears have II. Line of Action - The path of contact in
a central clearance groove, the width of this involute gears. It is the straight line passing
groove is not included in the effective face through the pitch point and tangent to the
width. base circles.
aa. Fillet Curve - The concave portion of the Inm. Lowest Point of Single Tooth Contact -
tooth profile where it joins the bottom of the The smallest diameter on a spur gear at
tooth space. The approximate radius of this which a single tooth of one gear is in contact
curve is called the Fillet Radius. with its mating gear, often referred to as
LPSTC. Gear set contact stress is
bb. Flank of Tooth - That surface which is determined with a load placed at this point
between the pitch circle and the bottom on the pinion.
land. The flank includes the fillet.
nn. Module - Ratio of the pitch diameter to the
cc. Helical Overlap - The effective face width number of teeth. Ordinarily, module is
of a helical gear divided by the gear axial understood to mean ratio of pitch diameter
pitch; also called the Face Overlap. in millimetre to the number of teeth. The
English Module is a ratio of the pitch
dd. Helix Angle - The angle that a helical gear diameter in inches to the number of teeth.
tooth makes the gear axis.
00. Normal Plane - A plane normal to the tooth
ee. Highest point of Single Tooth Contact - surfaces at a point of contact, and
The largest diameter on a spur gear at perpendicular to the pitch plane.
which a single tooth is in contact with the
mating gear. Often referred to as HPSTC. pp. Pitch - The distance between similar,
Gear tooth fillet stress is determined with the equally-spaced tooth surfaces in a given
operating load placed at this diameter. direction and along a given curve or line.
The single word "pitch" without qualification
ff. Internal Diameter - The diameter of a circle has been used to designate circular pitch,
coinciding with the tops of the teeth of an axial pitch, and diametral pitch, but such
internal gear. confusing usage should be avoided.
gg. lnternal Gear - A gear with teeth on the qq. Pitch Circle - A circle the radius of which is
inner cylindrical surface. equal to the distance from the gear axis to
the pitch point.
hh. Involute - The curve formed by the path of
a point on a straight line, called the rr. Pitch Diameter - The diameter of the pitch
generatrix, as it rolls along a convex base circle. In parallel shaft gears the pitch
curve. (The base curve is usually a circle.) diameter can be determined directly from
This curve is generally used as the profile of the distance and the numbers of teeth by
gear teeth. proportionality. Operating Pitch Diameter is
the pitch diameter at which the gears
ii. Land - The top Land is the top surface of a operate. Generating Pitch Diameter is the
tooth, and the Bottom Land is the surface of pitch diameter at which the outer ends of the
the gear between the fillets of adjacent teeth unless otherwise specified.
teeth.
ss. Pitch Plane - In a pair of gears it is the
jj. Lead - The distance a helical gear or plane perpendicular to the axial plane and
woman would thread along its axis one tangent to the pitch surface. In a single gear
revolution of it were free to move axially. it may be any plane tangent to its pitch
surface.
kk. Length of Action - The distance on an
involute line of action through which the tt. Pitch Point - This is the point of tangency
of two pitch circles (or of a pitch circle and a
CHAPTER 13 - MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
pitch line) and is on the line of center. The ccc. Tangent Plane - A plane tangent to the
pitch point of a tooth profile is at its tooth surfaces at a point or line of contact of
intersection with the pitch circle. material is removed near the tip of the gear
tooth.
uu. Plane Rotation - Any plane perpendicular
to a gear axis. ddd. Tip Relief - An arbitrary modification of a
tooth profile whereby a small amount of
w. Pressure Angle - The angle between i material is removed near the tip of the gear
tooth profile and a radical line at its pitcl. tooth.
point. In involute teeth, pressure angle is
often described as the angle between the eee. Total Face Width - The actual width
line of action and the line tangent to the dimension of a gear blank. It may exceed
pitch circle. Standard Pressure Angles are the effective face width, as in the case of
established in connection with standard double-helical gears where the total face
gear-tooth proportions. A given pair of width includes any distance separating the
involute profiles will transmit smooth motion right-hand and left-hand helical teeth.
at the same velocity ratio even when the
center distance is changed. fff. Transverse Plane - A plane perpendicular
to the axial plane and to the pitch plane. En
ww. Principal Reference Planes - These are a gears with parallel axes, the transverse
pitch plane, axial plane, and transverse plane and the plane of rotation coincide.
plane, all intersecting at a point and mutually
perpendicular. ggg. Trochoid - The curve formed by the path of
a point on the extension of a circle as it rolls
xx. A gear with teeth spaced along a straight along a curve or line. It is also the curve
line, and suitable for straight line motion. A formed by the path of a point on a
Basic Rack is one that is adopted as the perpendicular to a straight line as the
basis of a system of interchangeable gears. straight line rolls along the convex side of a
Standard gear-tooth proportions are often base curve. By the first definition the
illustrated on an outline used to indicate trochoid is a derivative of the cycloid; by the
tooth details and dimensions for the design second definition it is derivative of the
of a required generating tool, such as a hob involve.
or gearshaper cutter.
hhh. True Involute Form Diameter - The
yy. Ratio of Gearing - Ratio of the numbers of smallest diameter on the tooth at which the
teeth on mating gears. Ordinarily the ratio is involute exits. Usually this is the point of
found by dividing the number of teeth on the tangency of the involute tooth profile and the
larger by the number of teeth on the smaller fillet curve. This is usually referred to as the
gear or ini ion. For example. if the ratio is "2 TIP diameter.
Gr 3 to I", this usually means that the
:smaller gear or pinic3n mal<es two iii. Undercut - A condition in generated gear
Irevolutiori s to one revolution of t he larger teeth when any part of the fillet curve lies
mating gear. inside of a line drawn tangent to the working
profile at its lowest point. Undercut may be
zz. Roll Angle - The angle subtended at the deliberately introduced to facilitate finishing
center of a base circle from the origin of an operations, as in pre-shaving.
involute to the point of tangency of the
generatrix from any point on the same jjj. Whole Depth - The total depth of a tooth
involute. The radian measure of this angle is space, equal to addendum plus dedendum,
the tangent of the pressure angle of the also equal to working depth plus clearance.
point on the involute.
kkk. Working Depth - The depth of engagement
aaa. Root Circle - A circle coinciding with or of two gears, that is, the sum of their
tangent to the bottoms of the tooth spaces. addendum's. The standard working distance
is the depth to which a tooth extends into
bbb. Root Diameter - Diameter of the root circle. the tooth space of a mating gear when the
center distance is standard.
CHAPTER 13 - MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
shaper or hobbing machine, a gear tooth caliper b. The root radius may vary within the limit
or pins would be employed. 0.25 to 0.39.
When the pre-shaved gear can be removed c. Tip relief may be applied within the limits
from the machine for checking, the center shown.
distance method may be employed. In this
method, the pre-shaved gear is mash(:d withoi
backlash with a gear of standard tooth thickness 2.1416
and the increase in center distail~c: ~ -.,- ~ e r o.(
6.6 Basic Rack Tooth Profile - The basic rack is Table 13.3
generally in agreement with IS0 British Standard Spur and Helical Gears - Standard
Recommendation R53 'Basic rack of cylindrical Normal Metric Modules (B.S. 436: Part 2: 1970)
gears for general and heavy engineering.' In
practice, the basic rack tooth is usually modified,
and the extent of modification shall be in
accordance with the following:
Limits of
Limits of Limits of
Gear Tolerance on
Tolerance Tolerance
Tooth-to-
on Radial on Total
acy Run out of Composite
Grade Composite
Teeth Error
Error
Te Ranks or sides are straight (Involute system) and the pressure angle is 20 degrees.
3 0.56 0p + 7.1 0.32 0p + 4.0 0.8 0p + 10
4 0.90 0p + 11.2 0.45 0p + 5.6 1.25 0p + 16.0
5 1.40 0p + 18.0 0.63 0p + 8.0 2.0 0p + 25.0
6 2.24 0p + 28.0 0.9 0p + 11.2 3 . 1 5 0 ~+ 40.0
7 3.15 0p + 40.0 1.25 0p +16.0 4.5 0p + 56.0
8 4.0 0p + 50.0 1.8 0p + 22.4 5.6 0p + 71.0
9 5.0 0p + 63.0 2.24 0p+28.0 7.1 0p + 90.0
10 6.3 0p + 80.0 2.8 0p + 35.5 9.0 0p + 112.0
11 8.0 0p + 100.0 3.55 0p 45.0 11.2 0p+140.0
12 10.0 0p+125.0 4.5 0p + 56.0 14.00p+180.0
Fig.13.6.7 German Standard Tooth Form form Spur The Limits of Tolerance are in micro-meters.
and Bevel Gears.
The values of symbols given in the above formulas
number of teeth. The module system may, are:
however, also be based upon inch
measurements and then it is known as English 1 = any selected length of arc in millimetres, are less
module to avoid confusion with the metric than dl2.
module. Module is an actual dimension,
whereas diametral pitch is only a ratio. Thus, if of = ma + 0.1 d, where ma = normal module, and
the pitch diameter of a gear is 50 millimeters d = reference circle diameter in mm.
and the number of teeth 25, the module is 2
which means that there are 2 millimeters of b = face width in mm, up to a maximum of 150 mm.
pitch diameter of each tooth. Table 13.6
"Tooth Dimensions Based Upon Module op = ma+ 0.25 d, where ma = normal module, and
System" shows the relation between module, d = reference circle dia.
diametral pitch, and circular pitch.
Formulas for dedendum and total depth marked (*) are
Table 13.4 used when clearance equals 0.157 x module.
British Standard Metric Spur and Helical Gears - Formulas marked (**) are used when clearance equals
Basic Formulas for Limits of Tolerance on one-sixth module. It is the common practice among
Elements (B.S. 436: Part 2: 1970) American cutter manufacturers to make the clearance
of metric module cutters equal to 0.157 x module.
Gear Limits of Limits of Limits of
Accura Tolerance Tolerance Tolerance on
cy on Pitch on Tooth Tooth
Grade Profile Alignment
3 0.6311 + 1.6 0.16 of + 3.15 0.51b + 2.5
4 1.011 + 2.5 0.25 of + 4.0 0.63lb +3.15
5 1.611 + 4.0 0.40 of + 5.0 0.801b + 4.0
CHAPTER 13 - MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
Table 13.5
Rules for Module System of Gearing Diametral Rule: To find the diametral pitch
Pitch equivalent to a given module, divide 25.4
Equivalent to by the module (25.4 = number of
Rule 1: To find the metric module, divide Metric millimeters per inch.)
the pitch diameter in millimetres by the Module
number of teeth. Example: The module is 12; determine
equivalent diametral pitch
Example 1: The pitch diameter of a gear
is 200 millimeters and the number of equivalent diametral pitch = 25.4 = 2:17
teeth, 40; then 12
Table 13.6
(c) Flying of metal (1) Enclosure guard Tooth Dimensions Based Upon Module System
chips or long (2) Portable perspex
burrs and screenguard Cirmlar Pitch Addendu Whole Whole
turnings (3) Use chip breaker-tool to IAdile
Millirnet m. Dedendum, Depth Depth, t
Standar Inches Millimeter Millimeters' Millimeter Millimeter
Diarrchral e rs
eliminate long turnings d Series s S S
(j) Inserting Spindle jaws, Mechanical *Dedendum and total depth when clearance = 0.1666
blanks and feeding device like that of x module, or one-sixth module.
moving the F.H.J. Safety fixture ?Total depth equivalent to American standard full-
processed pert- depth teeth. (Clearance = 0.157 x module.)
without
stopping
Special Accidents in Turrets & Capstan Lathes:
(k) Splashing of Splash guard/Enclosure (a) Counter-wt. falling (1) Tube guard
coolant guard mounted on rollers. and bar flying thro' (2) Blank off hole
resulting in turret head
slipping Special Accident in Multispindle Lathe:
hazards and (a) Collecting component Wire-mesh, spoon
dermatitis while just parting off
CHAPTER 13 - MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
(b) Top parted off Sharperling tools properly (a) Removing swarf by Brush, Magnetic
component comes in hand using rag to sweeD
between tool and of clean excess oil while
first spindle. it is running
(a) Contact with the spindle 'Telescopic chuck (e) Slipping of spanner Use of proper spanner
and drill bits and spindle guard while adjusting,
tighten, loosening etc.
(b) Breaking of a tool and Clamps or use of
blunt it bit L angle iron (f) Attempting to remove Education and
the nut from the Training
(c) Being struck by a job Clamps or use of machine arber by
due to insecurely L angle iron applying power to the
clamped work machine
between the uprights may be a serious a. Accidents occur due to the following:
matter. Unsafe practices such as changing
stop dogs when the machine is in motion, 1. Failure to use suitable protective
riding the table during the operation. equipment like goggle face shield
Hazards lie in handling material into or out etc.
of machine and removing chips. 2. Holding the work improperly.
3. No work rest or improperly adjusted
Guard rail or barrier to close off any space work nest.
less than 457.2 mm between fixed part and 4. Improper or no wheel guard.
planner bed. Self adjusting table guard on 5. Excessive wheel speed.
the sides of the planner are essential. 6. Cleaning, adjusting or gauging work
while the machine is in motion.
b. Hazards in Shapers - Flying chips; flying 7. Side grinding
job if the work is not securely clamped; 8. Using wrong type of wheel.
attempting to adjust machine while it is in 9. Bursting of wheels, due to
motion; caught between ram and fixed excessive tightening or damage in
object and out injuries in removing chip. transit.
Shaper can be provided with a combination 10. Applying work too quickly to a cold
container for chips and transparent shield wheel.
for tool, a retriever to the limit of the stroke 11. Vibration due to improper balance.
of ran channel. The reversing dogs on the 12. Applying too heavy a cut.
planers and shapers should be covered. If 13. Using a spindle with incorrect
the planner bed travels within 457.2 mm of a diameter.
wall or fixed objects, there should be barrier 14. Threads on spindle tends to loosen
to prevent entrapping. the nut as spindle revolves.
15. Wrong size of flanges or flanges of
Breaches may be covered with transparent unequal diameter.
cover and guarded by two-hand electric 16. Flanges with un-relieved centers.
interlocks. 17. Failure to use wheel washers.
18. Wheel out of balance.
7.5 Grinding Machines - Internal grinding, external 19. Grinding too high above the centre
or cylindrical grinding, surface grinding, line of the wheel.
polishing, buffling, honing are classified under 20. Incorrect dressing of the wheel.
this cadre.
7.6 Proper Inspection and Storage:
Wheel guard and eye shield can be fitted to
prevent the most common accident due to flying (a) "Ring" test by qualified person.
of particles on tool grinders. Segment guard for (b) Proper storing in dry area.
portable grinders. Wheel guard and enclosure (c) Then speed test while installing.
for surface grinders:
CHAPTER 14 - MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Chapter 14
MANUFACTURING
PROCESS
powder metal products requires a heating Chemical machining is done either attacking the
operation to assist in bonding the particles metal chemically or by using a reverse plating
together. Plastic are molded under heat and/or process.
pressure to conform to the configuration of a
mold. Explosive, electrohydraulic, and magnetic 2.3 Process for obtaining a surface finish. Surface
forming are high-energy rate processes in which finishing operations are used to insure a smooth
parts are formed very rapidly by extremely high surface, great accuracy, aesthetic appearance, or
pressures. protective coating. Processes used are:
2.2 Processes used for machining parts to a fixed Polishing Abrasive belt grinding Barrel tumbling
Electroplating Honing Lapping
dimension Super finishing Metal Spraying Inorganic coating
Parkerizing Anodizing Sheradizing
Traditional machining, chip removal
Non-traditional machining In this group there are processes that cause little
change in dimension and result primarily in
a. In manufacturing any product there are finishing the surface. Other processes, such as
usually a number of machining operations, grinding, remove some metal and bring the part
which may be classified as follows: to a pre-planned dimension in addition to giving it
a good finish. In the processes such as honing,
Turning Planning Shaping Drilling lapping and polishing it is a matter of removing
Boring Reaming Sewing Broaching
Milling Grinding Robbing Routing small scratches with little change in dimension.
Super finishing is also a surface improving
b. Non-traditional machining process: process that removes undesirable fragmented
metal, leaving a base of solid crystalline metal.
Ultrasonic Electrical discharge Electro-Arc Plating and similar processes, used to obtain
Optical laser Electrochemical Chem-Milling corrosion-resisting surfaces or just to give a
Abrasive jet cutting Electro beam machining Plasma-Arc
better appearance, do not change dimensions
machining
materially.
In these secondary operations, which are
necessary for many products requiring close 2.4 Process used for joining parts of materials.
dimensional accuracy, metal is removed from the Products requiring the assembly of two or more
parts in small chips. Such operations are parts are usually joined by one of the following
performed on machine tools which include the processes:
various power-driven machines used for cutting Welding Soldering Brazing Sintering
metal. All of these operate on either a Pressing Riveting Screw Fastening Adhesive joining
reciprocating or a rotary-type principle: Either the
tool or the work reciprocates or rotates as Welding is the fusion or uniting of metal parts by
indicated. The planer is an example of heat and pressure. Soldering and brazing
reciprocating machine, since the work operations are similar except that the parts are
reciprocates past the tool, which is held in a joined by introducing a different metal between
stationary position. In other machines, such as the two in a molten state. Sintering applies to the
the shaper, the work is stationary and the tool bonding of metallic particles by the application of
reciprocates. Rotary machines are exemplified by heat. Structural adhesives in the form of powder,
the lather, which has the work rotating and the liquids, solids and tapes are widely used in the
tool stationary. In the drill press it is the tool that joining of metals, wood glass cloth and plastic.
rotates.
2.5 Processes used to change the physical
In ultrasonic machining, metal is removed by properties. There are number of processes in
abrasive grains which are carried in a liquid and which the physical properties of he material are
bombard the work surface at high velocity. The changed by the application of an elevated
velocity is generated by means of an ultrasonic temperature or from rapid or repeated stressing
generator. For electrical discharge and electro- of the material. Processes in which properties are
arc machining, special arcs are generated that changed include:
can be used to machine any conducting material.
The optical laser is a strong beam of photons that Heat Treatment Hot Working
can be used to generate extremely high Cold Working Shot Peening
temperature and thus cut or weld metal.
CHAPTER 14 - MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Heat treating includes a number of processes lubricant that stands up under such tremendous
that results in changing the properties and pressures.
structure of metals. Although both hot and cold
working are primarily processes for changing the Dies must be hard and wear-resistant as well as
shape of metals, these processes have strong. They are made of children iron, hardened
considerable influence on both the structure and alloy steel, cemented carbide and diamond.
the properties of the metal. Shot peening renders
many small parts, such as springs, resistant to 3.4 Electro-Forming - Is one of the special
fatigue failure. processes for forming metals. Parts are produced
by electrolytic deposition of metal upon a
Section 3.0 Processes conductive removable mold or matrix. The mold
established the sizes and surface smoothness of
3.1 Brazing - A group of welding operation in which the finished product. Metal is applied to the
a non-ferrous filler metal melts at a temperature conductive mold, from electrolytic solution in
below that of the metal joined but is heated above which a bar of pure metal acts as an anode for
425°C. The molten filler metal flows by capillarity the plating current. It is particularly valuable for
between the heated but unmelted adjacent or fabricating thin walled parts requiring a high order
overlapping joint members or is melted in place of accuracy. Internal surface finish and
between these members. complicated internal forms that are difficult to
cure or machine.
Filler metals are divided into two classes: copper
alloys and silver alloys. 3.5 Explosive Forming - An excellent method of
utilizing energy at a high rate, since the gas
Copper alloyed with zinc, tin, nickel, phosphorous pressure and rate of detonation can be carefully
or silver is brazed at 705°C to 175°C. controlled. Both low and high explosives, known
as cartridge system, the expanding gas is
Silver alloyed with copper, zinc, tin, calcium, confined and pressure may build up to 7042
manganese, nickel or phosphorous is brazed at kg/cm2. High explosives which need to be
635°C to 843°C. confined and which detonate with a high velocity
may attain pressures of up to 20 times that of
Blow Molding - Is used primarily to produce tin flow liquid set up intense shock waves that pass
walled hollow containers from thermoplastic through the medium between the change and the
resin. A cylinder of plastic materials, known as work piece but decrease in intensity as the waves
parison, is extruded as rapidly as possible and spread over more areas.
positioned between the jaws of a split mold. As
the mold is closed, it pinches off the parison and 3.6 Electroplating - Electroplating is done on all the
the product is completed by air pressure forcing common metals and even on many metal after
the materials against the mold surface. their surfaces have been prepared. The piece to
be plated is immersed in a water solution of salts
Cold Drawing - Hot rolled stack is descaled, of the metal to be applied and made the cathode
cleaned and prepared for drawing. A common in a direct current circuit. Anodes of the coating
way of treating steel is to immerse it in hot metal replenish the solution when the current is
sulphuric acid, rinse, coat with lime and bake. flowing and ions of metal are attracted to the
The leading end of a piece is tapered for insertion work piece to form the coating. The rate of
through the die. A piece is pulled though a hole deposition and the properties of the plate such as
of a smaller size and emerges corresponding hardness, uniformity and porosity depend upon
reduced in size wire is pulled by being wound on getting a proper balance among the composition
a drum as it comes out of the die. Rods, bars of the plating solution, current density, agitation,
and tubes are pulled in a straight line by solution acidity and temperature.
mechanical means. A mandrel is inserted in a
tube to control the size of the inside diameter. 3.7 Extrusion - Many plastics are extruded into long
shapes by being forced through dies. Sometimes
Drawing pressure against a die must exceed the this is done intermittently by a plunger in a
yield strength of the work material and commonly cylinder, but the common continuous method are
is as much as 7042 to 21126 kg/cm2 for steel. the material drops from a hopper into a heated
Steel is only to slide through a die coated by a cylinder in which it is pushed along and out
through the opening in the die by screw.
CHAPf ER 14 - MANUFACTURING PROCESS
a. Hammer Forging - A hot work piece i f. Foundries - Iron foundry comprises of six
placed on an anvil and struck repeatedly by i basic sections:
hammer.
1. Melting and pouring
b. Drop Forging - The operation of form in^
parts hot on drop hammer with impression or 2. Moulding
cavity dies. The products are known as drop
forging closed-die forging or impression die 3. Core-making, including sand
forging. They are made from carbon and preparation
alloy steels and alloy of aluminium copper,
magnesium and nickels, stock in the form of 4. Knock-out, including decoring and
the heated end of a bar, slug or individual sand reclamation
billet is placed in a cavity in the bottom half of
a forging die on the anvil of a drop hammer. 5. Fettling, including inspection and
The upper half is attached to the hammer or testing
ram and fall on the stock which is made to
flow into and fill cavity. 6. Pattern-Making
b. Kiln, cement kiln, lime kiln, ceramic kiln and d. Mounting - Accident and breakages occur
drying kilns. when wheel are mounted on unsuitable
apparatus or spindle end of buffing
c. Oven, drying and caring, baking, decorating machines. The spindle should be of adequate
and solvent evaporation. diameter but not be large as to expand the
center hole of the wheel; flanges should be
The automatic controls that regulate fuel and not less than one-third the diameter of the
air supply and ensure the correct wheel and made of mild steel or of similar
temperature should be maintained in good materials.
conditions, these controls should be
calibrated at frequent intervals. e. Speed - The maximum permissible operating
speed specified by the manufacturer shall not
3.10 Galvanizing - A process by which zinc coating is be exceeded. A notice indicating the spindle
applied to a wide variety of steel product to speed should be fitted to all grinding
provide protection against corrosion. machines and the wheel should be marked
with the maximum permissible speed and the
Two basic method of galvanizing: corresponding number of revolution for the
new wheel.
a Hot dip-galvanizing dipping or passing the
steel product through a bath of molten zinc. f. Work Rest - Work rest of adequate
dimension and rigidly mounted should be
b Cold electro galvanizing-process of providing provided. They should be adjustable and kept
any metal with a zinc coating by means of an as close as possible to the wheel to prevent a
electric current. trap in which the work might be forced
against the wheel and break it or the
Grinding, Polishing - A process of finishing operator's hand could be caught and injured.
various materials for either safety, operational or
aesthetic appearances. Many machine parts Abrasive Wheel should be provided with
undergo precision finishing to meet their guards strong enough to contain the parts of
operational requirements. This process utilizes a bursting wheel. The grinding opening
high speed rotating wheels that are hazardous to should be as small as possible and an
operators and the surrounding areas. The adjustable nose piece maybe necessary.
following precautions shall be carefully followed:
3.12 Metallizing - The equipment for metal spraying
a. Handling and Storing - A wheel may consist of a pistol-shaped spray gun (Schooping
become damaged or cracked during transit or gun) through which the metal, in the form of wire
handling, moisture may attack the bonding is fed to a blowpipe flame which melt it, the
agent in phenolic resin wheel, ultimately molten metal thus produced being sprayed by a
reducing their strength. Vitrified wheels steam of compressed air surrounding the flame.
maybe sensitive to repeated temperature
variations; irregularly absorbed moisture may The heat source on the blowpipe is a fuel
throw the wheel out of balance. Wheels are gasloxygen flame and the fuel gas maybe either
carefully handled at all stages and kept in an acetylene, propane or compressed town gas.
orderly manner in a dry and protected place.
3.13 Magnetic Forming - This is another example of
b. Checking for Crack - A new wheel should the direct conversion of electrical energy into
be checked to ensure that it is undamaged useful work. The process involved charging
and dry, most simply trapping with a worden voltage is supplied by a high voltage source into
mallet. a bank of capacitors connected in parallel. The
amount of energy stored can be varied by either
c. Testing - Before the new wheel is put into adding capacitors to the bank or by increasing
service, it should be tested at full speed with the voltage. The charging operation is very rapid
due precaution being observed. After wet and when complete a high voltage switch triggers
grinding, the wheel should be run idle to eject the stored electrical energy through the coils
the water otherwise the water may collect at establishing a rapid high intensity magnetic field.
the bottom of the wheel and cause imbalance This field induced a current into the conductive
which may result to bursting. acts on the work piece.
CHAPTER 14 - MANUFACTURING PROCESS
3.14 Plastic Processes - The processes employed in of finished shapes to be made, they are first
plastic technology are compression moulding, rolled into such intermediate shapes as blooms,
transfer moulding, injection moulding, extrusion, billets or slabs. A bloom has a square cross
calendaring, blow moulding, film forming, thermal section with a minimum size of 150 mm x 150
forming vacuum forming, laminating and resin mm. A billet is smaller than a bloom and may
technology processes. have a square section from 38.1 mm up to the
size of a bloom. Slab maybe rolled from either
The hazard in plastic processing are associated ingot or a bloom. They have a rectangular cross
with the use of machines. Moulding machines sectional area with a minimum width of 250 mm
have press platens or dies with locking forces of and a minimum thickness which maybe as much
many tonnes per square centimetres and these as 380 mm. Plates skelp and thin strips are rolled
should be adequately guarded to prevent from slabs.
crushing injuries. Plastic processing machine
operate at high temperature and severe burn if Most primary rolling is done in either a two-high
body come in contact with the hot metal. reversing mill or a three-high reversing mill. The
piece passes through the roll which then stopped
3.1'5 Presses - The process of pressing is used to reversed in direction and the operation is
mould or cut many different materials. In repeated. At frequent intervals the metal is turned
mechanical metal press it works on an 90 degrees on its side to keep the section
intermittent reciprocating system and so requires uniform and to refine the metal throughout. About
a clutch. 30 passes are required to reduce a large ingot
into a bloom. Grooves are provided on both the
Accident occurs when workers hand is between upper and the lower rolls to accommodate the
the dies as they close either during an expected various reductions in cross-sectional area. The
stroke because for some reason the worker has two high rolling is quite versatile, since it has a
failed to remove his hand or during a repeat wide range of adjustment as to size of pieces and
stroke when the worker is feeling on with drawing rates of reductions. It is limited by the length that
work between the dies. can be rolled and by the inertia forces which must
be overcome each time a reversal is made.
3.16 Plasma-Arc - In a plasma-torch, a gas is heated These are eliminated in the three-high mill.
by a tungsten arc to such a high temperature that Three-high mill is less expensive to make and
it becomes ionized and acts as a conductor of has a higher output than the reversing mill.
electricity. The torch is generally designed so that
the gas is closely confined to the arc column Billets could be rolled to size in a large mill used
through a small orifice. This increases the for blooms, but this is not usually done for
temperature of the plasma and concentrates its economic reasons. Frequently they are rolled
energy on a small area of the work piece which from bloom in a continuous billet mill consisting of
rapidly melts the metal. about eight rolling stands in a straight line. The
steel makes but one pass throughout the mill and
3.17 Rolling - Steel ingots that are not to be re- emerge with a final billet size approximately 50
melted and cast into molds are converted to mm x 50 mm which is the raw materials for many
useful products in two steps; final shaped as bars, tubes and forging.
a. Rolling the steel into intermediate shape- 3.18 Riveting - Mechanical means of permanently
blooms, billet and slabs fastening parts together to rivet two parts, a rivet
is put through a hole and its head placed on an
b. Processing blooms, billets and slabs into anvil. A punch with a hollowed end mashes the
plate, sheets, structural shapes or foils stem to close the rivet. Some rivets are hollowed
and their edges are curled outward.
The steel remains in ingots molds until the
solidifications are about to complete when the -19 Sizing - Product requiring close tolerance may
molds are removed. While still hot, the ingots are necessitate a final operation such as repressing
placed in gas-fired furnaces called soaking pits the part in a die similar to the one for compacting
where they attain or remain until they have it. Such sizing is a cold working operation that
attained a uniform working temperature of about improves surface hardness and smoothness as
1 200°C throughout. The ingots are then taken in well as dimension accuracy.
the rolling mill where, because of the large variety
CHAPTER 14 - MANUFACTURING PROCESS
3.20 Stretch Forming - In forming a large thin metal most cases the effect of the heating is complete
involving symmetrical shape or double curve in a very short time. Furnaces for sintering may
bends, a metal stretch press can be used either be by batch or continuous type.
effectively. A single die mounted on a ram is
placed between the slides that grip the metal 3.22 Soldering -Uniting of two pieces of metal by
sheet. The die moves in a vertical direction and means of a different metal which is applied
the slides move horizontally large forces of 50 to between the two in a molten state. The metal for
150 tons (0.5 to 1.3M) are provided for the die this purpose is a low-melting alloy of lead and tin.
slides. The process is a stretching one and
causes the sheet to be stressed above its elastic SOLDERING
I
limit while conforming to die shape. This
accompanied by a slight thinning of the sheet and
action is such that there is little spring back to the
metal once it is formed.
Brazing Silver Soldering Soldering Iron Wiping
3.21 Sintering - Application of heat, which must be
3.23 Thermo-Forming - Consists of heating a
kept at a temperature below the melting point of
the metal powder, in the production of thermo-plastic sheet until it softens and then
forcing it to conform to some mold either by
commercial products from metallic powders by
differential air pressure or mechanical means.
pressure or atomic forces, and resulting in the
bonding of fine particles together, thus improving
3.24 Ultrasonic Machining - A mechanical process
the strength and other properties of the finished
product. Products made by powder metallurgy was designed to effectively machine hard brittle
are frequently mixed with different metal powders materials. It removes materials by the use of
or contain non-metallic constituents to improve abrasive grains that are carried in a liquid
the bonding qualities of the particles and between the tool and the work and bombard the
improved certain properties or characteristics of work surface at high velocity.
the final product. Cobalt or other metal is
necessary in the bonding of tungsten carbide 3.25 Wire Drawing - Wire is made by cold drawing
particles, whereas graphite is added with bearing- hot rolled wire rod through one or more dies to
metal powders to improve the lubricating qualities decrease its size and increase the physical
of the finished bearing. Sintering is an operation properties. The wire rod, about 6 mm in diameter,
in which the particles are fused together in such a is rolled from a single billet and cleaned in an
way that the density is increased. During the acid bath to remove scale, rust and coating. The
process grain boundaries are formed which is the '
coating is applied to prevent oxidation, neutralize
beginning or recrystallization. Plasticity is any remaining acid and to act as a lubricant or a
increased, and better mechanical interlocking is coating to which a later applied lubricant may
produced by building a fluid network. The cling.
temperatures used in sintering are usually well
below the melting point of the principal powder 3.26 Welding and Thermal Cutting - The three
constituent but may vary over a wide range up to common direct source of heat are:
a temperature just below the melting point . Tests
have proved that there is usually an optimum a. Flame produced by combustion of fuel gas
sintering temperature for a given set of with air or oxygen.
conditions.
b. Electrical arc, struck between an electrode
For most metals, sintering temperature can be and a work piece or between two electrodes.
obtained in commercial furnaces, but for some
metals requiring high temperature, special c. Electrical resistance offered to passage of
furnaces must be constructed. There is current between two or more work piece.
considerable range in the sintering temperature,
but the following temperatures have proved Types of Welding:
satisfactory: 1 095°C for iron, 1 180°C for
stainless steel, 870 for copper and I480°C for 1. Gas Welding
tungsten carbide. Sintering times range from 20 2. Arc Welding
to 40 minutes for the above listed metals. The 3. Atomic Hydrogen Welding Welding
time element varies with different metals, but in 4. Electro-Beam Welding
5. Electro-Slug Welding
CHAPTER 14 - MANUFACTURING PROCESS
6. Flash Welding
7. Friction Welding 5. Electro-Slug Welding - The work piece
8. Laser Welding and Drilling are usually set vertically, with a gap
9. Metal Spraying between them and copper plates or
10. Plasma-Arc Welding shoes are placed one or both sides of the
11. Resistance Welding joint to form a bath at the bottom of which
12. Spark Erosion Machining an arc is established under a flux lager
13. Stud Welding between one or more continuously fed
14. Thermal Welding electrode wires and a metal plate.
1. Gas Welding - The process in which 6. Flash Welding (Butt Welding) - The
gases are used in combination to obtain two metal parts to be welded are
a hot flame. Commonly used are connected to a low voltage high current
acetylene, natural gas, hydrogen in source. When the end of the components
combination with oxygen. The maximum are brought into a contact, a large current
temperature developed for oxy-hydrogen flows causing flashing to occur and
welding is 1 965°C for Oxy-acetylene bringing the end of the components to
Welding is 3 440°C. welding temperature.
The plain electric arc welding 8. Laser Welding and Drilling - Laser
(unshielded) as originally practiced beams are used for these purposes in
produced brittle and weak weld joints. industrial application requiring
This is due to contamination from the exceptionally high precision.
surrounding air of the weld metal while
they are at their liquid state. In 1972, the 9. Metal Spraying - Wire or powder from
flux covered electrodes was developed the nozzle of a spraying gun is fused by a
which greatly improved the quality of gas flame, arc or plasma-jet, and the
weld joints. This development rapidly molten particles are projected in the form
revolutionized the electric arc welding of a spray by means of compressed air or
process and was then called "Shielded gas. It is often necessary for articles to
Metal Arc Welding". be shot blasted or pickled before they are
sprayed.
Today, shielded Arc Welding is the most
widely used welding process in various 10. Plasma-Arc Welding - In all these
industries. A separate article will be processes the heat source is an arc
devoted for this process. formed at a relatively small orifice
through which steam of air, argon,
3. Atomic Hydrogen Welding - An arc helium, nitrogen or mixture of these
struck between two tungsten electrodes gases flow. The arc "plasma" is formed
into which a jet of hydrogen is directed. into a jet by the gas pressure and
continue as a flame beyond the nozzle.
4. Electro-Beam Welding - A work piece
contained in an executed chamber is 1. Resistance Welding - A high current at
bombarded by a beam of electrons from low voltage flows through two
an electron gun at voltages between 0.5 components from electrodes. The heat
KV and 100 KV. The energy of the generated at the interface between the
electrons is transformed into heat on components brings them to welding
striking the work piece. temperatures. During the passage of the
CHAPTER 14 - MANUFACTURING PROCESS
current, pressure by the electrodes the atmosphere that normally results to inferior
produces a forge weld. quality weld joints. Shielding can be
accomplished by various means such as inert
12. Spark Erosion Machining - In this gases, welding fluxes but the most common is by
technique metal is removed from the the use of readily available coated electrodes.
piece to be machined by the action of Refer to the illustrative drawing, Fig. 14.4.1
electric discharges between the piece below:
and an electrode immersed in electrolyte
oil.
l l
aluminum powder and a metal oxide BASE METAL
powder is ignited by a special powder in
a crucible. The oxide is reduced to metal
with the evolution of intense heat, the
crucible is tapped and molten metal flow
I Fig. 14.4.1 I
into the joint to melt the ends of the work Fig. 14.4.1
Schematic representation of the shielded metal arc welding.
piece and form the weld.
4.1 Welding Process and Electrodes For welding mild steel and low alloy steels, the
weld metal must match the metallurgy of the base
As previously discussed, this is a development of metal. The selection of the right electrode,
the early electric arc welding. The main therefore, shall be given a very thorough
improvement is the introduction of shielding for consideration. The American Welding Society
the molten weld metal against contamination from (AWS) and the American Society for Testing
CHAPTER 14 - MANUFACTURING PROCESS
I'
the weld metal and the base metal normally
Welding technique variables such due to excessive welding current. Refer to
as current supply and application Figure 14.4.2
-
horizontal, vertical or over Welded joints can either be tested destructively
head or non-destructively.
2 - Flat and Horizontal fillet
3 - Flat only 4.4 Destructive Testing
Refer to Table 14.4.1 for various Electrode a. Tensile Test - A test specimen is cut-out
Classification. After the above number series, from the work piece and stretched to failure.
additional suffix maybe added to denote Ultimate strength, yield point and percent
electrode composition. Refer to Table 14.4.2 elongation can be determined.
4.2 Common Weld Defects b. Bending Test - A test specimen is cut out
from the work piece and bended 90" to 180".
a. Lack of Penetration - The root pass did not This will determine cracking tendency and
adequately fuse the adjoining base metals. joint ductility.
This is normally caused by the base metals
did not reach fusion temperature, fast c. Sectioning - The weld joint is cut by
welding rate or too large an electrode used. hacksaw along the centreline of the weld to
allow visual examination of the weld.
b. Weld Cracks - This normally occur at the
weld heat affected zone (HAZ) due to brittle 4.5 Non Destructive Testing (NDT)
weldments associated with stresses. This is
common in welding molybdenum and This is a process wherein weld examination is
chromium alloys and thick weldments. This done without destroying the material. Random or
can be minimized by pre-heating and complete examination of all welds can be done
corrected by either stress relieving or and the material can still be used.
annealing.
a. Dye Penetrant Examination - This can be
c. Pinholes - These are small holes through determine surface cracks and porosities
the weldments normally caused by gas which may not be readily seen. This is done
bubbles escaping through the molten weld by thoroughly cleaning with solvents the weld
metal while cooling. This is commonly due to joint and spraying the surface with a
moisture loaded electrodes or dirtylmoist penetrating dye, normally red. Allow the dye
base metals. to penetrate for about one minute and
thoroughly wipe it off the surface and
d. Porosity - These are gas bubbles or minute followed with a gentle spray of a developer,
impurities trapped in the weldment normally normally white. The whole surface .will
due to dirty or moist electrode or become white except in areas that previously
contaminated base metals. absorbed the dye wherein the defect will be
revealed.
CHAPTER 14 - MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Table 14.4.1 Electrode Classification
Work Current Arc
C k s Yo. Penetration Basic Application
Position Supply Effect
I
All
(DC
Ac +) I Mild Medium
Production Welding
Designed to do the work of XX 10, but to employ an AC current.
Slightly higher tensile and yield strength.
I
Especially recommended for single pass, high speed, high current,
horizontal fillet welds. It is characteris-tically easy to handle and
EXX 12 All Mild Medium useful in cases of poor fit-up, both groove and fillet, where a wide
range of currents is used. Class 12 has reduced penetration but can
meet radiographic standards with single pass welds.
An iron powder type electrode ideal for fillet welds. The iron powder in
the electrode coating assists in increasing the deposit rate over the
AC
EXX 24 H.F. - F. Mild Light 12 class. Electrode can be used in drag technique with ease of
(DC - ) handling and good weld appearance. Requires better fit-up than 12,
but is of similar application, although limited as to position.
EXX 18 H.F.- F
I AC
DC-
Mild
30% iron powder titanis type electrode. A rod similar to 15 with a
deposition rate but an improved weld appearance. Offers
slag removal and higher usable current than the E6016 type.
A 50% iron powder lime type electrode. This one yields the highest
EXX25 H.F. - F
DC-
(AC)
Mild Medium
:reduces
eposition rates of the low hydrogen group. The coating also
an easy to maintain are with a smooth. wide bead; can only
be used in the flat position.
Deep Groove Heavy Sections
high production electrode designed for heavy sections, such as
H.F. - F Mild
Deep
When this high iron powder electrode is used in the drag technique, il
is 50% faster than the 20 electrode. It is primarily a downward deep
DC-
EXX27 H.F.-F Mild Medium groove rod, well suited for heavy sections. Second only to 24 in
AC
welding speed, but with properties superior to it. Both are equally
easy to handle.
Capable of higher deposition rates than 20. Designed for welding of
DC - heavy plate in the flat position and good in deep groove welding. Has
EXX30 F Mild Medium
AC less fluid slag than 20.
Current supply in parenthesis, as (C +), indicates that, for production H.F. = Horizontal Fillet Position
welding, some sacrifice in advantages must be made using the F. = Flat Position
designated supply.
CHAPTER 14 - MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Table 14.4.1 Electrode Classification
Work Current Arc
C k s Yo. Penetration Basic Application
Position Supply Effect
I
All
(DC
Ac +) I Mild Medium
Production Welding
Designed to do the work of XX 10, but to employ an AC current.
Slightly higher tensile and yield strength.
I
Especially recommended for single pass, high speed, high current,
horizontal fillet welds. It is characteris-tically easy to handle and
EXX 12 All Mild Medium useful in cases of poor fit-up, both groove and fillet, where a wide
range of currents is used. Class 12 has reduced penetration but can
meet radiographic standards with single pass welds.
An iron powder type electrode ideal for fillet welds. The iron powder in
the electrode coating assists in increasing the deposit rate over the
AC
EXX 24 H.F. - F. Mild Light 12 class. Electrode can be used in drag technique with ease of
(DC - ) handling and good weld appearance. Requires better fit-up than 12,
but is of similar application, although limited as to position.
EXX 18 H.F.- F
I AC
DC-
Mild
30% iron powder titanis type electrode. A rod similar to 15 with a
deposition rate but an improved weld appearance. Offers
slag removal and higher usable current than the E6016 type.
A 50% iron powder lime type electrode. This one yields the highest
EXX25 H.F. - F
DC-
(AC)
Mild Medium
:reduces
eposition rates of the low hydrogen group. The coating also
an easy to maintain are with a smooth. wide bead; can only
be used in the flat position.
Deep Groove Heavy Sections
high production electrode designed for heavy sections, such as
H.F. - F Mild
Deep
When this high iron powder electrode is used in the drag technique, il
is 50% faster than the 20 electrode. It is primarily a downward deep
DC-
EXX27 H.F.-F Mild Medium groove rod, well suited for heavy sections. Second only to 24 in
AC
welding speed, but with properties superior to it. Both are equally
easy to handle.
Capable of higher deposition rates than 20. Designed for welding of
DC - heavy plate in the flat position and good in deep groove welding. Has
EXX30 F Mild Medium
AC less fluid slag than 20.
Current supply in parenthesis, as (C +), indicates that, for production H.F. = Horizontal Fillet Position
welding, some sacrifice in advantages must be made using the F. = Flat Position
designated supply.
CHAPTER 14 - MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Table 14.4.2
Electrode Composition
Class 'Omp'
Carbon Molybdenum Chromium Manganese Silicon Sulfur Nickel
No. Suffix
CARBON - MOLYBDENUM STEEL ELECTRODES
XX I 0 A1 0.35 - 0.60 0.40
XX 11 A1 0.35 - 0.60 0.40
XX 15 A1 0.10 0.40 - 0.65 0.45 - 0.90 0.60@ 0.04
XX 16 A1 0.45 - 0.90 0.60@
XX 20 A1 0.35 - 0.60 0.40
CHROMIUM - MOLYBDENUM STEEL ELECTRODES
10 B1
11 B1 0.35 - 0.60 0.40 0.04
13 B1 0.10 0.40 - 0.65 0.40 - 0.65
15 B1 0.45 - 0.90 0.60@ 0.04
16 B1
10 82
11 B2 0.35 - 0.60 0.40 0.04
13 82 0.10 0.40 - 0.65 1.OO - 1.50
15 62 0.45 - 0.90 0.60@ 0.04
16 82
10 B3
11 B3 0.35 - 0.60 0.60
13 B3 0.12 0.90 - 1.20 2.00 - 2.50 0.04
15 83 0.45 - 0.90 0.60
NICKEL STEEL ELECTRODES
15 C1 0.12 2.00
16 C1 0.12 0.90 0.60@ 0.04 2.75
15 C2 0.10 3.00
16 C2 0.10 3.75
@ The silicon content may be 1.OO maximum if the carbon content is restricted to 0.06 maximum.
CAUTION: It is important that this electrode selection procedure not be considered a final authority instead of
a series of actual weld trials or field experience. In cases of production welding, it is most
important that welding procedures or specifications be produced through experimentation.
Success and failure in high speed welding may still be in the proper selection of such variables as
amperage, voltage, speed of travel, electrode angle, welding technique, joint preparation, preheat,
inter pass temperature, post heat treatment, etc.
CHAPTER 14 - MANUFACTURING PROCESS
b. Hardness Testing - This is a method of pressurized piping's and vessels, the final test
determining the hardness of the weld more should be by hydro testing at a minimum
particularly the heat affected zone. The pressure of 1.5 times the design pressure plus
hardness will determine the cracking corrections for higher temperature operations.
tendency of weld joints. A 220 Brinell
Hardness Number (BHN) * , is normally Section 5.0 Safety Precautions
acceptable for common mild' steel and low
alloy steels. 5.1 Processes which emit fumes, mist, toxic vapor,
dust shall be provided with adequate exhaust
ventilation or proper enclosure.
c. Magnetic Particle Testing - Uses electrical
current to create a magnetic field in a 5.2 Protective clothing, eye, nose, feet and hand
specimen with the magnetic particles (iron protection shall be used when exposed to hazard
powder) indicating where the field is broken such as toxic substances, radiation, hot and
by discontinuities such as cracks in the corrosive substances.
material. Applicable to ferromagnetic
materials only. 5.3 Automatic control that regulate fuel and air supply
should be maintained in good condition to ensure
-
d. Radiographic Examination This employs the correct temperature for the process.
radioactive isotopes such as Cobalt-60,
Iridium-192, Thulium-170 or Cesium-137 and 5.5 Substitution of toxic substances to non-toxic
radiographic films. The internal or external substances in any quantity process is possible.
properties of the work piece can be depicted
on the film by the passage of radiation 5.4 Sources of dangerous noise should be
through the work piece. This examination can acoustically enclosed.
reveal cracks, porosities, inclusions, lack of
penetration and other defects. With the film, a 5.6 Rest rooms shall be provided with proper
permanent record of the joint can be kept. ventilation and facilities.
Areas that need repairs can likewise be
pinpointed. 5.7 Pipe lines or hoses shall be properly color coded.
This needs a trained technician to safely 5.8 Uninsulated hot pipelines or ducts shall be
handle and operate the radio isotope. provided with guards or insulated at portions
adjacent to passage ways for personnel
e. X-ray Examination - Essentially the same protection.
with radiographic examination except only on
the source of radiation. This utilizes electricity 5.9 Moving machine parts shall be provided with
powered X-ray machine that generate adequate protective guards.
ionizing radiation.
5.10 Welders must wear protective clothing, welding
Also needs a trained technician to safely masks and gloves.
handle and operate the machine.
5.11 Operations involving radiations shall be properly
Ultrasonic Examination - This utilizes identified and barricaded. Only authorized
ultrasounds that penetrate most common technicians shall handle these equipment.
materials. The time of rebound of ultrasounds
from the probe which is pressed on one side
of the material to the other side or any Section 6.0 Pollution Control
discontinuity is converted to unit of linear
measure. This method can detect 6.1 Air Pollution Control Equipment
laminations, cracks and inclusions. This
needs an expert to evaluate the findings. a. To promote a clean environment,
manufacturing process or installation whose
4.6 Final Test of Completed Work operation results in the emission of
contaminants must be provided with
The completed work is normally tested for appropriate air pollution control equipment.
soundness by actual test loading. Particularly for
CHAPTER 14 - MANUFACTURING PROCESS
b. Air pollution control equipment for collecting constituents of a gas stream can be
particulate matter (smoke, dust, fumes, mists, removed or covered.
etc.) emission are:
3. Afterburners - combustion converts the
1. Inertial separators - used for collecting combustible constituents of a gas stream
medium and coarse size particulates. into carbon and water.
The louver type collector is effective in
collecting dry above microns (p) in size 4. \/apor Condensers - by extracting heat
while the multi-baffle type is used in the or increasing pressure, vapor
collection of mists. condensation is achieved.
7. Granular activated carbon has long been 3. Dialysis - a practical toll for recovering
used in filtering equipment to remove chemicals from process waste.
color and turbidity and improve the taste
of water by removing residual chlorine. 4. Electro dialysis reduces the dissolved
This same material is extremely effective solids content of water. Main application
in absorbing organic contaminations from is converting brackish water (1 000 to 10
waste water measured in terms of BOD, 000 ppm) to supply that is suitable for
COD, color, odor, optical density or other potable use (below 500).
analytical techniques.
5. Ion exchange is a versatile process that
8. Biological filters commonly called trickling keeps extending its range of service. In
filters are basically a pile of rocks over waste water treatment it is used to
which sewage or industrial waste slowly remove or recover anions and cations
trickles. The rock simply provides surface depending on whether or not they are
on which microbes cling and grow as valuable, undesirable or both.
they feed on the organic matter.
6. Neutralization of waste water is
9. Activated sludge is the process by which frequently needed to keep pH in the
masses on settle able solid formed by range of 6 to 8 required by most water
simply aerating waste water containing quality criteria.
biologically degradable compounds in the
presence of microbes. The settle able 7. Oxidation reduction and precipitation
solids, called activated sludge consist of system are widely applied for the
bacterial fungi, protozoa, rotifiers and treatment of plating wastes.
nematodes are responsible for stabilizing
the organic matter and forming the floc. 8. Sludge handling and disposal is a final
step from waste water treatment plants.
10. Anaerobic digestion is widely used to
stabilize concentrated organic solids 9. Sludge concentrators are mainly used
removed from settling tanks, biological to thicken sludge from secondary
filters and activated sludge plants. The clarifiers or mixtures of sludge from both
waste is mixed with large quantities of primary and secondary treatment units.
microbes and oxygen is excluded. Under
these conditions highly specialized 10. Digestion under anaerobic conditions
makes sludge solid easier to dewater and
CHAPTER 14 - MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Chapter 15
Table 15.2.1.1 Classification of Coals by Rank* Horizontal firing, employs a turbulent burner,
jFC = fixed carbon; VM = volatile matter, Btu = British thermal units) which consists of a circular nozzle within a
I I I
Limits of Fixed Carbon or housing provided with adjustable valves, the unit
Requisite Physical
Btiu (Mineral-matter-
free Basis)
being located in the front or rear wall. The
primary air and coal are fed to the nozzle, in
I. Anthracitic 1. Meta-anthracite Dry FC. 98% or more ......................... which the mixture is given a rotary motion by
(dry) VM. 2% or less)
2. Anthracite Dry FC, 92% or more. ......................... narrow, spiral vanes. The secondary air enters
and less than 98% (dry the outer housing through the adjustable vanes,
VM. 8% or less, and more
than 2% which provide rotary motion at an angle different
3. Semi-anthracite Dry FC, 88% or more. Non-agglomeratingt
and less than 92% (dry from that of the primary air and coal, the
VM. 14% or less, and meeting of the primary-air coal mixture at the
more than 8%
periphery of the nozzle, creates a high degree of
II. Bituminous$ 1. Low-volatile Dry FC, 78% or more, .............................
bituminous coal and less than 68% (dry turbulence. This type of burner is suited to high
VM. 22% or less, and capacity and dry bottom furnaces.
more than 14%
2. Medium-volatile Dry FC. 69% or more. ..............................
bituminous coal and less than 78% (dry
VM. 31% or less. and Corner or tangential firing is characterized by
more than 22% burners located in each corner of the furnace
3. High-volatileA Dry FC, less than 69% .............................
bituminous coal (dry VM, more than 31%). and directed tangent to a horizontal, imaginary
and moist § Btu. 14 000
4. High-volatile B Moist § Btu, 13 000 or ................................ circle in the middle of the furnace, thereby
bituminous wal more, and less than 14 making the furnace the burner in effect, since
000
5. High-volatile C Moist Btu. 11 000 or more ............................... turbulence and intensive mixing occur where the
bituminous and less than 13 000
streams meet. The coal and primary air enter
Ill. Sub- 1. Sub-bituminous Moist Btu, 11 000 or Both weathering and through rectangular or square coal nozzles;
bituminous A coal more, and less than 13 non-agglomerating7
2. Sub-bituminous 000 ............................. secondary air is supplied partly around the
B wal Moist Btu, 9503 or more.
3. Sub-bituminous and less than 11 000 .............................. nozzles and partly through ports above and
C wal Moist Btu. 8300 or more,
and less than 9500
below them. Dampers proportion the secondary
IV. Lignitic 1. Lignite Consolidated air to the various sections. The relative velocities
2. Brown coal Moist Btu. less than 8300 Unconsolidated
Moist Btu, less than 8300 of gas and fuel produce a scrubbing action that
promotes the transport of oxygen to the fuel,
This classification does not include a few coals that have unusual through the film of combustion products around
physical and chemical properties and which come within the limits of the particles. Further, the tangential motion of
fixed carbon or BTU of the high-volatile bituminous and sub-
bituminous ranks. All these coals either contain less than 48% dry, the gases produces a vortex, which effectively
mineral-matter-free fixed carbon or have more than 15 500 moist, lengthens the time that the t:ombusti ble is in the
mineral-matter-free Btu. furnace. This type of firing i:; suited t'o either \~ e t
t If agglomerating, classify in low-volatile group of the bituminous
or dry-bottom furnace oper,ation or medium or
class.
$ Moist Btu refers to coal containing its natural bed moisture but not -,.Llr.
high volatile coals, and it is Capav~e
me .:
rA,,+---
UI C A U G I I I ~ ~ ~
including visible water on the surface of the coal.
§ It is recognized that there may be non caking varieties in each
high capacities.
group of the bituminous class.
7 There are three varieties of coal in the high-volatile C bituminous 2.5 Furnace Heat Release and Heat Available.
group, namely, (1) agglomerating and non-weathering, (2) Furnaces for pulverized coal firing are designed
agglomerating and weathering, and (3) non-agglomerating and non
weathering. either to remove the ash as molten slag
intermittently or continuously (wet bottom), or as
Occasionally, the admission of secondary air dry ash (dry bottom). Wet-bottom construction
along the front walls is used with considerable generally is chosen for low-grade coals that
success, particularly in connection with very low- have low fusion characteristics, whereas dry-
volatile coals, which require long flame travel, bottom construction often is selected for high-
or in high, narrow furnaces. fusion coals. Experience has shown, however,
that it is possible to design reliable dry-bottom
Impact firing. a form of vertical firing, consists of units to burn any grade of coal available, at high
burners located in an arch low in the furnace or boiler availability. Pulverized-fuel firing is used
in the side walls and directed toward the furnace for steam capacities ranging from 23,730 to
door, with high velocities of both primary and 454,550 kgs. per hr. capacities above 68,180
secondary air. This type of firing is used kgs. per hr. being almost exclusively fired with
exclusively in wet-bottom or slagging type pulverized coal. The furnace heat release varies
furnaces. from 558,662 to 1, I 17,224 kilo ~ o u l e s / m
per
~ hr.
782,071 to 819,313 kJ for best performance of
wet-bottom furnaces or for dry-bottom units
CHAPTER 15 - FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
t Ash and sulfur shall be reported to the nearest 0.1 % by dropping the second
decimal figure when it is 0.01 to 0.04, inclusive, and by increasing the percentage
by 0.1% when the second decimal figure is 0.03 to 0.09, inclusive. For example 4.85
to 4.94%, inclusive, shall be considered to be 4.9%.
$ Ash-softening temperatures shall be reported to the nearest 10 F. For example,
2,635 to 2,644 F, inclusive, shall be considered to be 2,640 F.
§ For commercial grading of coals, with ash less than 2%, ranges in the percentage
ash smaller than 2-4 are commonly used.
Note: "C = (M
burning coal with an ash-fusion temperature Section 3.0 Coke
above 1,150°C. The available furnace heat is
defined as the heat in the coal as fired, plus the 3.1 Coke is the solid, infusible, cellular residue left
heat in the preheated air, minus one-half the after fusible bituminous coals are heated, in the
radiation of unaccounted-for losses, minus the absence of air, above temperatures at which
heating value in the unburned carbon. This active thermal decomposition of the coal occurs.
value, divided by the projected area, in square Pitch coke and petroleum coke of somewhat
feet, of the furnace wall tubes plus the plane of different characteristics are obtained by similar
the first row of boiler tubes, gives a useful factor heating of coal-tar pitch and petroleum residues.
for comparing furnaces. For round tubes, the
projected area is taken as the diameter High temperature coke is made from coal at
multiplied by the length; and with finned tubes temperature ranging from 815°C to 1,093"C
and studded tubes, the projected area, including (average practice, 926°C to 1.037"C.
fins and studs, is used. Most central station
boilers in this country have values for the Low temperature coke is formed at
available furnace heat between 567,505 and temperatures below 704°C. The residue, if made
1,135,010 Kilo Joules per sq. m. of heat- from a non-cooking coal, is known as char.
absorbing surface.
- Section 4.0 Wood and Hogged Fuel
Note: "C (OF - 32) + 1.8
kg = Ibs + 2.2 4.1 Wood fuel may come to the boiler plant in the
M -
- ft. + 3.28
form of cordwood, slabs, edging, bark, sawdust,
kilo Joules (kJ) = BTU x 1.055 or shaving and frequently several forms are
CHAPTER 15 - FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
Table 15.2.1.la
Quality of Major Coal Fields in the Philippines
(Air-Dried Basis)
Coral Fields
Calorific Volatile I Total I Fixed Ash Total
Value (BTUILB) Matter (%) I Moist (%) I Carbon (%) O/o s (%)
I I
CAGAYAN BASIN Lignite
Cauayan,lsabela Lignite-sub-
Maddela,Quirino Prov. Bituminous
CATANDUANES
BATAAN Sub-bituminous
East Sub-bituminous
West Sub-bituminous
POLlLlO ISLAND Bituminous
Bituminous
QUEZON(Gen. Nakar) Sub-bituminous
SOUTHERN MINDORO Lignite-sub-
SEMIRARA ISLAND Bituminous
CEBU Bituminous
Angao-Dalaguete Sub-bituminous
Uling-Alpaco Sub-bituminous
Danao-Compostela Sub-bituminous
Toledo-Balamban Bituminous
NEGROS (East)
1 Sub-bituminous
SURIGAO Sub-bituminous
- -
Guiaaault
Bislig
Sub-bituminous
Bituminous-
ZAMBOANGA Semi-anthracite
DAVAO Lignite-Sub
Bituminous
NOTE: kg = lb + 2.2
Kilo Joules (KJ) = BTU x 1.055
given burner equipment. The Say bolt Section 7.0 Storage and Handling of Fuel
Universal viscosimeter is use8 for low- Oil
viscosity fuel oils, and the Say bolt Furol
viscosimeter for heavier oils. Other types 7.1 Fuel Oil Storage Tanks - generally are
of viscosimeters for fuel oils are the classified by material, as steel or concrete; by
Redwood and Engler. size, as gallons, etc; by location, as exposed or
inside, underground or buried; and by use, as
6.3 Firebrick and Refractory Cement. Firebrick light or heavy oil tanks. The essential
and refractory cements should be selected on requirements for tanks are tightness and
the basis of the service in which they are used. durability. The following specifications are
A grade higher than absolutely necessary generally accepted standards. Local regulations
should be chosen because of abuse under should be studied before installation. Tanks for
extreme operating conditions. The life is heavy oil usually have a manhole and provision
refractory material in combustion chambers is for a tank pre-heater, using either steam or hot
shortened by sustained high temperature, by water. Such tanks should be designed to heat
rapid changes in temperature, and by panting or the oil in the vicinity of the suction pipe to not
vibration from combustion. High temperatures over 37.7"C.
result from operation above normal rating,
normal operation with insufficient combustion a. Capacity and Location of Tanks. The
chambers designed for high heat releases. location of a tank with respect to distance
Rapid temperature changes may be reduced to from tank shell to line of adjoining property
the minimum by the operating personnel. A cold or nearest building depends on the
boiler should be brought up to operating construction, contents, equipment, and
temperature and pressure as slowly as possible. greatest dimension (diameter, length, or
When taking the boiler out of service, registers height) of the tank and should be in
and dampers must be closed tightly to allow the accordance with Table 15.7.1 .I
boiler to cool slowly. Panting is usually due to
improper drafts, faulty atomization, fluctuating oil The minimum distance between shells of
pressure or high heat releases. Sputtering any two all-steel, gas tight tanks should be
results from water in the oil or wet steam not less than one-half the greatest
supplied to steam-atomizing burners. dimension (diameter, length, or height) of
the smaller tank except that such distance
6.4 Furnace Floors. The burners' manufacturer should not be less than 9910 mm; for tanks
usually specifies the furnace floor construction. of 68 130 litres or less, the distance need
The several layers are as follows: (1) insulating not exceed 915 mm.
brick or material; (2) first course of brick, dry,
laid 1.6 mm apart to provide for expansion joints Tanks should be so located as to avoid
broken between adjacent rows; (3) dry refractory possible danger from high water.
cement, filling all cracks and covering bricks to
depth of 3.17 mm; (4) second course of brick When tanks are located on a stream without
similar to first, overlapping joints in first course; tide, they should, where possible, be down
and (5) day refractory cement as in (3). After stream for burnable property.
firing, the bricks take a permanent set and the
cement vitrifies to a hard surface. For airports
b. Fill Lines. Not less than 50 mm pipe should
built into the floor, the bricks may be set in be used for light oils (No. 1); for heavy oils
refractory cement mortar. (No. 6). 150 mm or 200 mm wipe should be
used. A pipe too large is better'than one too
Metal Combustion Chambers. For wet-base small. The fill line for any storage tank
domestic heating boilers and forced warm air should pitch from the fill box to the tank. A
furnaces, stainless steel combustion chambers trap should be provided, either directly
are used extensively. Type 430 stainless steel inside or outside of the tank, or the fill line
(17% chromium) is representative of the lowest- sealed by ending it in the tank below the
grade material that may be used for this service. bottom of the suction line. The fill line
always should be connected at the low end
of the tank and never cross-connected to
the vent pipe.
CHAPTER 15 - FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
of paints or varnishes. For example, cleaners usually free of suspended water, acid
naphtha or Standard solvent (ASTM D484-40) compounds, and other deleterious
has a distillation range of about 148.8"C to impurities.
204.4"C and a minimum flash point requirement
of 37.7"C. The elementary composition of gasoline by
weight is, in general, not far from 85%
Although gasoline and kerosene are not carbon and 15% hydrogen. The air-fuel ratio
invariable in composition and properties, they for stoichiometric requirements in the
vary only within limits of quality requirements combustion of gasoline and kerosene varies
recognized by refiners and consumers of those between 14 and 15 kg of air per kg of fuel.
products.
Gasoline ordinarily is graded by volatility
a. Motor gasoline for automotive use, is and antiknock value, or octane number, into
mixture of hydrocarbons distilling in the motor gasoline of regular and premium
range of 37.7"C to 204.4"C by the standard grades and into aviation gasoline of several
method of test (ASTM D86-46). The antiknock grades, of which the most
hydrocarbons belong chemically to four generally used are 91/98 and 100/130
principal classes; paraffin, olefins, (ASTM D910-47). Typical characteristics of
naphtenes, and aromatics. A typical motor gasoline are listed in Table 15.8.1.1. Other
gasoline is a blend of (1) straight-run or typical physical properties of gasoline are:
prime-cut naphtha, i.e., the portion of natural (1) volume coefficient of thermal expansion,
crude oil boiling at temperatures up to per "C at 15.5"C 0.0006 to 0.0007 (ASTM
204.4"C; (2) reformed naphtha, i.e., the D206-36); (2) latent heat of vaporization, at
product of the same volatility obtained by 1 atm. vapor pressure, 130 Btu per Ib; (3)
thermal treatment or by catalytic specific heat of vapor at 1 atm. pressure and
dehydrogenation of the heavy straight-run 37.7"C 0.4 Btu per (Ib x OF); (4) electric
naphtha; (3) cracked naphtha, i.e., the restivity of water free liquid, 2 X 10 ohm per
product of the same volatility obtained by cu. cm; (5) dielectric constant at 20°C 2.2
thermally or catalytically decomposing gas referred to air as unity; (6) surface tension
oil and less volatile portions of the crude oil; against air at 20°C 21 dynes per cm for
and (4) casing head gasoline and other light aviation grade, 25 dynes per cm for motor
ends, i.e., the liquefiable hydrocarbons, gasoline.
including substantially none more volatile
than isobutance, normally carried as vapor 8.2 Explosive Mixture of Gasoline. Mixtures of air
in natural gas or in stabilizer gases from and gasoline vapor containing from 1.3 to 6.0%
cracking processes. of gasoline vapor by volume are explosive.
Section 9.0 Diesel Fuel Oils 9.2 Specifications. Terms usually employed in
diesel-fuel specifications are:
Diesel engines in general are capable of burning a
rather wide variety of liquid fuels; the large-cylinder Specific Gravity, seldom used, compares the
slower-speed diesels will burn a wider range than the weight of the fuel with water; it is expressed as a
smaller engines. While vegetable and animal oils have decimal, with water taken as 1.0. The term APi
been used to a limited extent, the most available and (American Petroleum Institute) gravity is
cheapest liquid fuels are mineral oils, usually frequently used. Water is taken as API 10
derivatives of crude petroleum. degree. Oils lighter than water have higher
degrees API gravity, according to the formula.
9.1 Classification. Refiners grade fuels broadly
according to methods of production: (1) Distillate APl degree = 141.5 - 131.5
fuels are produced by distillation of crudes. Specific gravity at 60 F
Various grades are distinguished according to
choice of initial and final boiling points used in Heat Content is expressed in Btu per
the process. (2) Residual fuels are those left second pound higher heating value. Fuel
after the distillation process. (3) Blended fuels oil usually is purchased by the gallon, and
are mixtures of straight distillate fuels with the heavier fuels (low API gravity) have
cracked fuel stocks. Cracked stocks are the lower cost per unit of heating value.
residuals of fuels which have been treated
thermally or catalytically to obtain yields of Note: kJ = BTU x 1.055
lighter-grade fuels or gasoline. kg = Ibs + 2.2
Lightest grade distillates, classed as kerosene Flash Point - is the temperature at which the
or No. 1 fuel oil, may have an initial boiling point fuel gives off vapors ignited by an open flame
of 176.6"C and end point of 260°C. Heaviest and is significant only from handling and storage
grades of distillates, classed as No. 3 or 4 fuel standpoints. Usually a flash point of 65.22"C
oil, may have initial boiling point of 232°C to meets all fire, insurance, and transportation
260°C and end point of 343°C to 371°C. regulations.
Refiners may produce several grades of
distillates fuel and usually try to produce fuels "-ur Point - is important only for handling and
from the available crudes which will satisfy both rage reasons. Heating coils in storage tanks
domestic heating use and diesel engine ke possible the use of high point fuels in cold
requirements with least number of grades. ather.
Residual fuels, No. 4 or No. 5, are suitable only Viscosity - is measure of resistance to flow.
for the slower-speed diesel. Residual and Important from the standpoint of handling
blended fuels have wide variations in through piping, especially in cold weather, and
characteristics and suitability for diesel use and very important for injection characteristics. High-
each must be evaluated separately. viscosity fuels do not atomize as freely and may
upset combustion results in the engine.
CHAPTER 15 - FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
Volatility and Distillation Range - Volatility Ignition Quality - in smaller engines, is one of
measures vaporizing tendencies and is usually the most important characteristics of a fuel. The
expressed in distillation-range temperatures, term is used to express the speed at which
sometimes as temperatures at which successive combustion starts and continues under service
10% increments of the fuel are distilled. conditions. When fuel is injected into a diesel
engine cylinder, there is a delay until a portion of
Cleanliness - Contamination such as water, the fuel ignites. The burning increases the
abrasives, gummy constituents, pipe or tank temperature and promotes general ignition and
scale, or sludge must be eliminated. The usual combustion. If ignition quality is low and engine
BS and W (bottom sediments and water) limit is speed is high, a large part of the fuel charge is
0.05% maximum when the engine is equipped injected before any appreciable ignition occurs.
with fuel filtration facilities. In large stations, with Hence, at the time of ignition, there is so much
special filtration equipment, a limit of 1 to 2% is fuel present that combustion takes on the
advisable. characteristics of an explosion, causing rough
running.
Ash Content - includes non-combustible
mineral materials, abrasive in action in engine Cetane Number - The usual method of
cylinders, must be limited to less than 0.01% in expressing ignition quality is the determination
slower-speed engines. of delay angle of the fuel in a standardized test
engine. The delay angle is the angle of cranks
Corrosion - Fuel should be non-corrosive by shaft revolution between the beginning of fuel
test, but this may not correlate with corrosion of injection and the first appreciable rise in
fuel-system parts. Acidity and alkalinity test are pressure due to combustion. This is expressed
not normally specified or distillate fuels because by cetane number. Cetane is a hydrocarbon
manufacturing process produces neutral fuels. fluid of high ignition quality. It is mixed for trials
All fuels should be neutral in reaction, and with alphamethylnaphthalene, which has a poor
crudes or heavy fuels should be tested. ignition quality. After determination of the delay
angle of the fuel being tested, the performance
Sulfur - may be present in many forms, some is duplicated, using a mixture of these two pure
corrosive and some non corrosive. Products of compounds, and employing the trial-and-error
combustion of sulfur containing fuels are likely to method. The cetane number is the percentage
be corrosive or cause deposits in engines. In of cetane used in the mixture.
general, small engines have operated
satisfactorily on fuels containing as much as 1% Fuels with high cetane numbers give smooth
total sulfur, whereas large slow-speed units combustion and provide easy starting. The
have operated on fuels with as much as 3% slower the engine speed, the less the
sulfur. importance of the cetane number.
Carbon Residue - is sometimes called Diesel index is also used to express ignition
Conradson carbon. It is the carbonaceous quality of fuels:
residue remaining after destructive distillation,
expressed in percentage by weight of the Diesel index = API aravitv x Aniline cloud ~ o i n t
original sample. In light fuels, a test is run on the 100
10% remaining after the lightest 90% has been
distilled off. This is called "carbon residue on Both gravity and aniline cloud point are related
10% bottoms"; it gives values about ten times to fuel composition, hence to ignition quality.
those obtained from the entire sample. Higher- Diesel index and cetane number can be fairly
speed engines function most satisfactorily on well correlated.
fuels having carbon residues on 10% bottoms of
0.25% or less, whereas some large low-speed Another method of expressing ignition quality is
engines have used fuels with much higher by the empirical cetane number determined by a
carbon residues. This test believed to indicate chart that takes into consideration a number of
the tendency of a fuel to form carbon deposits in factors (including gravity, viscosity and volatility)
an engine, but correlation between tests and related to fuel composition.
actual engine results is not always good.
In the range of 50 to 60, the diesel index is
normally 5 to 10 points higher than the actual
CHAPTER 15 - FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
cetane number. In the range of 35 to 45 diesel storage facilities are needed on the
index closely approaches cetane number. Below premises of the consumer if the gas is
30, diesel index is usually somewhat lower than furnished by a public utility.
cetane number. The correlation between
empirical cetane number and actual cetane b. Gas Analysis. In ordinary methods of gas
number is generally similar, but the results are analysis, the gas passes through a series of
more consistent than those obtained from the absorbents, each of which removes a
diesel index. districts components or group of
components. The remainder of the gas is
Additives (amyl nitrate, etc) improve the ignition subjected to combustion with oxygen or air.
quality of fuels but add to the fuel cost. Engine Measurements are made on a volume basis,
tests alone are used for determining the ignition and the results are expressed in
quality of additive-improved fuels. percentages, on a dry basis, even though
the actual sample may have saturated with
9.3 Fuel Selection. Wide and numerous variations water vapor. Most of the equipment
in engine design, such as size of cylinder, speed available for absorption methods of analysis
of revolution, form of combustion chamber, and provides for determining C02, illuminants,
injection system, affect fuel requirements. In O2 CO, H2, CH4, C2H2,and N2 in the order
selecting fuel oils, follow the engine builder's listed, C 0 2 is absorbed in a sodium or
specifications but permit the fuel supplier as potassium hydroxide solution; illuminants in
much latitude within them as possible. sulphuric acid, bromine water, or cuprous
Restrictive specifications increase the fuel price. beta-naphthol; O2 in alkaline pyrogallate -or
Increasing the cetane number above the chromous chloride; CO in acid or alkaline
minimum required for smooth running does not cuprous chloride, cuprous sulphate beta -
increase the operating efficiency, but may naphthol; H2, CH4 and C2H6by combustion
increase the fuel cost. The use of lighter fuels methods; and N2 by difference.
than actually required increases both the fuel
cost per barrel and the fuel consumption. Other methods of analysis include distillation
methods in which the sample of gas is
9.4 Gas Fuel. The express purpose of the gas- liquefied and distilled or fractionated in
diesel and dual-fuel engine is to take advantage suitable apparatus, the use of the mass
of availability of low-cost gas fuel. Any gas spectrometer and infra-red spectroscopy.
suitable for fuel for gas engines can be used,
but natural gas and sewage gas are most c. Heating Value. The total heating value (or
common. The cost of pilot fuel oil is of lesser gross heating value, or higher heating value,
importance, and it is wise to use a good grade of hhv) of a gas is the number of BTU
fuel oil. produced by combustion at constant
pressure of 0.0283 m3 of the gas, measured
Section 10.0 Gaseous Fuels at 15.5"C and 762 mm, Hg, with air of the
same pressure and temperature as the gas,
10.1 Characteristics and Properties of Fuel Gases what the products of combustion are cooled
to the initial when the water formed by
a. Advantages. Gaseous fuels commonly combustion is condensed to the liquid state.
used in industry, whether distributed by
public utilities or produced in isolated plants, The net heating value (or lower heating
are composed of one or more simple gases value, hhV) is the number of kJ produced by
in varying proportions. They can be burned combustion at constant pressure of 0.0283
in furnaces or other appliances under m3 of the gas, measured at 15.5"C, and 762
conditions in which the supply can be varied mm Hg, with air of the same pressure and
almost instantaneously between wide limits temperature as the gas, when the products
by the manual or automatic manipulation of of combustion are cooled to the initial
a valve. Because complete combustion is temperature of gas and air and when water
obtained with low excess air, fuel losses are formed in combustion remains in the vapor
low and operation is smokeless. The state.
atmosphere is the furnace may be
maintained oxidizing or reducing with ease
and with little reduction in efficiency. No
CHAPTER 15 - FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
Section 11.0 Diesel Lubricating Oils 11.3 Characteristics. Specifications for lubricating oil
do not usually mention, any physical
11.IClassification. Crude oils are frequently characteristics except viscosity, but such
described as "paraffinic," "naphthenic," or "mixed characteristics should be considered.
base," according to the physical characteristics
of the crude. Many sub classifications of finished Viscosity must be high enough to provide an oil
oils can be made, based, on type of base stock, film under the load and temperature conditions
refining methods, and subsequent treatment, but prevailing between the sliding surfaces in the
these classifications do not describe the value of engine, and still flow freely through the
a lubricating oil in a diesel engine. passages and spread over sliding surfaces
under the prevailing speed and clearance
Two broad types of oil are in use, "straight" oils conditions. The latter is especially important
are produced entirely from the crudes chosen when starting at low temperature.
through elimination of undesired constituents by
suitable refining processes. "Additive" oils are Viscosity is usually expressed in seconds Say
produced by adding to straight mineral oils bolt or second SUS (Say bolt Universal
certain oil-soluble compounds that enhance the seconds). It is determined by measuring the
lubricating oil properties for use in a diesel time in seconds required for a standard quantity
engine. of oil (60cc) to flow through the orifice of the Say
bolt viscosimeter at a standard temperature.
Additives are used principally to inhibit or slow Three standard temperatures are used, 37.5,
down oxidation, to increase film strength, to 54.4, and 98.8"C.
keep solids in finely divided state and to hold
them in suspension (detergency), to improve the 11.4 SAE Grades. The viscosity of lubricating oil
viscosity index, to lower the pour point, to usually is expressed according to grades
decrease friction and wear under extreme established by the Society of Automotive
pressure conditions, to reduce foaming, and as Engineers, given in the following table:
rust or corrosion inhibitors.
SAE Viscosity Range, SUS
Viscosity At 130 F At 210 F
11.2 Types. The Society of Automotive Engineers Number Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum
and the American Petroleum Institute recognize
three types of lubricating oil: 10 90 Less than
120
a. Regular Type - suitable for moderate 20 120 Less than
operating conditions. 185
30 185 Less than
255
b. Premium Type - having oxidation stability 40 255 Less than
and bearing corrosion preventive properties 80
making it generally suitable for more severe 50 80 Less than
service than regular duty type. Operating 105
circumstances which bring high load factor, 60 105 Less than
125
or high load factor , or high temperatures 70 125 Less than
from any cause, require premium oils. 150
Elevated temperatures increase the rate of
oxidation and tend toward harmful deposits
in the engine. Oils having improved stability The Society of Automotive Enginaers (SAE)
and oxidation resistance are required under viscosity numbers classify motor oils and great
such circumstances. lubricants solely according to viscosity limits.
SAE numbers are a means of coordinating and
c. Heavy-Duty Type - has oxidation stability, standardizing the products of oil companies
being corrosion-preventive properties, and and the recommendations by the oil
detergent-dispersant characteristics for use companies. The system of SAE motor
under heavy-duty service conditions, carry classification is a system based entirely on
carbon particles in suspensions and tend to viscosity and is totally unrelated the other
eliminate deposits in the engine. qualities of a lubricating oil.
CHAPTER 15 - FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
a. Viscosity Index - indicates the relative In food processing plants, oil must be
change in viscosity of an oil for a given colorless, odorless and tasteless and if
temperature change. The rate of change comes in contact with the food should not
varies according to the type of base stock. discolor it.
Paraffin oils in general have a low rate of
viscosity change with change in d. Engine Operation. Normal operation of a
temperature; a particular paraffin oil was diesel engine subjects the lubricating oil to
arbitrarily assigned an index number of 100. high pressures and temperatures. The
Naphthenic oils have a high rate of viscosity results is oxidation and a tendency towards
change, and particular naphthenic oil was production of gums, resins, and acids. The
arbitrarily given an index number of zero. products of oil deterioration are an almost
The viscosity index, or VI, of any oil infinite series of compounds, differing
compares its rate of viscosity change with according to the oil used and the operating
temperature with these two standards. conditions. Furthermore, the oil may be
contaminated by metal particles, raw fuel oil,
b. Pour Point - is the lowest temperature at or the products of combustion. Soot, ash,
which oil will flow its own accord. It is not the partially burned fuel, or raw fuel may mix
only factor influencing the ease of starting a with the cylinder wall lubricant and
cold engine, especially after it is exposed for accelerate the deterioration of the lubricating
some time to cold weather. Special low- oil.
point lubricating oils may be used under
such circumstances, but the preferred Raw fuel oil will lower the flash and burning
method is to enclose suitably or protect the points of the lubricating oil, and lower the
engine by heating so that the lubricating oil viscosity. Filtering alone will not eliminate
and jacket water are at reasonable fuel oil; a distillation process is necessary.
temperatures before starting. The presence of fuel is detected by flash
point and change in viscosity.
c. Flash Point - In lubricating oils the flash
point is valuable for purposes of Oxidation or lubricating oil forms acidic
identification. The flash point of an oil is products. Periodic tests for neutralization
rough indication of its tendency to vaporize number will determine the rate of increase of
at high temperatures and therefore of oil acidity during service. Use the neutralization
consumption especially in internal number of the original or new oil as a basis
combustion engines. With used crankcase for comparison.
lubricants, the flash point gives an indication
of any dilution. Small engines are likely to have filters of
moderate capacity, and the lubricating oil is
Flash and fire points have the same thrown away periodically after a certain
meanings as for fuel oil, but the values are number of hours of use. Medium and large
much higher. Carbon residue has similar engines have more elaborate systems of
significance, but the test figure is a doubtful filtering the oil; the oil is clarified either by
indicator of the likelihood of engine deposits. the batch system or continuously. In the
Lubricating oils have flash points from 275- batch system, oil is drawn from the engine
700°F. periodically, clarified, and stored for future
use. No clarified oil is ever thrown away;
Color - The color of oil is no indication of its only residues or sludges are discarded.
lubricating qualities, except in so far as When the batch system is used, some
contamination may be evident. Sometimes operators have an analysis of the crankcase
the degree of deterioration can be estimated oil made periodically, and drain strictly
by comparing its color to that of unused oils. according to the indications shown. The
larger the establishment, the more essential
In same applications, color is quite that the correct grade of oil be used, that
important. In textile machines, oil may likely crankcase oil be kept in prime condition, and
cause stains in the textiles being that tosses and wastes be reduced to a
manufactured. Stained textile might be minimum.
rejected and therefore light colored oils may
be preferred to dark color oils.
CHAPTER 15 - FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
Section 12.0 Units of Heat Measurement TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS
12.1 Several units for measuring the quantity of heat Property Method Guaranteed Typical
in a body are in use. The relations between
Specifications Tests
them are given in Table 15.13.1 Corrosion, Cu. Strip,
1 hr
@ 38°C ASTM D 1838 1 Max. 1
The British thermal unit (BTU) generally used in
engineering work in the United States and Great Distillation, 95%
Evaporated at 760
Britain is 11180 of the heat required to raise the mm Hg. "F ASTM D 1837 - 32
temperature of 1 Ib. of water from 32 to 212 F.
Originally, it was defined as the quantity of heat Specific Gravity @
required to raise 1 Ib. of water from 62 to 63 F, 60160°F ASTM D 1657 Report 0.567
but the former definition is now generally Sulfur, Grains1 100
accepted. cu, fl ASTM D 2784 15 Max. 2
Table 15.13.la
Relation of the Various Units of Heat
Btu Kg-cal Gram-cal Mean cal Ostwald cal Lb-cal
- 0.15598 x
1 Btu 778.26 107.60 1054.9 1055.2 1 252.00 0.29302
I04
1.3414 x
1 watt-hr, int. = 2656.0 367.21 3600* 3601.I 3.41275 860* 1
Iu3
Note: "C= O F - 32
1.8
Corrosion,
Copper Strip,
3 hr, @ 50°F ASTM D 130 1 Maximum 1
Gum Existent
mgll OOml ASTM D381 . 4 maximum 2
Induction Period,
@ 10O0C,Minutes ASTM D525 480 maximum 1440
Water by distillation,
TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF PREMIUM GASOLINE Vol. % ASTM D95 0.5 maximum 0.2
Viscosity, Kinematic
cST @ 40°C ASTM D445 1.71 min - 2.8
5.5 max.
Water and Sediment by
Centrifuge, Vol. % ASTM D 1796 0.10 maximum Trace
CHAPTER 15 - FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
*Since fuel and Diesel oils vary in their reading according to source of production, the above figures should be considered as
approximate only.
CHAPTER 16 - MATERIALS
Chapter 16
MATERIALS
As a cooperative industrial effort under the 16.1.1.1 High Speed Toll Steels. Their
sponsorship of AlSl and SAE, a tool primary application is for tools used
classification system has been developed in for the working of metals at high
which the commonly used tool steels are cutting speeds. Cutting metal at high
grouped into seen major categories, several of speed generates heat, the penetration
which contain more than a single group, are of the cutting tool edge into the work
listed in the following with the letter symbols material requires great hardness and
used for their identification. The individual strength, and the continued frictional
types of tool steels within each category are contact of the tool with both the parent
identified by suffix numbers following the letter material and the detached chips can
symbols. only be sustained by an abrasion
resistant tool edge. Accordingly, the
When data related to past experience with tool dominant properties of high speed
steels for identical or similar applications are steel are (a) Resistance to the
not available, a tool steel selection procedure softening effect of elevated
may be followed which is based on temperature, (b) Great hardness
information supplied in this book section and penetrating to substantial depth from
comprises these steps: the surface, and (c) Excellent abrasion
resistance.
(1) For identifying the AlSl category which
contain the sought type of steel the Quick (a) High speed tool are listed in the
Reference Table 16.1 should be AlSl specifications in two groups:
consulted. Molybdenum types and Tungsten
types, these designation
(2) Within the defined category expressing the dominant alloying
element of the respective group..
(a) find from the listed applications of the
most frequently used types of tool (1) Molybdenum Type High
steels that particular type which Speed Tool Steels. In
corresponds to the job on hand; or distinction to the traditional
CHAPTER 16 - MATERIALS
tungsten base high speed the general purpose high speed tool
steels, the tool steels listed in steels, combining the economic
this category are considered advantages of the molybdenum type
to have molybdenum as the steels with greater ease of hardening,
principal alloying constituents, excellent wear resistance and
this element being also used improved toughness. It is preferred
in the designation of the steel type for the manufacture of
group. Actually, in several general purpose lathe tool; like milling
types listed in this category cutters, taps, dies, reamers and also
other significant elements like for form tools in lathe operations.
tungsten and cobalt might be
present in equal, or even 16.1.2.3 AISI M3: A high speed tool steel with
greater amount. The increased vanadium content for
available range of types improved wear resistance, yet still
comprises also high speed below the level where vanadium
tool steels with higher than would interfere with the ease of
usual carbon and vanadium grinding. Preferred for cutting tools
content; these alloying requiring the improved wear
elements have been resistance, like broaches, form tools,
increased to obtain better milling cutters, chasers, reamers, etc.
abrasion resistance although
such a change in composition 16.1.2.4 AISI M7: The chemical composition
may adversely affect the of this type similar to that of M I except
machine-ability and the grind- for the higher carbon and vanadium
ability of the steel. The series content which raises the cutting
in whose AlSl identification efficiency without materially reducing
numbers 4 is the first digit the toughness. Because of its
where developed for attaining sensitivity to decarburization heat
exceptionally high hardness in treatment in a salt bath or a controlled
heat treatment which, for atmosphere is advisable. Used for
types, usually comprises triple blanking and trimming dies, shear
tempering rather than the blades, lathe tools and thread rolling
double tempering generally dies.
applied for high speed tool
steels. 16.1.2.5 AISI MIO: While the relatively high
vanadium content assures excellent
16.1.2 Properties and Applications of Frequently wear and cutting properties, the only
Used Molybdenum Types slightly increased carbon does not
cause brittleness to an extent which is
16.1.2.1 AlSl M: This was developed as a harmful in many applications. Form
substitute for the classical T to save cutters and single point lathe tools,
on the alloying element tungsten by broaches, planer tools, punches,
replacing most of it with molybdenum. blanking dies, shear blades, etc., are
In most uses this steel is an examples of typical uses.
acceptable substitute, although it
requires greater care or more 16.1.2.6 AISI M42: In applications where high
advanced equipment for its heat hardness both at regular and at
treatment than the tungsten alloyed elevated temperatures is needed, this
type it re~laces. Selected for cutting type of high speed steel with high
to1 drills, taps, milling cutters, cobalt content can provide excellent
re athe tools used for lighter service. Typical applications are tools
cu ~lsofor shearing dies. bits, form tools, shaving tools, fly
cutters, roll turning tools, thread rolling
dies, etc. Important uses are found
16.1.2.2 AlSl M: Similar to M yet with for M42, and also for other types of
substantial tungsten content replacing the "M40" group in the working of
a part of the molybdenum. It is one of "difficult-to-machine" type alloys.
CHAPTER 16 - MATERIALS
16.1.4.2 Cold Work Tool Steels - High results in excellent resistance to wear
Carbon, High Chromium Types. The and abrasion and also provides
chemical composition of tool steels of superior compressive strength as long
this family is characterized by the very as the pressure is gradually applied
high chromium content, in the order of without exerting sudden shocks. In
12 to 13 per cent, and the hardening, an oil quench is used,
uncommonly high carbon content in without affecting the excellent non-
the range of about 1.50 to 2.30 per deforming properties of this type. Its
cent. Additional alloying elements deep hardening made it particularly
which are present in different amounts suitable for tools which require
in some of the steel types of this repeated re-grinding during their
group are vanadium, molybdenum service life, such as different types of
and cobalt, each of which contributes dies and punches. The more
desirable properties. The important applications comprise
predominant properties of the whole blanking, stamping and trimming dies
group are: (a) excellent dimensional and punches for long production runs;
stability in heat treatment where with forming, bending and drawing tools;
one exception, air quench is used; (b) also structural elements like plug and
great wear resistance particularly in ring gages, lathe centers, etc., in the
the types with the highest carbon applications where high wear
content, and (c) rather good resistance is important.
machinability.
16.1.5.3 Cold Work Tool Steels - Oil
16.1.5 Properties and Applications of Frequently Hardening Types. With a relatively
Used High Carbon - High Chromium Types low percentage of alloying elements,
yet with a substantial amount of
16.1.5.1 AlSl D2: An air hardening die steel manganese, these less expensive
with high carbon, high chromium types of tool steels attain good depth
content with several desirable tool of hardness in an oil quench, although
steel properties, such as abrasion at the cost of reduced resistance to
resistance, high hardness as well as deformation. Their good machinability
non-deforming characteristics. The supports general purpose application,
carbon content of this type, although yet because of relatively low wear
relatively high, is not particularly resistance they are mostly selected for
detrimental to its machining. The comparatively short-run work.
ease of working can further be
improved by selecting the same basic 16.1.6 Properties and Applications of Frequently-
type with the addition of sulfur. Used Oil Hardening Types
Several steel producers supply the
sulfurized version of D2, in which the 16.1.6.1 AlSl 01: A low alloy tool steel which
uniformly distributed sulfide particles is hardened in oil and exhibits only a
substantially improve the machinability low tendency to shrinking or harping.
and the resulting surface finish. The It is used for cutting tools, the
application comprise primarily cold operation of which does not generate
working press tools for shearing high heat, such as taps and threading
(blanking and stamping dies, dies, reamers, broaches, and for
punches, shear blades) for forming press tools like blanking, trimming,
(bending, seaming), also for the and forming dies in short or medium-
thread rolling dies, solid gages, and run operations.
wear resistant structural parts. Dies
for hot trimming of forging are also
made of D2 when heat treated to a 16.1.6.2 AISI 0 2 : Manganese is the dominant
lower hardness for the purpose of alloying element in this type of oil
increasing toughness. hardening tool steel which has good
non-deforming properties, can be
16.1.5.2 AISI D3: The high carbon content of machined easily and performs
this high chromium tool steel type satisfactorily in low volume production.
CHAPTER 16 - MATERIALS
16.1.7.4 AISI HIS: This high-alloyed hot work sensitive to shock loads. Taking
tool steel, containing chromium, these properties into account, the
tungsten, cobalt and vanadium, has principal applications include
excellent resistance to abrasion and extrusion dies for brass in long run
shocks at elevated temperature. It is operation, hot forming and gripper
particularly well adapted to severe hot dies with shallow impressions,
work uses where the tool, in order to punches which are subjected to great
retain its size and shape, must wear yet only to moderate shocks, hot
withstand wear and the washing out shear blades, etc.
effect of hot work material. Typical
applications include brass extrusion 16.1.8.3 AISI H26: This high alloyed tungsten
dies and dummy blocks, inserts for type hot work steel resembles in its
forging and valve extrusion dies, press composition the type high speed steel
'
forging dies, hot punches, etc. AlSl T I , except for the somewhat
lower carton content for improved
16.1.7.5 Hot Work Tool Steels - Tungsten toughness. The high amount of
Types. Substantial amount of tungsten provides the maximum
tungsten, yet very low carbon content resistance to the softening effect of
characterizes the hot work tool steel of elevated temperature and assures
this group. These tool steels have excellent wear-resistant properties,
been developed for applications including the withstanding of the
where the tool is in contact with the washing-out effect of certain
hot work material over extended processes. However, this type is less
periods of time, therefore the resistant to thermal shocks than the
resistance of the steel to the softening chromium hot work steels. Typical
effect of elevated temperatures is of applications comprises extrusion dies
prime importance, even to the extent for long production runs, extrusion
of accepting a lower degree of mandrels operated without cooling,
toughness. hot piercing punches, hot forging dies
and inserts. It is used as special
16.1.8 Properties and Applications of Frequently- structural steel for springs operating at
Used Tungsten Types. elevated temperatures. The areas of
use also include structural parts, like
16.1.8.1 AlSl H21: This is a medium tungsten clutch members, pawls, knuckle pins,
alloyed hot work tool steel with etc., which must withstand shock
substantially increased abrasion loads and still display good wear
resistance over the chromium alloyed properties.
types, yet possessing a degree of
toughness which represents a 16.1.8.4 AISI F2: This carbon-tungsten type is
transition between the chromium and one of the most abrasion resistant of
the higher alloyed tungsten steel all water hardening tool steels.
types. The principal application are However, it is sensitive to thermal
for tools subjected to continued changes, such as are involved in heat
abrasion, yet to only a limited amount treatment and is also susceptible to
of shock loads, like tools for the distortions. Consequently, its use is
extrusion of brass, both dies and limited to tools of simple shape in
dummy blocks, pierces for forging order to avoid cracking in hardening.
machines, insert for forging tools, hot The shallow hardening characteristics
nut tools, etc. Another typical of F2, which result in a tough core, are
application is dies for the hot extrusion desirable properties for certain tool
of automobile valves. types which, at the same time, require
the excellent wear-resistant properties
16.1.8.2 AlSl H24: The comparatively high of this tool steel type.
tungsten content (about 14 per cent)
results in good hardness, great 16.1.9 Water Hardening Tool Steels - Steel types
compression strength and excellent in this category are made without, or with only
abrasion resistance, but makes it a minimum amount of alloying elements and
CHAPTER 16 - MATERIALS
need in their heat treatment the harsh 16.1.I0 Recommended Applications of Water
quenching action of water or brine, hence the Hardening Type W-l (Plain Carbon) Tool
general designation of the category. Water Steels
hardening steels are usually available with
different percentages of carbon, to provide 16.1.10.1.1 Group I (C-0.70 to 0.90%):
properties required for different applications; Relatively tough and therefore
the classification system lists a carbon range preferred for tools which are
of 0.60 to 2.40 per cent. In practice, however, subjected to shocks or abusive
the steel mills produce these steels in a few treatment. For such
varieties of differing carbon content, often applications as: hand tools -
giving proprietary designations to each chisels, screwdriver blades, cold
particular group. Typical carbon content limits punches, nail sets, etc., and
of frequently used water hardening tools fixture elements - vise jaws,
steels are 0.70 - 0.90, 0.90 - 1.10, 1.05 - anvil faces, chuck jaws, etc.
1.20 and 1.20 - 1.30 per cent. The 16.1.10.1.2 Group II (C0.90 to 1.10%):
appropriate group should be chosen according Combines greater hardness
to the intended use, as indicated in the steel with fair toughness, resulting in
selection guide for this category, keeping in improved cutting capacity and
mind that while higher carbon content results moderate ability to sustain
in deeper hardness penetration, it also shock loads. For such
reduces toughness. applications as: hand tools -
knives, center punches,
The general system distinguishes the pneumatic chisels; cutting tools
following four grades: (1) special, (2) extra, - reamers, hand taps and
(3) standard and (4) commercial, listed in the threading dies, wood augers;
order of decreasing quality. The differences die parts - drawing and heading
between these grades, which are not offered dies, shear knives, cutting and
by all steel mills, are defined in principle only. forming dies; and fixture
The distinguishing characteristics are purity elements - drill bushing, lathe
and consistency, resulting from different centers, collets, fixed gages.
degrees of process refinement and
inspections steps applied in making the steel. Group Ill (C-1.05 to 1.20%):
Higher qualities are selected for assuring The higher carbon content
dependable uniformity and performance of the increases the depth of hardness
tools made of the steel. penetrations, yet reduces
toughness, thus the resistance
Since the groups with higher carbon content to shock loads. Preferred for
are more sensitive to heat treatment defects applications where wear
and are generally used for the more resistance and cutting ability are
demanding applications, the better grades are the prime considerations. For
usually chosen for the high carbon types and such applications as: hand
the lower grades for applications where steels tools - woodworking chisels;
with lower carbon content only are needed. paper knives; cutting tools (for
low speed applications) - milling
However, this last mentioned property may cutters, reamers; planer tools,
prove a desirable characteristic in certain thread chaser center drills; and
applications, such as e.g., cold heading dies die parts - cold blanking,
because the relatively shallow hard case is coining, bending dies.
supported by tough, although softer core.
The AlSl designation for water hardening tool 16.1.10.1.4 Group IV (C-1.20 to 1.30%):
steels is W, followed by a numeral indicating The high carbon content
the type, primarily defined by the steel's produces a hard case of
chemical composition, as shown in the considerable depth, with
following table. improved wear resistance, yet
sensitive to shock and
concentrated stresses.
Selected for applications where
CHAPTER 16 - MATERIALS
the capacity to withstand electrode method involving a re-
abrasive wear is needed, and melting of the steel originally
also where the retention of a produced by conventional processes.
keep edge or the original shape Inside a vacuum-tight shell which has
of the tool is important. For been evacuated, the electrode cast of
such applications as: cutting tool steel of the desired chemical
tools - (a) for finishing work, like analysis is lowered into a water cooled
cutters, reamers, (b) for cutting copper mold where it strikes a low
chilled cast iron and forming voltage-high amperage are causing
tools - for ferrous and non- the electrode to be consumed by
ferrous metals, burnishing tools. gradual melting. The undesirable
By adding small amounts of gases and volatile are drawn off by
alloying elements to W-steel the vacuum, and the inclusions float
types 2 and 5, certain on the surface of the pool
characteristics which are accumulating on the top of the
desirable for specific produced ingot, to be removed later
applications, are improved. The by cropping. In the field of tool steels
vanadium in type 2 contributes the consumable electrode vacuum
to retaining a greater degree of melting (CVM) process is applied
fine grain structure after heat primarily to the production of special
treating. Chromium in type 5 grades of hot work and high speed
improves the deep hardening tool steels.
characteristics of the steel, a
property being needed for large 16.1.11.2 High Speed Tool Steel produced by
sections, and also assists in Powder Metallurgy: The steel
maintaining a keen cutting produced by conventional methods is
edge, which is desirable in reduced to a fine powder by a gas
cutting tools, like broaches, atomization process. The powder is
reamers, threading taps and compacted by a hot isostatic method
dies. (a) Tool bits: these are with pressures in the range of 103
semi-finished tools and used by Nlmm to 117 Nlmm. The compacted
clamping in a tool holder or billets are hot rolled to the final bar
shank in a manner permitting size, yielding' a tool-steel material
ready replacement. Tool bits are which has 100 per cent theoretical
commonly made o high speed density. High speed tool steels
types of tool steels, mostly in produced by the PIM method offer a
square, but also in round, tool material providing increased tool
rectangular and other shapes. wear life and high impact strength, or
Tool bits are made of hot rolled particular advantage in the interrupted
bars and ground form, ready for cuts.
us after the appropriate cutting
edges are ground, usually in the Section 16.2 Standards Steels
user's plant.
16.2.1 Composition and Specifications
16.1.I1 Advances in Tool Steel-Making
Technology. In recent years significant 16.2.1.I The standard steel compositions of the
advances in processes for tool steel Society of Automotive Engineers
production have been made which offer (SAE), Inc., given in the
more homogeneous materials of greater accompanying table, are considered
density and higher purity for applications adequate for practically all parts made
where such extremely high quality is of ferrous materials that are necessary
required. Two of these newer methods of for the production of automotive
tool steel production are of particular apparatus, and include grades that
interest. have been found commercially
available and technically adequate for
16.1.11.1 Vacuum Melted Tool Steels: These the service required of such parts.
are produced by the consumable Definite applications of SAE steels are
CHAPTER 16 - MATERIALS
not specified as the selection of a 16.2.1.4 High Strength, Low Alloy Steel!
proper steel for a given part must SAE 950. High strength, low alloy
depend upon an intimate knowledge steel represents a specific type of
of a number of important factors, such steel in which enhanced mechanical
as the availability and price of properties and, in most cases, good
materials, the detailed design of the resistance to atmospheric corrosion
part, and the severity of the service to are obtained by the addition of
be imposed, whether the part is to be moderate amounts of one or more
rged or machined and its alloying elements other than carbon.
achinability; hence only general
)plications are indicated. (See Steels of this type are normally
following tables). furnished in the hot rolled or annealed
condition to minimum mechanical
16.2.1.2 Specifications Number for Steels. properties. They are not intended for
A numeral index system is used for quenching and tempering. The user
SAE steel specification, which makes should not subject them to such
it possib!e to use specification treatment without assuming
numerals on shop drawings and responsibility for the ensuing
blueprints that are descriptive of the mechanical properties. Where these
kind of material covered by such steels are used for fabrication by
numbers. The first figure indicates the welding, no preheat or post heat is
class to which the steel belongs: thus required. In certain complex
"1" indicates a carbon steel, "2" a structures, stress relieving may be
nickel steel, etc. In the case of the desirable. These steels may be
alloy steel, the second figure generally obtained in the standard shape or
indicates the approximate percentage forms normally available in carbon
of the predominant alloying element. steel.
Usually the last two or three figures
indicate the average carbon content in 16.2.2 Application. These steels, because of their
"points", or hundredths of 1 per cent. enhanced strength, corrosion and erosion
Thus "2340" indicates a nickel steel of resistance, and their high strength-to-weight
approximately 3 per cent nickel (3.25 ratio and service life, are adapted particularly
to 3.75), and 0.40 per cent carbon for use in mobile equipment and other
(0.38 to 0.43). In some instances, in structures where substantial weight savings
order to avoid confusion, it has been are generally desirable. Typical application
found necessary to depart from this are automotive bumper face bars, truck
system of identifying the approximate bodies, frames and structural members,
alloy composition of a steel by varying scrapers, dump wagons, cranes, shovels,
the second ad third digits of the booms, chutes, conveyors, railroad and
number. An instance of such industrial cars.
departure is the steel numbers
selected for several of the corrosion 16.2.2.1 Carbon Steels.
and heat-resisting alloys.
(a) SAE Steels 1006, 1008, 1010, 1015:
16.2.1.3 Quality Variations of Carbons and These steels are the lowest carbon
Alloy Steels. Carbon steels may be steels of the plain carbon type, and
produced with chemical composition are selected where cold formability
(carbon, manganese, phosphorous, is the primary requisite of the user.
sulfur, and silicon) within the specified They are produced both as rimmed
limits of a given grade and still have and killed steels. Rimmed steel is
characteristics that are dissimilar. used for sheet, strip, rod, and wire
Each grade and quality variations where excellent surface finish or
thereof has a proper and useful place, good drawing qualities are required,
depending upon the end products to such as body and fender stock,
be made and the methods of hoods, lamps, oil pans, and other
fabrication. deep drawn and formed products. It
is also used for cold heading wire
CHAPTER 16 - MATERIALS
for tacks, and rivets and low carbon
wire products. Killed steel (usually Selection of one of these steels for
aluminum killed or special killed) is carburizing applications depends on
used for difficult stamping or where the nature of the part, the properties
non-aging properties are needed. desired, and the processing practice
Killed steels (usually silicon killed) preferred. lncrease in carbon gives
should be used in preference to greater core hardness with a given
rimmed steel for forging or heat quench, or permits the use of
treating applications. thicker sections, lncrease in
manganese improves the harden
When under 0.15 carbon, the steels ability of both the core and case; in
are susceptible to serious grain carbon steels this is the only change
growth, causing brittleness, which in composition that will increase
may occur as the result of a case harden ability. The higher
combination of critical strain (from manganese variants also machine
cold work) followed by heating to much better. For carburizing
certain elevated temperatures.- If applications SAE 1016, 1018, and
cold worked parts formed form 1019 are widely used for thin
these steels are to be later heated sections or water quenched parts.
to temperatures in excess of 593OC, SAE 1022 and 1024 are used for
the users should exercise care to heavier sections or where oil
avoid trouble from this cause. quenching is desired, and SAE
When this condition develops it can 1027 is sometimes used for such
be overcome by heating the parts to parts as transmission and rear axle
a temperature well in excess of the gears. SAE 1027 is used for parts
upper critical point or at least 954OC. given a light case to obtain
satisfactory core properties without
Steels in this group, being nearly drastic quenching. SAE 1025 and
pure iron or ferritic in structure, do 1030, while not usually regarded as
not machine freely and should be carburizing types, are sometimes
avoided for cut screws and used in this manner for larger
operations requiring broaching or sections or where greater core
smooth finish on turning. The hardness is needed. For cold
machinability of bar, rod and wire formed or headed parts the lowest
products is improved by cold manganese grades (SAE 1017,
drawing. Steels in this group are 1020, and 1025) offer the best
readily welded. formability at their carbon level.
SAE 1020 is used for fan blades
(b) SAE 1016, 1017, 1018, 1019, 1020, and some frame members, and
1021, 1022, 1023, 1024, 1025, SAE 1020 and 1025 are widely
1026, 1027, 1030: Steels in this used for low strength bolts. The
group, due to the carbon range next higher manganese types (SAE
covered, have increased strength 1018, 1021 and 1026) provide
and hardness, and reduced cold increased strength.
formability compared to the lowest
carbon group. For heat treating All of these steels may be readily
purposes they are known as welded or brazed by the common
carburizing or case hardening commercial methods. SAE 1020 is
grades. When uniform response to frequently used for welded tubing.
heat treatment is required, or for These steels are used for numerous
forging, killed steel is preferred; for forged parts, the lower carbon
other uses, semi-killed or rimmed grades where high strength is not
steel may be indicated, depending essential. Forging from the lower
on the combination of properties carbon steels usually machine
desired. Rimmed steels can better in the as forged condition
ordinarily be supplied up to 0.25 without annealing, or after
carbons. normalizing.
CHAPTER 16 - MATERIALS
The most desirable hardness for the content for any given application than
core depends upon the design and would be specified for other alloy
functioning of the individual part. In steels, due to the alloy content of
general, where high compressive these steels. For example, as SAE
loads are encountered relatively 4063 is used for the same
high core hardness is beneficial in applications as SAE 4140, 4145 and
supporting the case. Low core 5150. Consequently in the following
hardness may be desirable where discussion, the carbon molybdenum
great toughness is essential. steels have been shown in the groups
where they belong on the basis of
The case hardening steels may applications rather than carbon
be divided into three general content.
classes depending upon
hardenability of the core. For the present discussion, steels of
each carbon content are divided into
(1) Low Hardenability Core. two or three groups on the basis of
SAE 4017, 4023, 4024, 4027, hardenability. Transformation ranges
4082,4608,461 5,461 7 8615, and consequently heat treating
8617 practices vary somewhat with different
alloying elements even though the
(2) Medium Hardenability Core. hardenability is not changed.
SAE 1320, 2317, 2512, 2515,
3115, 3120, 4032, 4119, -
(a) .30 .47 Mean Carbon Content of
4317, 4020, 4621, 4812, SAE Specification. These steels
4815, 5115, 5120, 8620, are frequently used for water
8622,8720,9420 quenched parts of moderate section
size or oil quenched parts of small
(3) High Hardenability Core. section size. Typical applications of
SAE 2517, 3310, 3316, 4320, these are connecting rods, steering
4817,4820,9310,9315,9317 arms and steering knuckles, axle
shafts, bolts, studs, screws, and
(c) Heat Treatment. In general, all of other parts requiring strength and
the alloy carburizing steels are toughness where section size is
made fine grain and most are small enough to permit obtaining the
suitable for direct quenching from desired physical properties with the
the carburizing temperature. customary heat treatments.
Several other types of heat
treatment involving single and Steels falling in this classification
double quenching are also used for may be subdivided into two groups
most of these steels. on the basis of hardenability.
-
(c) .45 .50 Mean Carbon content (2) Medium Hardenability: SAE
of SAE Specification. These 51 100,52100
steels are used primarily for gears
and other parts requiring fairly 16.2.2.5 Resulfurized Steels. Some of the
high hardness as well as strength alloy steels, SAE 4024, 4028 and
and toughness. Such parts are 8641, are made resulfurized so as to
usually oil quenched and a give better machinability at a relatively
minimum of 90 percent martensite high hardness. In general, increased
in the as quenched condition is transverse ductility, notched impact
desirable. toughness and weldability.
(1) Low Hardenability: SAE ' L2.6 Chromium Nickel Austenitic Steels
5045,5046,5145,9747,9763 (Not Capable of Heat Treatment)
(2) Medium Hardenability: SAE (a) SAE 30301: This steel is capable
2345, 3145, 3150, 4145, of attaining high tensile strength
5147, 5150, 8645, 8647, and ductility by moderate or
8650, 8745, 8747, 8750, severe cold working. It is used
9445,9845 largely in the cold working. It is
used largely in the cold rolled or
(3) High Hardenability: SAE cold drawn condition in the form of
4150,9850 sheet, strip and wire. Its corrosion
resistance is good but not equal to
SAE 30302.
CHAPTER 16 - MATERIALS
(g) SAE 30316: This steel is (c) SAE 51416F: This is a free
recommended for use in parts machining grade for the
where unusual resistance to manufacture of parts produced in
chemical or salt water corrosion is automatic screw machines.
necessary. It has superior creep
strength at elevated temperatures. (d) SAE 51420: This steel is capable
of heat treating to a relatively high
(h) SAE 30317: This steel is similar hardness. It will harden to a
to SAE 30316 but has the highest maximum of approximately 500
corrosion resistance of all these Brinell. It has its maximum
alloys in many environments. corrosion resisting qualities only in
the fully hardened condition. It is
(i) SAE 30321: This steel is used for cutlery, hardened pump
recommended for use in the shafts, etc.
manufacture of welded structures
where heat treatment after (e) SAE 51420F: This is similar to
welding is not feasible. It is also SAE 51420 except for .its free
recommended for use where machining properties.
temperatures up to 87I0C are
encountered in service. (f) SAE 51430: This is a steel of a
high chromium type not capable
CHAPTER 16 - MATERIALS
about 18 per cent chromium and 8 per Section 16.4 Heat Treatment of Steel
cent nickel.
16.4.1 Effect of Rapid Cooling or Quenching
16.3.1.2 Stainless Steel with Free Machining Carbon Steel. Observations have shown that
Qualities. The high-chromium as the rate at which carbon steel is cooled
stainless steel alloys first produced from an austenitic state is increased, the
were extremely difficult to machine, temperature at which the austenite begins to
and grinding and polishing operations change into pearlite drops more and more
were also difficult and expensive. By below the slow cooling transformation
producing this steel with a high sulfur temperature of about 705OC. (For example, a
content or by the addition of selenium, 0.80 per cent carbon steel that is cooled at
free machining qualities can be such a rate that the temperature drops 260°C
obtained. Such stainless steels in one second will show transformation of
contain approximately 0.10 per cent austenite beginning at 500°C). As the cooling
carbon, 18 per cent chromium, 8 per rate is increased, the laminations of the
cent nickel, and 0.30 per cent sulfur pearlite formed by the transformation of the
(or 0.25 per cent selenium instead of austenite become liner and finer up to the
sulfur). They can be machined in point where they cannot be detected under a
automatic screw machines, with high power microscope, while the steel itself
regular tools at speed equal to or increases in hardness and tensile strength. As
closely approximating those used for the rate of cooling is still further increased, this
ordinary Bessemer screw stock. transformation temperature suddenly drops
These materials can also be easily down to around 260°C or lower, depending
drilled, tapped, and threaded with upon the carbon content of the steel. The
dies. Wire and tubing can be cold- cooling rate at which this sudden drop in
drawn by simply using the lime coat transformation temperature takes place is
and lubricants regularly employed for called the critical cooling rate. When a piece
drawing ordinary steel. of carbon steel is quenched at this rate or
'aster, a new structure is formed. The
16.3.1.3 Characteristics of 18-8 Stainless ~usteniteis transformed into martensite which
Steel. The chrome-nickel stainless ; characterized by an angular needle-like
steel known as 18-8 is made to have structure and a very high hardness.
a tensile strength of froy 620.68
Nlmm2 to 689.65 Nlmm in the If carbon steel is subject to a severe quench
annealed state. The elongation varies or to extremely rapid cooling, a small
from 60 to 70 per cent. Cold-working percentage of the austenite, instead of being
will increase the tensile strength from transformed into martensite during the
827.58 N/mm2 to 862.06 Nlmm2. quenching operation, may be retained.
Because of the high feeding pressure
required for drilling 18-8 stainless Over a period of time, however, this remaining
steels, a specially heat-treated high- austenite tends to be gradually transformed
speed drill with a heavy web section into martensite even though the steel is not
has been introduced. The web should subjected to further heating or cooling. Since
be thinned at the point and sulfur- martensite has a lower density than austenite,
base oil used as cutting fluid. such a change or "ageing" as it is called, often
esults in an appreciable increase in volume or
16.3.1.4 General Properties of Alloy Steels. growth" and the setting up of new internal
Alloy or "special" steels are ;tresses in the steel.
combinations of iron and carbon with
some other element, such as nickel, 16.4.1.I Steel Heat-Treating Furnaces.
chromium, tungsten, vanadium, Various types of furnaces heated by
manganese and molybdenum. All of gas, oil or electricity, are used for the
these metals give certain distinct heat-treatment of steel. These include
properties to the steel, but in all cases the oven or box type in various
the principal quality is the increase in modifications for "in-and-out" or for
hardness and toughness. continuous loading and unloading; the
CHAPTER 16 - MATERIALS
retort type; the pit type; the pot type; if large enough, or in a container
and the salt-bath electrode type. of some sort. The use of a retort
permits special gas atmospheres
(a) Oven a ~rnace:This type to be employed for carburizing,
of furn; a box or oven- nitriding, etc.
shaped heatingI chamber. The
"in-and-.out" ov1en furnaces are (c) Pit Type Furnace: This is a
loaded by hand or by a track vertical furnace arranged for the
AAr ..,
mounte"rl bal ~ ~ h i c hwhen
, rolled loading of parts in a metal basket.
into the furnace, forms the bottom The parts are heated by
of the heating chamber. The car convection, the basket, when
type is used where heavy or bulky lowered into place, hitting into the
pieces must be handle(1. Some furnace chamber in such a way as
oven type f u r nIces
~ are provided to provide a dead-air-space to
with a full mufflt? or a se!mi-muffle prevent direct heating.
which is an enclosed refractory
chamber into which the parts to (d) Pot Type Furnace: This furnace
be heated are placed. The full- is used for the immersion method
muffle, being fully enclosed, of heat-treating small parts. A
prevents any flames or burning cast-alloy pot is employed to hold
gases from coming in contact with a bat of molten lead or salt in
the work and permits a special which the parts are placed for
atmosphere to be used to protect heating.
or condition the work. The semi-
muffle which is open at the top, (e) Salt Bath Electrode Furnace: In
protects the work from direct this type of electric furnace,
impingement of the flame heating is accomplished by
although it does not shut the work means of electrodes suspended
off from the hot gases. In the directly in the salt bath. The
direct-heat type oven furnace, the patented grouping and design of
work is open to the flame. In the electrodes provide an
electric oven furnace a retort is electromagnetic action which
provided if gas atmospheres are results in automatic stirring action
to be employed to confine the gas through the bath. This tends to
and prevent it from attacking the produce an even temperature
heating elements. throughout.
Where muffles are used, they must be i.4.1.2 Basic Steps in Hardening.
replaced periodically and a greater amount of The operation of hardening steel
fuel is required than in a direct-heat type of consists fundamentally of two steps.
oven furnace. The first step is to heat the steel to
some temperature usually at least
For continuous loading and unloading, there 38OC above its transformation point so
are several types such as rotary hearth car; that it becomes entirely austenitic in
roller-furnace belt, walking-beam or pusher- structure. The second step is to
conveyor; and a continuous-kiln type through quench the steel at some rate faster
which track-mounted cars are run. In the than the critical rate (which depends
continuous type of furnace, the work may pass on the carbon content, the mounts of
through several zones maintained at different alloying elements present other than
temperatures for preheating, heating, soaking, carbon, and the grain size of the
and cooling. austenite) to produce a rnartensitic
structure. The hardness of a
(b) Reactor Furnaces: This is a martensitic steel depends upon .its
vertical type of furnace provided carbon content and ranges from about
with a cylindrical metal retort into 460 Brinell at 0.20 per cent carbon to
which the parts to be heat-treated about 710 Brinell, pearlite about 240
are suspended either individually,
CHAPTER 16 - MATERIALS
Brinell, and cementite around 550 max. 150; iron, max. 2; lead, max.
Brinell. 0.40 per cent.
Composition of No. 62: Copper, 86 to 16.5.1.I1 Bronze Backing for Lined Bearing.
89; tin, 9 to 11; lead, max. 0.20; iron, SAE Standard No. 66. This is an
max. 0.06; zinc, 1 to 3 per cent. expensive but suitable alloy for
bronze-backed bearings of connecting
Physical Properties: Tensile strength, rods or main engine bearings.
207 ~ / m m ~yield
; point, 83 ~1rnr-n~;
elongation in 50 mm (or proportionate Composition: Copper, 83 to 86; tin,
gage length), 10 per cent. 4.50 to 6; lead, 8 to 10; zinc, max. 2;
other impurities, max. 0.25 per cent.
16.5.1.8 Leaded Gun Metal Castings. SAE
Standard No. 63. This general-utility 16.5.1.I2 Bronze Bearing Castings. SAE
bronze combines strength with fair Standard No. 660. This composition
machining qualities. It is especially is widely used for bronze bearings.
good for bushings subjected to heavy Typical applications in the automotive
loads and severe working conditions. industry include such parts as spring
It is also used for fittings subjected to bushing, steering-knuckle bushings,
moderately high water or oil piston-pin bushings, thrust washers,
pressures. etc.
16.5.2.8 Phosphor Bronze Sheet and Strip. Composition of No. BOB: Copper,
SAE Standard No. 77. Typical uses 63.0 to 68.5; lead, max. 0.10; iron,
for this sheet and strip include springs, max. 0.05; zinc, remainder.
switch parts, sleeve bushings, clutch
discs, diaphragms, fuse clips, and 16.5.2.11 Phosphor Bronze Wire and Rod.
fastener. There are two grades of this SAE Standard No. 81. This alloy is
alloy, 77A and 77C. Six tempers are used for springs, width parts, fastener,
applied to this alloy, namely, soft, half and cotter pins. It should withstand
hard, hard, extra hard, spring and being bent cold through an angle of
extra spring. 120 degrees without fracture, around
a pin with a diameter twice the
Composition of No. 77A: Tin, 3.5 to diameter of the wire.
5.8; phosphorus, 0.03 to 0.35; lead,
max. 0.05; iron, max. 0.10; zinc, max. Composition of No. 81: Tin, 3.50 to
0.30; antimony, rnax. 0.01; copper, tin 5.80; phosphorus, 0.03 to 0.35; lead,
and phosphorus, min. 99.50. max. 2.05; iron, max. 0.10; zinc, max.
0.30; copper, tin and phosphorus,
- Composition of 77C; Tin, 7.0 to 9.0; min. 99.50.
phosphorus, 0.03 to 0.35; lead, max.
0.05; iron, max. 0.10; zinc, max. 0.20; Mechanical Properties: Minimum
antimony, max. 0.01; copper, tin, and tensile strengths of hard drawn wire in
phosphorus, min. 99.50. coils ange from 1000 ~ l m m 'to 724
Nlmm as the wire diameter range
16.5.2.9 Red Brass and Low Bras Sheet and from 0.64 mm to 13 mm. Minimum
Strip. SAE Standard No. 79. There tensile strengths of spring temper rod;
are two grades designated as 79A range from 862 ~ l m r to n ~620 Nlmm
(Red Brass, 85 per cent) and 79B
CHAPTER 16 - MATERIALS
as the rod diameter ranges from temperatures from 204°C to 260°C. A
.64mm to 13 mm. subzero temperatures, however, their
strength increases without loss of
16.5.2.12 Annealed Copper Wire. SAE ductility so that aluminum is a
Standard No. 83. This wire is used particularly useful metal for low-
primarily for electrical purposes but it temperature applications.
is also used for metal spraying and
copper brazing. No composition limits When aluminum surfaces are exposed
are specified for this wire but the to the atmosphere, a thin invisible
copper should be of such quality and oxide skin forms immediately which
purity that when drawn by annealed protects the metal from further
should exhibit the mechanical oxidation. This self-protecting
properties (maximum tensile strength characteristics gives aluminum its high
and minimum elongation) and resistance to corrosion. Unless
electrical characteristics called for in exposed to some substance or
the standard. Its electrical resistivity condition which destroys this
should not exceed 875.20 ohms per protective oxide coating, the metal
mile - Ib (100 per cent electrical remains protected against corrosion.
conductivity IACS. International Aluminum is highly resistant to
Annealed Copper Standard) at a weathering, even in industrial
temperature of 20°C. atmospheres. It is also corrosion
resistant to many acids. Alkalis are
Mechanical Properties: Maximum among the few substances that attack
tensile strengths of annealed wire the oxide skin and therefore are
range from 248 ~ l m tom 262
~ ~ l m m ~ corrosive to aluminum. Although the
for wire diameters ranging from 11.7 metal can safely be used in the
mm down to over 0.5 mm. Minimum presence of certain mild alkalis with
elongation is 250 mm of annealed the aid of inhibitors, in general, direct
wire range from 15 to 35 per cent as contact with alkaline substances
the wire diameter ranges from over should be avoided. Direct contact
.076 mm to 11.7 mm. with certain other metals should be
avoided in the presence of an
16.5.2.13 Brass Forging. SAE Standard No. electrolyte; otherwise galvanic
88. Typical uses for this alloy are corrosion of the aluminum may take
forging and pressing of all kinds. place in the vicinity of the contact
area. Where other metals must be
Composition of No. 88: Copper, 58.0 fastened to aluminum, the use of a
to 61.O; lead, 1.50 to 2.50; iron, max. bituminous paint coating or insulating
0.30; other elements, max. 0.50; zinc, tape is recommended.
remainder.
Aluminum is one of the two common
16.5.3 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys. Pure metals having an electrical
aluminum is a silver-white metal characterized conductivity high enough for use as
by a slightly bluish cast. It has a specific an electric conductor. The
gravity of 2.70 resist the corrosive effects of conductivity of electric conductor (EC)
many chemicals and has a malleability grade is about 62 per cent that of the
approaching that of gold. When alloyed with International Annealed Copper
other metals numerous properties are Standard. Because aluminum has
obtained which make these alloys useful over less than one-third the specific gravity
a wide range of applications, conductivities; of copper, however, a pound of
and are highly reflective to both heat and light. aluminum will go almost twice as far
as a pound of copper when used for
16.5.3.1 Characteristics of Aluminum and this purpose. Alloying lowers the
Aluminum Alloys. Aluminum and its conductivity somewhat so that
alloys lose part of their strength at wherever possible the EC grade is
elevated temperatures. Although used in electric conductor
some alloys retain good strength at applications.
CHAPTER 16 - MATERIALS
Aluminum has non-sparking and non- to produce the various tempers. The
magnetic characteristics which make temper designation follows the alloy
the metal useful for electrical shielding designation, being separated by a
purposes such as in bus bar housing dash.
or enclosures for other electrical
equipment and for use around Basic temper designations consist of
inflammable or explosive substances. letters. Subdivisions of the basic
tempers, where required, are
Aluminum can be cast by any method indicated by one or more digits
known to foundrymen. It can be rolled , following the letter. These designate
to any desired thickness down to foil specific sequences of basic treatment,
thinner than paper and in sheet form but only operations recognized as
can be stamped, drawn, spun or roll- significantly influencing the
formed. The metal also may be characteristics of the product are
hammered or forged. Aluminum wire, indicated. Should some other
drawn from rolled rod, may be variation of the same sequence of
stranded into cable of any desired basic operations be applied to the
size and type. The metal may be same alloy, resulting in different
extruded into a variety of shapes. characteristics, then additional digits
are added.
It may be turned, milled, bored, or
machined in machines often operating (a) The basic temper designations
at their maximum speeds. Aluminum and subdivisions are as follows:
rod and bar may readlty be employed
in the high-speed manufacture of -- F as Fabricated: Applies to
automatic screw-machine parts. products which acquire some
temper from Aluminum alloys are
Almost any method of joining is light in weight compared to steel,
applicable to aluminum - riveting, brass, nickel or copper; can be
welding or brazing. A wide variety of fabricated by all common range of
mechanical aluminum fasteners sizes, shapes and forms; resist
simplifies the assembly of many corrosion, readily accept a wide
products. Resin bonding of aluminum range of surface finished, have
parts has been successfully good electrical and thermal
employed, particularly in aircraft conductivities; and are highly
components. reflective to both heat and light
344
CHAPTER 16 - MATERIALS
rate that the temperature drops 26000 (1) Oven or Box Furnace:
in one second will show This type of furnace has a
transformation of austenite beginning box or oven-shaped
at 500°C). As the cooling rate is heating chamber. The "in-
increased, the laminations of the and-out" oven furnaces
pearlite formed by the transformation are loaded by hand or by
of the austenite become finer and a track mounted car by
finer up to the point where they cannot hand or b y a track
be detected under a high power mounted car which, when
microscope, while the steel itself rolled into the furnace,
increases in hardness and tensile forms the bottom of the,
strength. As the rate of cooling is still heating chamber, The car
further increased, this transformation type is used where heavy
temperature suddenly drops down to or bulky pieces must be
around 26000 or lower, depending handled. Some oven type
upon the carbon content of the steel. furnaces are provided
The cooling rate at which this with a full muffle or a
temperature takes place is called the semi-muffle which is an
critical cooling rate. When a piece of enclosed refracable as
carbon steel is quenched at this rate plate in the as rolled
or faster, a new structure is formed. condition designated as J-
The austenite is transformed into Ir. Dowmetal J-I has the
martensite which is characterized by best mechanical
an angular needle-like structure and a properties of the rolled
very high hardness. alloys and is used in
applications where
If carbon steel is subject to a severe strength is most
quench or to extremely rapid cooling, important. Where better
a small percentage of the austenite, formability is desired
instead of being transformed into along with good shear
martensite during the quenching and tensile strengths,
operation, may be retained. Dowmetal FS-1 . Is used.
Dowmetal M is used
Over a period of time, however, this where I 5 maximum
remaining austenite tends to be weldability and formability,
gradually transformed into martensite low cost, and moderate
even through the steel is not strength are desired.
subjected to further heating or cooling.
Since marten-site has a lower density ,, Forging Alloys: The
than austenite, such a change or ultimate tensile strenqhs
"ageing" as it is called, often results in range from 248 Nlmm to
an appreciable increase in Volume or 345 Nlmm2 and the yield
"growth" and the setting up of new strengths from 158.6
internal stresses in the steel. N/mm2to 234.5 N/mm2.
16.5.6.4 SAE Standard No. 52 Alloy. This is are normally more economical than
general purpose alloy with moderate press forgings but can only be used in
strength and fair weldability. It is applications involving higher stresses.
specially suited for the production of No. 532 is stronger than No. 531 but
thin wall tubing and other sections more difficult to forge and is usually
requiring good extrusion employed only for comparatively
characteristics. simple forgings requiring highest
physical properties.
Composition of No. 52: Aluminum,
2.4 to 3.0; manganese, min. 0.20; Composition of No. 53: Aluminum,
zinc, 0.7 to 1.3; silicon, max. 0.5; 3.0 to 4.0; manganese, mm. 0.2; zinc,
copper, max. 0.05; nickel, max. 0.03; max. 0.3; silicon, max. 0.3; copper,
other impurities, max. 0.3 per cent and max. 0.05; nickel, max. 0.005; iron,
the remainder, magnesium. max. 0.005; and tin, 4.0 to 6.0 per
cent; remainder, magnesium.
16.5.6.5 SAE Standard No. 520 Alloy. This
alloy is used for extruded bars, rods Composition of No. 531: Aluminum,
and shapes with good strength and 5.8 to 7.2; manganese, mm 0.15; zinc,
fair weldability. 0.4 to 1.5; silicon, max. 0.3; copper,
max. 0.05; nickel, max. 0.005;l and
Composition of No. 520: Aluminum, iron, max. 0.005 per cent; remainder,
5.8 to 7.2; manganese, mm. 0.15; magnesium.
zinc, 0.04 to 1.0; silicon, max. 0.03;
other impurities, max. 0.3 per cent and Composition of No. 532: Aluminum,
the remainder, magnesium. 7.8 to 9.2; manganese, mm 0.12; zinc,
0.2 to 0.8; silicon, max. 0.3; copper,
Physical Properties: Standard tension max. 0.05; nickel, max. 0.005; and
test specimens machined from solid iron, max. 0.005 per cent; remainder,
bar stock and structural shapes have magnesium.
minimum tensile strength of 276
lmm2 in extruded bars up to 38 mm Composition of No. 533: Manganese,
~d262 ~ / m m in structural
~ shapes; a mm. 1.2; silicon, max. 0.3; copper,
yield strength of 179 ~ / m min ~the max. 0.05; and nickel, max. 0.03 pe
former and 158.6 ~ / m m in the
~ latter cent; remainder, magnesium.
and an elongation in 50 mm of 12 per
cent in the former and 10 per cent in 16.5.7 Nickel and Nickel Alloys
the latter.
16.5.7.1 Nickel. Nickel is noted for its
16.5.6.6 SAE Standard No. 522 Alloy. This is corrosion resistance, good electrical
an extrusion alloy used for conductivity and high heat-transfer
applications requiring maximum properties. It is used to fabricate
weldability. process equipment for handling pure
foods and drugs, electrical contact
Composition of No. 552: Manganese, parts, and radio and X-ray tube
mm. 1.2; silicon, max. 0.3; copper, elements.
max. 0.05; nickel, max. 0.03; and
calcium, 0.3 per cent; remainder, Approximate Composition:
magnesium. (Commercially pure wrought nickel)
Nickel (including cobalt) 99.4; copper,
16.5..6.7 SAE Standard Nos. 53, 531, 532 and 0.1; iron, 0.15; manganese, 0.25;
533 Alloys. These are forging alloys. silicon, 0.05; carbon, 0.05; and sulfur,
Nos. 53 and 533 are suitable for 0.005. (Cast nickel): Nickel, 97.0;
hammer forging. The former has copper, 0.3; iron, 0.25; manganese,
somewhat better physical properties 0.5; silicon, 1.6; and
but the latter may be readily welded carbon, 0.5.
and contains no tin. No. 533 may also
be press forged. Hammer forgings
CHAPTER 16 - MATE.RIALS
16.5.7.2 Low-Carbon Nickel. A special type and instrument parts are made
of nickel that is corrosion resistant and from this alloy.
has a high ductility and heat
resistance. It lends itself well to Approximate Composition:
spinning and cold coining or forging Nickel, 66; copper, 29; iron, 0.9;
and is used in the manufacture of aluminum, 2.75; silicon, 0.5;
tubing and molds for the beverage manganese, 0.75; carbon, 0.15;
and food industries. and sulfur, 0.005.
An etching fluid ordinarily used for For some classes of work paraffin is
carbon steel consist of nitric acid, 1 used for protecting the surface
part; water, 4 parts. It may be surrounding the graduation lines
necessary to vary the amount of which are to be etched. The method
water, as the exact proportion of application consists of melting the
depends upon the carbon in the steel paraffin and raising its temperature
and whether it is hard or soft. For hard high enough so that it will flow freely;
steel, use nitric acid, 2 parts; acetic then the work is held at a slight angle
acid, 1 part. For high-speed steel, and the paraffin is poured on its upper
nickel or brass, use nitro-hydrochloric surface. The melted paraffin forms a
acid (nitric, 1 part; hydrochloric, 4 thin protective coating.
parts). For high-speed steel it is
sometimes better to add a little more
nitric acid. For etching bronze, use 16.6.2 Coloring Metals.
nitric acid, 100 parts; muriatic acid, 5
parts. For brass, nitric acid, 16 parts; 16.6.2.1 General Requirements in the
water, 160 parts; dissolve 6 parts Coloring of Metal Surfaces. Copper
potassium chlorate in 100 parts of is more susceptible to coloring
water; then mix the two solutions and processes and materials than any of
apply. the other metals and hence the alloys
containing large percentages of
A fluid which may be used either for copper are readily given various
producing a frosted effect or for deep shades of copper (or none at all) can
etching (depending upon the time it is be given various colors, but not as
allowed to act) is composed of 1 easily as if copper were the principal
ounce sulfate of copper (blue vitriol); ingredient, and the higher the copper
114 ounce alum; 112 teaspoon of sale; content, the more readily can the alloy
1 grill of vinegar, and 20 drops of nitric be colored. The shades, and even
acid. For aluminum, use a solution the colors, can be altered by varying
composed of alcohol, 4 ounces; acetic the density of the solution, its
acid, 6 ounces; antimony chloride, 4 temperature and the length of time the
ounces; water, 40 ounces. object is immersed. They can also be
altered by finishing the work in
Various acid-resisting materials are different ways. If a cotton buff is used,
used for covering the surfaces of steel one shade will be produced.
rules etc., prior to marking off the lines
on a graduating machine. When the
graduation lines are fine and very
closely spaced, as on machinists
scales which are divided into
hundredths or sixty-fourths, it is very
important to use a thin resist that will
cling to the metal and prevent any
under-cutting of the acid; the resist
should also enable fine lines to be
drawn without tearing or crumbling as
the tool passes through it. One resist
that has been extensively used is
composed of about 50 per cent of
asphaltum, 25 per cent of beeswax,
and in addition, a small percentage of
Burgundy pitch, black pitch, and
turpentine. A thin covering of this
resisting material is applied to the
clean polished surface to be
graduated and after it is dry, the work
is ready for the graduating machine.
CHAPTER 17 - INSTRUMENTATIONS
Chapter 17
The purpose of this standard is to establish a a. The standard is suitable for use whenever
uniform means of designating instruments and any reference to an instruments or to a
instrumentation systems used for the measurement control system function is required for the
purpose of symbolization and
and control. To this end a designation system that
includes symbols and an identification code is identification. Such references may be
presented. required for the following uses as well as
the other:
Section 2.0 Scope Design Sketches
2.1 General Teaching examples
The procedural needs of various users are Technical papers, literature, and discussions
different. The standard recognizes these instrumentation system diagrams, loop diagrams,
needs, when they are consistent with the Logic diagrams
objectives of the standards, by providing Functional descriptions
alternative symbolism methods. A number Flow diagrams : Process, Mechanical, Engineering,
of examples are provided for adding System, Piping (Process) and lnstrumentation
information or simplifying the symbolism Construction drawings
as desired. Specifications, purchase orders, manifest, and other
lists
b. Process equipment symbols are not part Identification (tagging) of instruments and control
of this standard, but are included only to functions
illustrate application s of instrumentation Installations, operating and maintenance instruction,
symbols. drawings and records.
2.2 Application to Industries
b. The standard is intended to provide
sufficient information to enable anyone
a. The standard is suitable for use in the reviewing any document depicting process
chemical, petroleum, power generation, measurements and control (who has a
air-conditioning, metal refining, and reasonable amount of process knowledge)
numerous other process industries. to understand the means of measurement
and control of the process. The detailed
b. Certain fields, such as astronomy, knowledge of a specialist in
navigation and medicine, use very instrumentation is not a prerequisite to this
specialized instruments that are different understanding.
from the conventional industrial process
instrument. No specific effort was 2.4 Application to Classes of lnstrumentation
requirements of those fields. However it is and to Instrument Functions
expected the standard will be flexible
enough to meet the many of the needs of The symbolism and identification methods
special fields. provided in this standard are applicable to all
classes of process measurements and control
instrumentation. They can be used not only to
described discrete instrument and their
functions, but also to describe the analogous
CHAPTER 17 - INSTRUMENTATIONS
functions of the system which are variously Behind the Panel - A term applied to a location that
termed "shared display", "shared control", is within an area that contains (1) the instrument
"distributed control", and "computer control". panel, (2) its associated rack-mounted hardware, or
(3) is enclosed with the panel. Behind the panel
2.5 Extend of Functional Identification devices are not accessible for the operator; normal
use, and are not designated as local or front-of-panel-
The standard provides for the identification and mounted. In a very broad sense, "behind the panel" is
symbolization of the key function of an equivalent to "not normally accessible to the operator".
instrument. Addition details for the instrument
are better described in a suitable specification, Binary - A term applied to a signal or device that has
data sheet, or any document intended for those only two discrete positions or states. When used in its
requiring such details. simplest form, as in "binary signal" (as opposed to
"analog signal"), the term denotes an "on-off' .or "high-
2.6 Extend of Loop ldentification low" state, i.e., one which does not represent
continuous varying quantities.
The standard covers the identification of an
instrument and all other instruments or control Board - Synonym for panel.
functions associated with it in a loop. The user is
free to apply additional identification - by serial Bubble - the circular symbol used to denote and
number, unit number, area number, plant identify the purpose of an instrument or function. It
number, or by other means. may contain a tag number. Synonym for balloon.
Accessible - A term applied to a device of a function Configurable - A term applied to a device or system
that can be used or be seen by an operator for the whose functional characteristics can be selected or
purpose of performing control actions, e.g., set point rearranged through programming or other methods.
changes, automatic-manual transfer, or on-off actions. The concept excludes rewiring as a means of altering
the configuration.
Alarm - A device or function that signals the existence
of an abnormal condition by means of audible or Controller - A device having an output that varies to
visible discrete change, or both, intended to attract regulate a controlled variable in a specified manner. A
attention. controller may be a self-contained analog or digital
instruments, or it may be the equivalent of such an
It is not recommended that the term alarm switch or instrument in a shared-control system.
alarm be used to designate a device whose operation
is simply to close or open a circuit that may or may not An automatic controller varies its output automatically
be used for normal or abnormal interlock, start-up, in response to a direct or indirect input is a manual
shutdown, actuation of pilot light or an alarm device, or loading station, and its output is not dependent on a
the like. The first advice is properly designated as a measured process variable but ca be varied only by
level switch, a flow switch, etc., because "switchinn" is manual adjustment.
what the device does. The device may be designated
as an alarm only if the device itself contains alarm A controller may be integral with other functional
function. element of a control loop.
Assignable - A term applied to a feature permitting Control Stations - A manual loading station that also
the chaneiling (or direction) of a signal from one provide swit~hing. be.Ween &manual,.and auto~atic;,
device to another without the need for switching, control modes of a control loop. It is also known as an
patching, or changes in wiring. auto-manual station. In addition the operator interface
of a distributed control system may be regarded as a
Auto-Manuel Station - Synonym for control station. control station.
Control Valve - A device, other than a common, hand Local - The location of an instrument that is neither in
actuated ON-OFF valve or self-actuated check valve, nor on a panel or console, nor it is mounted in a
that directly manipulated the flow of one or more fluid control room. Local instruments are commonly in the
process streams. vicinity of a primary element or a final control element.
The world "field" is often used synonymously with
It is expected that use of the designation "hand control local.
valve" will be limited to hand-actuated require
identification as an instrument. Local Panel - A panel that is not a central or main
panel. Locals panel are commonly in the vicinity of
Converter - A device that receives information in one plant subsystems or sub-areas. The term "local panel
form of an instrument signal and transmits an output instrument" should not be confused with "local
signal in another form. instrument".
An instrument which changes a sensor's output to a Loop - A combination of two or more instruments or
standard signal is properly designated as a control functions arranged so that signal pass from
transmitter, not a converter. Typically, a temperature one to another fort he purpose of measurement and/or
element (TE) may connect to a transmitter (TT), not to control of a process variable.
a converter (TY).
Manual Loading System - A device or function
A converter is also ref erred to as a transducer; having a manually adjustable output that is used to
however, "transducer' is a completely general term, actuate one or more remote devices. The station odes
and its use specifically for signal conversions is not not provide switching between manual and automatic
recommended. control modes of a control loop (see controller and
control station). The station may have integral
Digital - A term applied to a signal or device that used indicators, lights, or other features. It is also known as
binary digits to represent continuous valve or discrete a manual station or a manual loader.
states.
Measurement - The determination of the existence or
Distributed Control System - A system which, while the magnitude of the variable.
being functionally integrated, consist of subsystems
which may be physically separate and remotely Monitor - A general term for an instrument or
located from one another. instrument system used to measure or sense the
status of magnitude of one or more variables for the
Final Control Element - The device that directly purpose of deriving useful information. The term
controls the value of the manipulated variable of a monitor is very unspecific - sometimes meaning
control loop. Often the final control element is a control analyzer, indicator, or alarm. Monitor can also be used
valve. as a verb.
Function - The purpose of, or an action performed Monitor light - Synonym for pilot light.
by, a device.
Panel - A structure that has a group of instruments
Identification - The sequence of letters of digits, or mounted on it, houses the operator-process interface,
both, used to designate an individual instrument or and is chosen to have a unique designation. The
loop. panel may consist of one or more sections, cubicles,
consoles;or desks. Synonym for board.
Instrument - A device used directly or indirectly to
measure and/or control a variable. The term includes Panel-Mounted - A term applied to an instrument that
primary elements, final control elements, computing is mounted on a panel r console and is accessible for
devices, and electrical devices such as annunciators, an operator's normal use. A function that is normally
switches, and pushbutton. The term does not apply to ac~essibleto an operator in a shared-display system
parts (e.g., a receiver,bellows or a resistor) that are is the equivalent of a discrete panel-mounted device.
internal components of an instrument.
Pilot Light - A light that indicates which of a number
Instrumentation - A collection of instruments or their of normal conditions of a system or device exists. It is
application for the purpose of observation, unlike an alarm light, which indicates an abnormal
measurement, control, or any combination of these. condition. The pilot light is also know as a monitor
light.
CHAPTER 17 - INSTRUMENTATIONS
Primary Element - Synonym for sensor. control information from a number of sources at the
command of the operator.
-
Process Any operation or sequence of operations
involving a change of energy, state, composition, Switch - A device that connects, disconnects, selects,
dimension, or other properties that may be defined or transfers one or more circuits and is not designated
with respect to a datum. as a controller, a relay, or a control valve. As a verb,
the term is also applied to the functions performed by
Process Variable - Any variable property of a switches.
process. The term process variable is used this
standard to apply to all variables other than instrument Test Point - A process connection to which no
signals. instruments is permanently connected, but which is
intended for the temporary or intermittent connection
Program - A repeatable sequence of actions that of an instrument.
defines the status of outputs as a fixed relationship to
a set of inputs. Transducer - A general term for a device that
receives information in the form of one or more
Programmable Logic Controller - A controller, physical quantities, modifies the information andlor its
usually with multiple inputs and outputs, that contains form, if required, and produces a resultant output
an alterable program. signal. Depending on the application, the transducer
can be a primary element, transmitter, relay, converter
Relay - A device whose functions is to pass on or other device. Because the term "transducer" is not
information in an unchanged form or in some modified specific, its use for specific applications is no
form. Relay is often used to mean computing device. recommended.
The latter term is preferred.
Transmitter - A device that senses a process variable
The term "relay" also is applied specifically to an through the medium of a sensor and has an output
electric, pneumatic, or hydraulic switch that is actuated whose steady-state value varies only as a
by a signal. The term is also applied to functions predetermined function of the process variable. The
performed by a relay. sensor may or may not be integral with transmitter.
-
Scan To sample, in a predetermined manner, each Section 4.0 Outline of the Identification
of a number of variables intermittently. The function of System
a scanning device is often to ascertain that state or
value of a variable. The device may be associated with
other functions such as recording and alarming. 4.1 General
Sensor - That part of a loop of instrument that first a. Each instrument of function to be
senses the value of a process variable, and that identified is designated by an
assumes a corresponding, predetermined, and alphanumeric code or tag number as
intelligible state or output. The sensor may be shown in Fig. 1. The loop identification
separate from or integral with another functional party of the tag number generally is
element of a loop. The sensor is also known as a common to all instrument or functions of
detector of a primary element. the loop. A suffix or prefix may be added
to complete this identification. The typical
-.
Set Point - An input variable that sets the desired identification is shown Figure 1.
value of the controlled variable. The set point may be
manually set, automatically set, or programmed. Its b. The instrument loop number may include
value is expressed in the same units as the controlled coded information, such as plant area
variable. designation. It is also possible to set aside
specific series of numbers to designate
Shared Controller - A controller, containing special functions; for instance, the series
programmed algorithms that are usually accessible, 900 to 999 could be used for loops whose
configurable, and assignable. It permits a number of primary function is safety-related.
process variables to be controlled by a single device.
c. Each instrument may be represented on
Shared Display - The operator interface device diagrams by a symbol. The symbol may
(usually a video screen) used to display process be accompanied by a tag number.
CHAPTER 17 - INSTRUMENTATIONS
have different meanings because they are (12) Electric binary signal
taken from different standards, then
adequate steps must be taken to avoid Note: 'or' means user's choice. Consistency is
misinterpretation of the symbols used. recommended.
These steps may be to use caution notes,
reference notes, comparison charts that *The following abbreviations are suggested to
illustrate and define the conflicting designations may also be applied to purge fluid
symbols, or other suitable means. This supplies.
requirement is especially critical in cases
where symbols taken from different AS - Air Supply HS- Hydraulic Supply
disciplines are intermixed and their
misinterpretation might cause danger to IA - lnstrument Air NS - Nitrogen Supply
personnel or damage to equipment.
PA - Plant Air SS - Steam Supply
b. The titles Simplified Diagrams, Conceptual
Diagrams and Detailed Diagrams were ES - Electric Supply WS -Water Supply
chosen to represent a cross section of
symbol usage not any particular generic GS - Gas Supply
document.
The supply level may be added to the instrument
c. The line symbols on Section 6.2 offer supply line, e.g., AS - 100, a 100-psig air supply; ES-
"user's choice" alternative electrical 24 DC, a 24-volt direct current power supply.
symbols and optional binary symbols. The
subsequent examples use on consistent ** The Pneumatic signal symbol applies to a signal
set of these alternatives and apply the using any gas as the signal medium. If the gas other
binary options. This was done for than air is used, the gas may be identified by a note on
consistency of appearance of the the signal symbol or otherwise.
standard.
** The Electromagnetic phenomena include heat, radio
It is recommended that the user choose either the wages, nuclear radiation and light.
dashed line electrical symbol or the triple crossed
hatch symbol and apply it consistently. The optional
binary (on-off) symbols are available for those
applications where the user finds it necessary to
distinguish between analog and binary signals. If in the
user judgment, the application does not require such
differentiation, the reverse slash may be omitted from
on-off signal line symbols. Consistency is
recommended on a given set of documents.
Primary Auxiliary
location location
*** normally Field
mounted
*** normally
GI**
accessible to accessible to
operator operator
1 2 3
*
Discrete
instrumental
4 5
0 8 6
Shared display,
shared control
7
El 8
El 9
H
Computer
function
8 0 Q
12
Programmable
logic control
Symbol size may vary according to the user's needs and the type of document. A suggested square and circle size for large
diagrams is shown above. Consistency is recommended.
tt
Abbreviations of the user's choice such as IP1 (Instrument Pannel #I). IC2 (Instrument Console #2).CC3 (Computer Console
#3), etc. may be used when it is necessary to specify instrument of function.
**. Normally inaccessibleor behind-the-paneldevices or functions may be depicted by using the same symbols but with dashed
horizontal bars, i.e.
13 14 15
LA
2584-23
W Instrumental sharing common
Instrumentalwith long tag number housing *
**
16 17
9 18
@
0Pilot light
Panel mounted
patchboard point 12
Purge or
Rushing device
** **
l9 8
Reset for latch-type
20
0
Diaphram
seal
21
Q
Undefined
interlock logic
***
actuator
It is not mandatory to show a common housing.
** These diamonds are approximately half the size of the larger ones.
357
CHAPTER 17 - INSTRUMENTATIONS
1 2 3 4
Hw+
ww-?
+
General symbol Angle Butterfly Rotary valve
5 6 7 8
Y+ &XI-?
9 10 11 12
HA+
w fg @
Damper or louver
Diaphragm
Further information may added adjacent to the body symbol either by note or code number.
. --
CHAPTER 17 - INSTRUMENTATIONS
1 2 3 4
p+J
IA
Preferred for
diaphragm assembled 2 -:
2 r
with pilot *.Assembly is
With or without actuated by one with input Preferred Optimal
positioner (shown typically with alternative alternative
or other pilot electric input) ------------- ------------
.......................... Diaphragm, spring opposed,
Diaphragm, spring-opposed with positioner** and over riding pilot valve that
or unspecified actuator pressurizes diaphragm when actuated
5 6 7
CHAPTER 17 - INSTRUMENTATIONS
11 12 13
Solenoid
-&
Preferred alternative. A
bubble with instrument tagging,
E.G. TY-1, may be used instead
of the interlock symbol
........................
Single-acting cylinder
. . . . .IIP)
. . . (Implied
Cylender with positioner and overriding pilot valve
.....
14 15 16
I#: ,
, 4 Valve actuator
Dual solenoids switching 4-way with atached electro-pneumatic
Hydrolic valve Electrohydraulic converter
%q-.@-
17 l8 19
(Manual (Remote
-
reset) reset)
I
Latch-type actuator with reset
(shown typically for solenoid
actuator and typically with electric For pressure relief or sefety valves
signal for remote reset, with only: denotes a spring, weight,or Hand actuator or
manual reset alternative) integral pilot handwheel
-
CHAPTER 17 - INSTRUMENTATIONS
1 2 (UPSTREAM
\ ALTERNATIVE)
43- 4%-
FI
3
'
1
-kJ
(DOWNSTREAM
ALTERNATIVE)
Automatic regulator with Automatic regulator Indicating variable area meter with
integral flow indication without indication integral manual throttle valve
4 5 6
Z-@+
3
S
LL ZE
'J Restriction orifice drilled in valve
Restriction orifice (orifice plate, (instrument tag number may be
capillary tube or multi-stage type, omitted if valve is otherwise Flow sight glass, plain or with
paddle wheel, flapper, etc.
-
etc.) in process line identified)
p
7 8 9
0
z
9 w2-0- p ?+-El++
p
Hand actuated on-off
Hand control valve switching valve in Hand control valve
in process line pneumatic signal line in signal line
- -
CHAPTER 17 - INSTRUMENTATIONS
17.6.6 Symbols for self-actuated regulators, valves, and other devices (continued).
1 2 3
J
W
e
J
4 5 6
W
P!
3
V)
V)
W
P!
0,
17.6.6 Symbols for self-actuated regulators, valves, and other devices (continued).
I0 12
VACUUM +
b2
W
PL
3
W
a
5+
Temperature regulator, Fusible plug
filled-system type or disk
1 2 3
1 2 3
a
+A+
4 6
a
c
D r
2--x___2
-
%
N
Four-way valve,
fail open to paths A-C and Any valve, fail locked Any valve, fail
D-B (position does not change) indeterminate
The failure modes indicated are those commonly defined by the term, "shelf-position". As an
alternative to the arrows and bws, the following abbreviations may be employed:
FO - Fail Open
FC - Fail Closed
FL - Fail Locked (last position)
FI - Fail Indeterminate
CHAPTER 17 - INSTRUMENTATIONS
A
1 2 3
%
1;
a
2~lsTlBLEs
AIT
Z
a
Z
2
+
0
3
m
2
0
2
E
6 ,
;
;
, GJ
TV
W
One burner ultra-violet flame Two burner flame rod
2 detector connected to analog-type sensor connected to Telev~s~on camera and
flame intensity indicator common switch receiver to view burner flame
1 2 3
2s&
C
W
0
0
I
*
I
Y
w
(I)
6:
Conductivity cell connected to
point 5 of multipoint scanning
2
- ,'
lnline cons~stency
conductivity recorder transmitter
2
D 1
SOURCE
8xC0yEyoF 3
W
0
0
I
0
C(?
IY
W
(I)
3
QDT
,?,:;,?
Density transmitter,
differential-pressure
O
69
Radioactive-ylpe delisity
elements connected to
-5)- Specific gravity
transmitter,
type, externally connected recorder on panel flow-through type
Use of letter C and D defined on user's legend sheet
CHAPTER 17 - INSTRUMENTATIONS
E 2 3
W
(3
a
5
>
0 fl+TJ-&
STEAM
GENERATOR
ww
6
Oftice plate with flange or corner
2----IH
kJ
General symbol the words taps connected to differential Flange or corner tap test
2yr2gg
laminar, etc., may be added pressure type flow indicator connections without orifice plate
F
4 6
-g
-
a
W
5 9A RAD
5
%
L
VC
Oftice plate with vena contracta,
radius or pipe taps connected to
Orifice plate with vena differential-pressure-type flow Radius tap test COnnections
contracta taps transmitter without orifice plate
7 8 9
4 - 2 +El-
Orifice plate in
kJ
Single port pitot tube
kJ
quick-change fitting or pitot venturi tube Venturi Tube
CHAPTER 17 - INSTRUMENTATIONS
1 11 12
2 v 2
A
kJ
Averaging pitot tube
b Weir
b
Flume
*-
F 13 14 15
-
HX-2
kJ %
p
-
S
K
o Turbine-or propeller-type Variable area Positive-displacement-type
2 primary element flow ~ndicator flow totaliz~ngIndicator
W
53 l6 17 18
p
LAMINATOR FLOW,
ETc. MASS FLOW
-
2 ETc.
kJ +2--
p :A-? p
Target type sensor Flow nozzle Magnetic flowmeter
-- - - - -- - - ~p
-- p - p
CHAPTER 17 - INSTRUMENTATIONS
22 23 24
F
A
BE
0
Y
W
3
S
IA Magnetic flowmeter with Sonic flowmeter" dopplet" or
integral transmitter "transit time" may be added
I 2 3
i35
2
!3
42
01
w 0
E? W
z+ Time-schedule controller,
Multipoint on-off time Sequencing analog type, or self contained
Clock programmer point 7 function generator
CHAPTER 17 - INSTRUMENTATIONS
1 2 3
Q
LIGHT
SOURCE
5 G
CONVEYOR
LIGHT
'OURCE 8 5 ~cONVEYoR
\CON:EYOR
cF
b0
O . 5
z
3
a 8-2
Counting switch, photo-electric
O
z
0
-s
3
2(J
Radiation indicator
?q2
Radiation measuring element
and transmitter
S 1 2 3
=-?
ROTATING
W MACHINE
3
S
E
0
P!
9W
n
V)
Speed transmitter
T
1 2 3
UI
P!
3
5n
W
E
T 2T 2'z2
Temperature element without well
Temperature connection Temperature test connection (element not connected to
with well without well secondary instroment)
- ~
CHAPTER 17 - INSTRU.MENTATIONS
4 5 6
' '
Temperature element with well
'8'
2b2 Bimetallic-type thermometer
(element not connected to Filled-system-typetemperature glass thermometer, or other local
secondary instruments) indicator with well unclassifed temperature indicator
7 8 9
'Fb 10 12-6
+
& 13-8 14-4
-
BC
o
Thermocouple, resistance bulb
(RTD) or thermistor (TH)
connected to temperature
Thermocouple connected to
multipoint indicator recording
on multipoint scanning
Thermocouple parallel-wired to
multipoint indicator and
multipoint scanning recorder
Y indicator (tag element TE-10) recorder (tag element TE-11-2) (tag element TE-13-8114-4)
a2
W
10 12
P
W
n.
JI-
15-7 16-2
8E +
? T 2oo-.
Thermal-radiiation-type Surface-mounted Thermostat sensing
temperature element temperature sensor ambient temperature
CHAPTER 17 - INSTRUMENTATIONS
1 2 3 4
ax@Qx@
U
m
w
J
26 1-7 ay20 @
20 +
2-5 (G
Bu Alternative 1 Alternative 1
1 (treated as distinct loops) (treated as distinct loops)
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alternative
Alternative 2 ..... 2
2 Low-flow switch actuating one point of a
multipoint of multivariable alarm annunciator
Level signal received by one point of a
multipoint multivariable indicator
1 2 3 SEISMIC
VI
%Ji QIi!?,&
3
v
VE
2
V)
3
9u tw
i Vibration transmitter Vibration switch Accelerometer with
0
z for motor (manually resettable) auxiliary panel readout
2
W
E
4 5
i
0
5
1
X
r-z Mechanical analysis in three planes
CHAPTER 17 - INSTRUMENTATIONS
1 2 3
+y ?
&
T
W
W
0
w
7
Bw
0
I-
s
(3 Strain gage connected to separate
$ Weight transmitter,
direct-connected
weight transmitter
(tag strain gage WE-2)
Weight-belt scale
transmitter
1 2 3
. <ONVEyOR
Z
SOURCE
0 ZDX
5 \cONVEYOR
0
cn
Z
z
w
E
O
Roll-thickness
transmitter
F O b0
Thickness switch,
radioactive type .
Limit switch that is actuated
when valve is closed to a
predetermined position
ipt
P
i 4 5 6
P
DRIVEN
MACHINE
FIG. D, FIG. D,
Bottom terminal
Fully compressed
oil or spring buffer
or solid bumper
HOISTWAY A( :CESS-DIAGRAMMATIC
REP RESENTATION
Hoistway
access switch
Hoistway unlocking
device (same
landings) but only if
Hoistway
unlocking
Hoistway
access switch
11 Emergency
use
device Emergency
At one upper If preferred
landing for top For car top access At one upper (same key device
access, abd rise is not over 15 landing for top landings)
ft (4.6 m) and Permitted at all
lowest landing access, and landings
for pit access access landing not lowest landing
intermediate for pit access
landing more than
4 ft (1.2 m) below
top landing
For pit access pit is
no more than 5 ft
(1.5 m) deep
Note:
With the landing means, it is only necessary to open the door of any one or several cars at a floor.
APPENDIX F
I I
- 1 Escalator width + 6 in. (152 mm) max: I -
I I
I I I
I 1+3 in. (76 rnm)
rnax.
3 in. (76 mm) -+ I :4---
I I max. I I
!
- in
(165 mm)
max.
:+
I
16 in. (406 mrn) min.
40 in. (1016 rnm) rnax.
-:
Step tread width + 13 in (330 mrn) rnax.
White
n
yellow
Hold Handrail
Attend Children
Avoid Sliders
4 in. (102 m m ) q
Width exposed
treadway
II
II
II
..
4r
1. The IS0 metric series for the basic thickness of sheet and
diameters of wire is established on the series of preferred
numbers set out in IS0 Recommendation R 3-Preferred
numbers. Series of preferred numbers. See Table GI.
NOTE: The equivalent inch values for sizes above 0.25 mm are
given to an accuracy close to, or better than, one part in one
thousand. This accuracy would be appropriate to practical limits of
size associated with a tolerance of I per cent of the size. For sizes
smaller than 0.25 mm, five places of decimals appear adequate for
any likely method of direct measurement in inches. The true
millimetre basic sizes should be used if it s desired to compute
limits of size in any alternative characteristic, such as mass or
electrical resistance.
APPENDIX G
Table G,
TABLE OF BASIC SIZES
NOTE: Preference should be given to sizes in the R 10,R 20 and R 40 series, in that order.
Table GI
TABLE OF BASIC SIZES
(continued)
NOTE: Preference should be given to sizes in the R 10, R 20 and R 40 series, in that order.
0.104 3
0.110 2
0.118 1
0.124 0
0.131 9
0.139 8
0.147 6
0.157 5
0.167 3
0.177 2
0.187 0
0.196 9
0.208 7
0.220 5
0.236 2
0.248 0
0.263 8
0.279 5
0.295 3
0.31 5 0
0.334 6
0.354 3
0.374 0
0.393 7
0.41 7 3
0.440 9
0.464 6
0.492 1
0.519 7
0.551 8
0.590 6
0.629 9
0.669 3
0.708 7
0.748 0
0.7874
APPENDIX H
WlRE GAGES
0 000 ,460 11.7 ,3938 10.0 .454 11.5 ,454 11.5 .............................. ,400 10.2 ,4062
000 ,410 10.4 .3625 9.2 ,425 10.8 ,425 10.8 .............................. ,372 9.4 ,3750
00 .365 9.3 ,3310 8.4 ,380 9.7 ,380 9.7 .............................. ,348 8.8 ,3437
0 ,325 8.3 .3065 7.8 ,340 8.6 .340 8.6 .............................. ,324 8.2 ,3125
1 ,289 7.3 ,2830 7.2 ,300 7.6 ,300 7.6 ,227 5.77 ,300 7.6 .2812
2 ,258 6.5 ,2625 6.7 ,284 7.2 .284 7.2 ,219 5.6 ,276 7.0 ,2656
3 ,229 5.8 .2437 6.2 ,259 6.6 ,259 6.6 .212 5.38 ,252 6.4 ,2500
4 ,204 5.2 .2253 5.7 ,238 6.0 ,238 6.0 .207 5.26 ,232 5.9 ,2344
5 ,182 4.6 ,2070 5.3 ,220 5.6 ,220 5.6 ,204 5.18 ,212 5.4 ,2187
6 ,162 4.1 ,1920 4.9 .203 5.2 ,203 5.2 ,201 5.11 ,192 4.9 ,2035
7 ,144 3.7 ,1770 4.5 ,180 4.6 ,180 4.6 ,199 5.05 ,176 4..5 .la75
8 ,128 3.3 ,1630 4.1 ,165 4.2 ,165 4.2 ,197 5.00 .I60 4.1 ,1719
9 ,114 2.91 ,1463 3.77 .148 3.76 ,148 3.76 ,194 4.93 ,144 3.66 ,1562
10 ,102 2.59 ,1350 3.43 .134 3.43 .I34 3.43 ,191 4.85 ,128 3.25 ,1406
11 ,091 2.30 .1205 3.06 ,120 3.05 ,120 3.05 ,188 4.78 ,116 2.95 ,1250
12 ,081 2.05 ,1055 2.68 ,109 2.77 ,109 2.77 ,185 4.70 ,104 2.64 ,1094
13 ,072 1.83 ,0915 2.32 .095 2.41 ,095 2.41 ,182 4.62 .092 2.34 ,0937
14 ,064 1.63 ,0800 2.03 .083 2.11 ,083 2.11 ,180 4.57 ,080 2.03 ,0781
15 ,057 1.45 .0720 1.83 ,072 1.83 ,072 1.83 .I78 4.52 .072 1.83 ,0703
16 ,051 1.29 ,0625 1.59 .065 1.65 ,065 1.65 ,175 4.45 ,064 1.63 ,0625
17 ,045 1.15 ,0540 1.37 ,058 1.47 ,058 1.47 .I72 4.37 ,056 1.42 ,0562
18 ,240 1.02 ,0475 1.21 ,049 1.24 ,049 1.24 ,168 4.27 ,048 1.22 ,0500
19 ,036 0.91 ,0410 1.04 ,042 1.07 ,040 1.02 ,164 4.17 ,040 1.02 ,0437
20 .032 0.81 ,0348 0.88 ,035 0.89 ,035 0.89 ,161 4.09 ,036 0.91 ,0375
21 ,0285 0.72 ,0317 0.81 ,032 0.81 ,0315 0.80 ,157 3.99 .032 0.81 .OM4
22 ,0253 0.64 ,0286 0.73 ,028 0.71 ,0295 0.75 ,155 3.94 ,028 0.71 .0312
23 .0226 0.57 ,0258 0.66 ,025 0.64 ,0270 0.69 ,153 3.89 ,024 0.61 ,0281
24 .0201 0.51 ,0230 0.58 ,022 0.56 ,0250 0.64 ,151 3.84 .022 0.56 ,0250
25 ,0179 0.45 ,0204 0.52 ,020 0.51 ,0230 0.58 ,148 3.76 ,020 0.51 .0219
26 .0159 0.40 ,0181 0.46 ,018 0.46 ,0205 0.52 ,146 3.71 ,018 0.46 ,0187
27 ,0142 0.36 .0173 0.439 ,016 0.41 ,01875 0.48 ,143 3.63 ,0164 0.42 ,0172
28 .0126 0.32 ,0162 0.411 ,014 0.36 .01650 0.42 .139 3.53 .0148 0.38 ,0156
29 ,0113 0.29 ,0150 0.381 ,013 0.330 .01550 0.394 ,134 3.40 .0136 0.345 ,0141
30 .0100 0.25 ,0140 0.358 ,012 0.305 ,01375 0.349 ,127 3.23 ,0124 0.315 ,0125
31 ,0089 0.227 ,0132 0.335 ,010 0.254 ,01225 0.311 ,120 3.05 ,0116 0.295 ,0109
32 ,0080 0.202 ,0128 0.325 .009 0.229 ,01125 0.286 ,115 2.92 ,0108 0.274 ,0101
33 ,0071 0.180 .0118 0.300 ,008 0.203 ,01025 0.260 ,112 2.84 ,0100 0.254 .OW
34 ,0063 0.160 ,0104 0.264 ,007 0.178 ,00950 0.241 ,110 2.79 ,0092 0.234 ,0086
35 ,0056 0.143 ,0095 0.241 ,005 0.127 .00900 0.229 ,108 2.74 ,0084 0.213 ,0078
36 ,0050 0.127 ,0090 0.229 ,004 0.102 ,00750 0.191 .lo6 2.69 ,0076 0.193 ,0070
37 ,0045 0.113 ,0085 0.216 .............................. ,00650 0.165 ,103 2.62 ,0068 0.173 ,0066
38 ,0040 0.101 ,0080 0.203 .............................. ,00575 0.146 ,101 2.57 ,0060 0.152 ,0062
39 ,0035 0.090 ,0075 0.191 .............................. .00500 0.127 .099 2.51 ,0052 0.132 ...............
40 ,0031 0.080 ,0070 0.178 .............................. ,00450 0.114 ,097 2.46 ,0048 0.122 ...............
41 .............................. ,0066 0.168 ............................................................ .095 2.41 .OW 0.112 ...............
42 .............................. ,0062 0.157 ............................................................ ,092 2.34 .0040 0.102 ...............
43 .............................. .0060 0.152 ............................................................ ,088 2.24 ,0036 0.091 ...............
44 .............................. ,0058 0.147 ............................................................ ,085 2.16 ,0032 0.081 ...............
45 .............................. ,0055 0.140 ............................................................ .081 2.06 ,0028 0.071 ...............
46 .............................. ,0052 0.132 ............................................................ ,079 2.01 .0024 0.061 ...............
47 .............................. ,0050 0.127 ............................................................ .077 1.96 ,0020 0.051 ...............
48 .............................. ,0048 0.122 ............................................................ ,075 1.90 ,0016 0.041 ...............
49 .............................. .0046 0.1 17 ............................................................ ,072 1.83 ,0012 0.030 ...............
50 .............................. .OM4 0.112 ............................................................ ,069 1.75 ,0010 0.025 ............... -
TEST METHOD
HYDRAULIC TEST
Test Method - Hydraulic test shall be carried out using a HYDROSTATIC TESTER with the following
standard values to be used as criteria for this test.
(M.W.C.)
6 - 25 4.90 (500)
32 - 80 6.86 (700)
100 - 300 9.80 (1000)
All pipes, when subjected to hydraulic test, shall be able to withstand the required hydraulic test pressure.
APPENDIX I
PHILIPPINE NATIONAL STANDARD SIZES OF BLACK AND HOT DIPPED ZINC-COATED STEEL PIPE
FOR ORDINARY USES
Black and hot-dipped zinc-coated (galvanized) longitudinally welded steel pipes are generally classified as follows:
a) Heavy series
b) Medium series
c) Light series I
d) Light series 2
Table I1
STEEL PIPES DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHT OF HEAVY SERIES
Table I2
STEEL PIPES DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHT OF MEDIUM SERIES
Table 14
STEEL PIPES DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHT OF HEAVY SERIES
Philippine National Standard (PNS) Specification for Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride (uPVC) Electrical Conduit Outside
Diameter and Wall Thickness
The conduit shall conform to the outside diameter and wall thickness specified in Table JI when tested in accordance with
PNSllSO 3126
Unit: mm
Physical and Mechanical Properties -The conduit shall conform to the physical and mechanical properties specified in Table J2
2. Length - Unless otherwise specified by the Minimum Tensile Strength = 38.9 MPa
purchaser, the pipe shall be supplied in standard Minimum Elongation = 80%
effective lengths of 3 metres with a tolerance of +
20 mm. 4.3 Resistance to External Blows - The true impact
blows of the batch at 28°C shall not exceed 10%
3. Color - The color of the pipe shall be blue and when tested in accordance with PNSllSO 3127.
shall be uniform throughout its length.
NOTE - The true impact rate is the total number of
4. Mechanical Requirements broken test pieces divided by the total number of
blows, expressed as percentage as i f the whole
4.1 Hydrostatic Pressure Test batch had been tested. In practice, test pieces are
drawn at random from the batch and only estimate
Burst Pressure -The pipe shall withstand a minimum of the true impact rates are obtained.
*
circumferential stress of 47.4 MPa at 20°C I"C, 42.2 MPa
*
at 28 1"C for at least 60 seconds without failure. 4.4 Flattening Test - The pipe shall show no evidence
-.:;ofsplitting, cracking, and breaking when flattened
Long Term Test - The pipe shall withstand a minimum to a minimum of 40% of its outside diameter when
circumferential stress of 25.5 MPa at 28k 1"C for at least 1 tested in accordance with PNSIASTM D 2241.
000 hours.
APPENDIX I
Unplasticized PVC
Continuation of Table LI
Table M-I
Table M-2
Table M-3
Table M-4
REFRIGERANT 11: PROPERTIES OF LIQUID AND SATURATED VAPOR^
Table M-5
REFRIGERANT 12: PROPERTIES OF LIQUID AND SATURATED VAPOR'
Table M-6
REFRIGERANT 22: PROPERTIES OF LIQUID AND SATURATED VAPOR'
Table M-7
REFRIGERANT 22: PROPERTIES OF SUPER1
t, "C I v, Ukg I h, kJ/kg I s, kJ/kg K v, Ukg I h, kJ/kg I s, kJlkg K v, Ukg I h, kJ/kg I s, kJ1kg -K
Saturation temperature, -20°C Saturation temperature, -10°C Saturation temperature, 0°C
-20 92.8432 397.467 1.7841
-15 95.1474 400.737 1.7969
-10 97.4256 404.017 1.8095 65.3399 401.555 1.7671
-5 99.6808 407.307 1.8219 67.0081 404.983 1.7800
0 101.915 410.610 1.8341 68.6524 408.412 . 1.7927
, 47.1354 405.361 1.7518
5 104.130 4j3.926 1.8461 70.2751 41 1.845 A I.8052 48.3899 408.969 1.7649
10 106.328 417.258 1.8580 71.8785 415.283 1.8174 49.6215 412.567 1.7777
15 108.510 420.606 1.8697 73.4644 418.730 1.8295 50.8328 416.1 59 1.7903
20 110.678 432.970 1.8813 75.0346 422.186 1.8414 52.0259 419.649 1.8026
25 112.832 426.353 1.8928 76.5904 425.653 1.8531 53.2028 423.339 1.8148
,
Saturation temperature, 5°C Saturation temperature, 10°C Saturation temperature, 15°C
5 40.3556 407.143 1.7446
10 41.4580 410.851 1.7578 34.7135 408.835 1.7377
15 42.5379 414.542 1.7708 35.6907 412.651 1.7511 29.9874 410.430 1.731 1
20 43.5979 418.222 1.7834 36.6454 416.442 1.7642 30.8606 414.362 1.7556
25 44.6401 421.894 1.7958 37.5804 420.21 5 1.7769 31.71 14 418.260 1.7578
30 45.6665 425.562 1.8080 38.4981 423.974 1.7894 32.5427 422.133 1.7707
35 46.6786 429.229 1.8200 39.4002 427.724 1.8017 33.3568 425.985 1.7833
40 47.6779 432.897 1.8319 40.2884 431.469 1.8137 34.1556 429.823 1.7956
45 48.6656 436.569 1.8435 41.I642 435.21 1 1.8256 34.9409 433.650 1.8078
50 49.6427 440.247 1.8550 42.0286 438.954 1.8373 35.71 39 437.470 1.81 97
APPENDIX M
t, "C I v, Ukg I H, kJlkg I S, kJlkg K v, Llkg I H, kJ1kg I S, kJ/kg K v, Ukg I H, kJlkg I S, kJlkg K
Saturation temperature, 38°C Saturation temperature, 40°C Saturation temperature, 42°C
40 16.1865 418.076 1.7080 15.1350 416.561 1.6995
45 16.7545 422.664 1.7225 15.6982 421.274 1.7144 14.6964 419.779 1.7061
50 17.2991 427.1 55 1.7365 16.2355 425.871 1.7287 15.2286 424.496 1.7208
55 17.8240 431.568 1.7501 16.7514 430.374 1.7426 15.7373 429.101 1.7349
60 18.3320 435.918 1.7632 17.2491 434.803 1.7560 16.2264 433.61 7 1.7486
65 18.8225 440.218 1.7760 17.7313 439.171 1.7690 16.6987 438.062 1.7618
70 19.3063 444.477 1.7885 18.2001 443.491 1.7817 17.1568 442.449 1.7747
75 19.7760 448.703 1.8008 18.6571 447.771 1.7940 17.6024 446.788 1.7872
80 20.2358 452.901 1.8127 19.1038 452.019 1.8061 18.0371 451.090 1.7992
85 19.5412 456.241 1.8180 18.4622 455.360 1.8115
Saturation temperature, 45°C Saturation temperature, 50°C
45 13.2841 417.308 1.6931
50 13.8136 422.241 1.7084 11.6693 417.839 1.6864
55 14.3154 427.025 1.7231 12.1721 423.028 1.7024
60 14.7946 431.693 1.7372 12.6447 428.026 1.7175
65 15.2550 436.268 1.7509 13.0932 432.877 1.7319
70 15.6995 440.769 1.7641 13.5219 437.613 1.7458
75 16.1303 445.209 1.7769 13.9342 442.258 1.7593
80 16.5492 449.599 1.7895 14.3325 446.828 1.7723
85 16.9578 453.950 1.8017 14.7187 451.337 1.7850
90 17.3571 458.267 1.8137 15.0943 455.796 1.7973
APPENDIX M
Table M-8
REFRIGERANT 502: PROPERTIES OF LIQUID AND SATUMTED VAPOR'
Liquid Fuels
Liduid Fuels
BTUllb
Gasoline 20 620
Diesel 19 650
Fuel Oil 18 600
Kerosene 19 800
LPG (1 kg = 1.86L) 21 180
Augas 20 950
Auturbo 19 800
Naptha 20 620
Waste Oil 18600 \
Methanol 9 600
Ethanol 12 800
Coco-oil 15 750
Solid Fuels
BTUllb
Coal 9 000
Bagasse (50% moisture) 4 000
Wood Waste (30% moisture)' 4 000
Rice Hull 6 000
Coco-s~ll 8 630
Coco Husk 7 400
KJkui metre
Natural Gas 37 975
Biogas 24 200
Electricity
at 33% Thermal
Republic of the Philippines
Department of Labor
REGIONAL OFFICE NO.
1. Name of Establishment:
2. Address:
3. OwnerIManager and Address:
4. Where BoilerlPressure Vessel is to be installed:
5. Plants to be submitted: Submit (in quadruplicate) the foundation plan with design, installation and location plans of the boiler1
Pressure vessel. The plans shall be prepared, signed and sealed by a Professional Mechanical Engineer. Plan shall also
Bear the name and signature of owner or manager of the plant. The working drawing of the boilerlpressure vessel shall be
submitted together with the First Inspection Report.
6. BoilerIPressure vessel Data:
(a) Manufacturer:
(b) Type: (c) Serial Number:
(d) Place of Origin: (e) Date of Make:
(If unknown, approximate)
(f) Heating Surface: (g.) Max A.W.P.
(h) HorsepowerlCubic Feet:
7. Name and Signature of Person to
supervise the installation:
(Board of Mechanical Engineering License)
8. Other accessories or equipment:
Application No.
'Plan Fee:
'P.R. No. Date:
'Date Received:
'Received by:
APPENDIX P
,, ,
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS AND HIGHWAYS
OFFICE OF THE BUILDING OFFICIAL
MECHANICAL PERMIT
DATE OF APPLICATION DATE ISSUED
I OTHERS (SPECIFY)
I
I
PROPOSED DATE EXPECTEDDATE
OF INSTALLATION OF COMPLETION
\ THIS PERMIT MAY BE CANCELLED OR REVOKED PURSUANTTO SECTIONS 305 & 306 OF THE NATIONAL BUILDING CODE'
BOX 3 (TO BE ACCOMPLISHED BY THE RECEIVING AND RECORDING SECTION)
BUILDING DOCUMENTS
(FIVE (5) SETS EACH)
a MECHANICAL PLANS & SPECIFICATIONS aBILL OF MATERIALS
aCOST ESTIMATES aOTHERS (SPECIFY)
BOX 4 (TO BE ACCOMPLISHED BY THE DlVlSlONlSECTlON CONCERNED)
f I ASSESSED FEE
AMOUNT DUE ASSESSEDBY O.R. NUMBER DATE PAID
MECHANICAL
REVIEWED:
WE HEREBY AFFIX OUR HANDS SIGNIFYING OUR CONFORMITY TO THE INFORMATION HEREIN ABOVE SETFORTH
BOX 6 BOX 8
~ R O FMECH.
. ENGINEER PRC. REG. NO SIGNATURE
SIGNEDAND SEALED PLANS & SPECIFICATIONS
PRINT NAME
A P P L I C A N
ADDRESS I
I RES. CERT. NO. I DATE ISSUED CE ISSUED
SIGNATURE TAN.
\
BOX 7
/'
~ R O FMECH.
. ENGINEER PRC. REG. NO
IN-CHARGE OF INSTALLATION
PRINT NAME
ADDRESS
SIGNATURE TAN.
L /'
@rafessinnrrI %egulxfinn ~ n r n r n i s e i o n
flmniIm
Board of Mechanical Engineering
Resolution No. 06
Series of 2003
CODE OF ETHICAL AND PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS
FOR THE PRACTICE OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING PROFESSION
Pursuant to the provisions of Sections 9(a) of Republic Act No. 8495, known as the "Philippine
Mechanical Engineering Act of 1998 and Section 50, Rule Xlll of Board Resolution No. 16, Series of
1998, providing for the Rules and Regulations to carry out purposes of the Act, the Board of Mechanical
Engineering hereby adopts, promulgates and issues this Code of Ethical and Professional Standards for
the Practice of Mechanical Engineering profession.
PREAMBLE
Engineering is a profession as old civilization. It is not only and important profession. It is also a
learned one.
The Members of the Mechanical Engineering professional recognize that their work has a direct
and vital impact on the quality of life of the people.
The services that Mechanical Engineers provide is impressed with public interest for it affects the
health, safety and welfare of the people, hence, they should be honest, fair impartial and just in dealing'
not only with their clients but also with their fellowmen.
As a professional, the Mechanical Engineer must practice his profession by observing a standard
of professional behavior that requires strict adherence to the principles of ethic and professional conduct
provided by the Code of Ethics of their profession.
FUNDAMENTAL CANONS
1. Hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public in the performance of their pro-
fessional duties
3. Make I issue public statements on issues only in an objective and truthful manner.
Rule 1. The mechanical engineer shall, in the practice of his profession, be guided by the Golden
Rule, the ideals of service to man and his environment, and the need to secure unwaver-
ing public confidence, integrity and humanity.
Rule 2. The mechanical engineer shall maintain the proper professional fee for his profession,
observe the standards of professional practice, safeguard the dignity, and reputation of
his colleagues in the profession, and fulfill his duties and obligations as a citizen of the
Republic of the Philippines.
Rule 3. The mechanical engineer shall update and enhance constantly his professional know-
ledge and skills through assiduous research and study, and participation in continuing
professional development programs and seminars conducted or authorized by the Inte-
grated Organization of Mechanical Engineers accredited by the Board of Mechanical
Engineering and the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) or education institu-
tions supervised by the State.
Rule 4. The ethical principles required to be observed by mechanical engineers shall equally
apply to partnership, firms and entities organized and exiting for the practice of
mechanical engineering.
Rule 5. The mechanical engineer shall honor and respect the supreme authority of the State the
Rule of Law, the primacy of the general welfare, the fundamentals rights of persons,
and the obligations and privileges of citizens recognized and guaranteed by the
Constitution of the Philippines.
Rule 6. He shall cooperate fully with the State in the pursuit of national development plans and
programs, shall respect the inviolability of national security, shall assist in the promotion
of peace and order and when circumstances arise shall assist in the prevention and/or
prosecution of unjust, criminal or unlawful acts and omissions.
Rule 7. He shall be ready to render the services needed for the development of the resources
of the country, and to offer his mechanical devices and inventions essential or
necessary for national defense.
Rule 8. In case of national emergency, he shall be ready to offer his professional knowledge,
skill and experience in the service of the State.
Rule 9. The mechanical engineer shall be well-informed of the latest technological progress in
his own line of work. He shall encourage or require whenever appropriate the use, or ap
plication of standard mechanical equipment, machinery, or process for safety, economy
and efficiency.
Rule 10. Whenever he designs a mechanical equipment, machinery or process, or prepares the
layout of a project, he must apply and adequate factor of safety, and provide for the ne-
cessary leeway to insure and maintain for proper operating and maintenance condition.
Rule 11. When he discovers faulty or unsafe devices, equipment or machinery in any place, work or
plant, he shall without delay, give notice thereof to the proper authority, public of private,
for the immediate and effective correction, regardless of whether or not he is responsible
for said place, work or plant.
RELATIONS WlTH LABOR
Rule 12. The mechanical engineer shall recognize labor as one of the major resources of our
country. He must acknowledge that a working man is not a mechanical robot but a
human being.
Rule 13. He should be familiar with State policies on labor and social justice, as well as ,
the labor and social legislations and shall observe faithfully these policies and laws in
dealing with labor in general, and with his workmen in particular.
Rule 14. He shall strive to improve the skills of his workmen, pay them a fair living wage, and
instruct them on how to prevent accidents in their place of work.
Rule 15. The mechanical engineer shall observe punctuality in his appointments, perform
honestly and in good faith, his contractual obligation and his duties and obligations
to his clients or employer, and observe fair dealing i his relations with his clients and
employers.
Rule 16. He shall treat with confidentially any information obtained by him regarding the business
affairs and technical methods or processes of a client, or employer.
Rule 17. He shall inform his client or employer of his business connections, interests, or
affiliations which may influence his judgement, or impair the quality or character of his
services.
Rule 18. The mechanical engineer is entitled to a just and fair compensation of his services.
In the computation of such compensation, the period of time consumed, his
professional knowledge, skill, experience, and reputation, and the depreciation of
instruments and materials used, shall be considered and accorded such weight as is
just and reasonable.
Rule 19. He shall accept compensation, financial or otherwise, for his services from his clients
or employer only. He may agree to , or receive compensation from any other source
only with the full knowledge and consent of all parties concerned.
Rule 20. The mechanical engineer shall be completely above suspicion or reproach in his
relation with his clients or employers, avoiding the remotest reference or relations to any
secret or questionable agreement on commissions or other financial consideration
promised by or received from any person or entity other than his client or employer.
Rule 21. "To thine ownself be true and thou cannot be false to any men" expresses the duty
which a mechanical engineer owes to himself and to others.
Rule 22. The mechanical engineer shall use only fair means to gain professional advancement.
In the pursuit thereof, he shall not injure the work or employment opportunities of others,
or use any improper or questionable method of soliciting employment or clients.
Rule 23. He shall refrain from associating with, or allowing the use of his name by, and any
person or entity of questionable reputation.
Rule 24. He shall provide the opportunity and the means to improve and advance the
knowledge, skills, and experience of his colleagues and associates.
Rule 25. He shall define clearly the line of authority and scope of responsibility of his associates
and assistance Orders, or the recall thereof, shall be issued through proper channels.
Rule 26. He shall be receptive to new ideas and suggestions from others, and ready to
recognize, encourage, and accredit the authors thereof. Suggestions for
colleagues and associates shall be given more careful attention.
Rule 27. He shall use tact and discretion in dealing with his colleagues and associates, but not
at the sacrifice of firmness. He shall work out difficult problems with courage and
serenity.
Rule 28. Careful selection of understudies shall be a guiding principle, and preference shall be
given to those with adequate engineering education.
Rule 29. He shall not expect others to face danger that he himself will not face. He shall
observe at all times safety requirements for the protection of all concerned.
Rule 30. The mechanical engineer shall actively support the duly accredited association with
the end in view of enhancing the practice of the profession and discharging his public
responsibilities as a professional.
PROVISIONS ON DISCIPLINARYACTION
Rule 31. Violation of any provision of this Code shall constitute a ground for the revocation or
suspension of the certificate of registration and professional license I professional
identification card or the cancellation of a temporary or special permit under the
provisions of Sec. 26 and Sec. 27, Art Ill of R.A. No. 8495, known as the "Mechanical
Engineering Act of 1998" and Sec. 41, Rule Vll of the "Rule and Regulations
Implementing R.A. No., 8495.
EFFECTIVITY
Rule 32. This Code shall take effect after fifteen (15) days following its publication in full in the
Official Gazette or in a newspaper of general circulation, whichever comes earlier.
m--2-
--ANTONIO RO. HERRERA
Chairman
Member
Attested.
Commissioner Commissioner
lepubltt of tbe Bbtltppinee
~rofe$$tonallegulattonQLommteeton
fian t la
Board of Mechanical Engineering
Resolution No. 04
Series of 2003
WHEREAS, Sec. 23,Art. Ill of RepublicAct. No. 8495, otherwise known as the "Philippine Mechanical
Engineering Act of 1998", provides:
WHEREAS, on May 6, 1998, in a Consultative Meeting for the creation of the integrated organiza-
tion of mechanical engineers at the Manila Midtown Hotel, Ermita, Manila, hosted and called by the Board
of Mechanical Engineering, and the Professional Regulation Commission in cooperation with the Philippine
Society of Mechanical Engineers, Inc. (PSME), the participant-officer of PSME, the local government of
Mechanical Association of the Philippines (LOGOMEAP), the Philippine Institute of Mechanical Engineer-
ing Educators (PIMEE), The Philippine Society of Ventilating and Refrigerating Engineers (PSVARE), the
Philippine Association of Mechanical and electrical Engineers (PAMEE) and Association of Government
Mechanical and electrical Engineers of the Philippines (AGMEEP) unanimously agreed or arrived at a
consensus, for reason stated in the minutes of the said meeting, that PSME be officially recognized as the
integrated organization of mechanical engineers in the Philippines by the board and the Commissio, and
that its present organizational name - Philippine Society of Mechanical Engineers and its acronym "PSME"
be retained and adopted.
WHEREAS, the PSME, the national organizational of professional mechanical engineers, mechani-
cal engineers and certified plant mechanics, after its secession from the PAMEE, was organized and reg-
istered in and since then, has been the one only national organization of mechanical engineers.
WHEREAS, the PSME is the one and only national organization of mechanical engineers that the
Commission has accredited and to which it issued a Certificate of Accreditation No. 004, pursuant
to Sec. 5(1) of P.D. No. 223, as amended, and Art. IX (Accreditation of Professional Organizations)
of the Rules and Regulations Governing the Regulation and Practice of Professionals".
WHEREAS, the PSME is presently composed of about seventy six (76) local chapters throughout
the Philippines and two (2) chapters in foreign countries.
NOW, THEREFORE, the Board resolved as it hereby resolves to recognize the Philippine Society
of Mechanical Engineers, Inc. (PSME) as the one and only integrated and accredited association
of Professional Mechanical Engineers, Mechanical Engineers and Certified Plant Mechanics reg-
istered with the Board the Commission.
(2) to participate and or/ support the Board and the Commission in planning and
implementing programs and activities where such participation, support and
assistance are necessary for the accomplishment of the objectives, aims
and purposes of such programs and activities.
This Resolution, shall, upon approval by the Professional Regulation Commission, take
effect after fifteen (15) days following its publication in the Official Gazette or in a
newspaper of general circulation in the Philippines, whichever is earlier.
&--
\....;-.-77'--
Member
Attested:
Chairperson /,&!&A 8
AVELINA DE LA REA-TAN
Commissioner Commissioner
Bepublit of the $hilippines
#rofessional Begulation Commission
manila
Board of Mechanical Engineering
Resolution No. 13
Series of 2003
WHEREAS, Sec. 23 Art. Ill of Republic Act No. 8495, otherwise known as the "Philippines Mechanical
Engineering Act of 1998" requires that "[AIII person whose names now appear in the roll of the professional mechanical
engineers, mechanical engineers and certified plant mechanics under the custody of the board and the
Commission, or those who may hereafter be included therein upon registration and payment of the required fees
shall automaticallv become members of the integrated and accredited oruanization of mechanical engineers".
(Underscoring supplied)
WHEREAS, the President of the PSME has requested the Board of Mechanical Enginee~ngto recommend
to the Commission to require the Professional Mechanical Engineers, Mechanical Engineers, MechaqicaI and Certified
Plant Mechanics who are not yet members of the PSME as of the date the PSME has been recoc;nize? as the one and
only integrated and accredited association of Professional Mechanical Engineers, M e c h a n b ' Engineers and
Certified Plant Mechanics to submit "Certificate of Good Standing" as members issued by the accropriate officials
of PSME as a condition for the issuance I renewal of their professional identification cards in orze- to hasten the
integration of all Professional Mechanical Engineers and Certified Plant '.kchanics into
one and only recognized integrated and accredited association as required by Section 22 ?.A. No. 8495,
afore-quoted.
WHEREAS, the suggestion of the President of the PSME is well-taken as it will creatl a need for the
Professional Mechanical Engineers, Mechanical Engineers and Certified Plant Mechanics to .e?'s'.er as members
of their professional organization.
WHEREFORE, the Board Resolved as it hereby Resolves to recommend to the Co---ssion to require
professional mechanical engineers, mechanical engineers and certified plant mechanics who a-e -ct yet members
of the PSME as of date of issuance of this Resolution to submit Certificates of Good Standi-2 as vember of the
PSME signed by its appropriate officials as a condition for the issuance I renewal c' tAe;r professional
identification cards.
-- = ===- - y z - - -
- ---
cksll
take effect after Fifteen (15) days following its publication in the Officials Gazette or in a
- - --
-
newsc=-=- ---
- , - -
=. = = s-z~'a!ion in the Philippines, whichever is earlier.
--
?--5 - t?e City of Manila, this 4th day of March, 2003
Member
Attested
(25
AVELINA DE LA REA-TAN
Commissioner Commissioner
Gtrp~ltlilin i q pililrinns
REPUBLIC O F THE PHILIPPINES
a n l y y n p n i ~ 1x1 j13mt;ptlo
OFFICE O F THE PRESIDENT
bnliltnynit i q ~ngh:~liilnln
CERTIFICATE O F ACCREDITATION
GrtIiixjnit 1tg j9nqkdiilnln Gig. %-Aj8(0-llll5
Certzficate ofJccreditation Po. I-AP0-005
ny nn an
fy that
h m t l d m j l'ahlpm itq ChlLas i q ilbprblin Gig. i.:~ltlJill Unlns 1x1 3hlnddiim &{lg. i:CTkTl nl i q ilqn C i n ~ h n miq ~ :Vihnthnrin,
pertinent provisions o f @pu6lic J c t Y o . 8495 a n d Kepu6lic J c t Po. 8981 a n d i t s impcementing Rules a n d Regulations,
lrilo L y h.inilinlnlnit~
I giyn1tg 1imiu. nrt I pmpcst~'" ?dpllEt! elt~$l~fl6
rlj accredi,t e d as 6onrtfide arofessionnl Oq f o r Mecha neers
For co~lsiderntionof this Commission is tlne petition for the renewal of the
;\cc~.etlitationof Engr. Saylito M. Purisim:~ill be11nl.f of the Philippine Society of
Mechanical Engineers (PSNE), as tlne bonafide p~.ofessional organization for
mechanical engineers. In SIIPPOY~.of its petition are the following, t o wit:
1, Notarized petition sig~ledby its Presicle~ltfor the renewal of the
certificate of accrec\itation;
2. List of a ~ r r e nofficers
t includillg its chapters;
3. Photo copy of Certificate of Registration issued by the Securities and
Exchange Coru~riission(SEC);
4. Photo copy of the An~encledArticles of Incorporation and By-Laws;
5. Copy of auditccl fiuancial statclllel~tsi~b~nitted to the SEC duly signecl
by a Certified Public Accountant;
6. C(.)mpletelist of members inclicating their PRC Registratiou Nos. and
I)i\tes (1 Registration;
7. Report on significallt achievementsas d corporate body; 311~1
8. Proof of paymcnt of thc prescribecl rel~ewalfee.
&/&
1,EONOR TKIPON-RQSERO
Chairperson
Cominissioner Con~inissioner
Bepublic of t't)e BbiIippines
#rofe%%iorrai Bcgulirtion Qlionrttr~$e'ion
flnltila
OFFICE ORDER NO. 2007-287
-
23 October 2007
Republic Act No. 8495 (Philippine Mechanical Engineering Act of 1998), more
particularly Section 23 thereof, provides "xxx. All persons whose names now appear
in the roll of professional mechanical engineens, niccharric~lengineers and certified
plant mechanics undc;- the custotly of the Board and the Commission, or those who
may hereafter be included therein upon registration and payment of the required fees
shall to to ma tic ally become 1nernbel.s of the integrated and accredited organization
of mechanical engineers."
In view of the foregoing, all conccl-ned are hereby directed to strictly enforce the
provisions of Resolution No. 05, Series of 2003 and to coordinate with Philippine
Society of Mechanical Engineers (PSME), the accredited association of mechanical
engineers, presently headed by Engr. Vicente B. Vosotros for the implementation.
Let copies of the subject Resolution and opinion be furnished to all concerned for
their guidance.
..&/L
LEONOR TRIPON-ROSERO
Chairperson