 HISTORY

 Baking is a food cooking method that uses prolonged dry heat by convection, rather than by thermal radiation, normally in an oven, but also in hot ashes, or on hot
stones.[1] The most common baked item is bread but many other types of foods are baked. Heat is gradually transferred "from the surface of cakes, cookies and breads
to their centre. As heat travels through it transforms batters and doughs into baked goods with a firm dry crust and a softer centre".[2] Baking can be combined with
grilling to produce a hybrid barbecue variant, by using both methods simultaneously or one before the other, cooking twice. Baking is related to barbecuing because the
concept of the masonry oven is similar to that of a smoke pit.
 Baking has been traditionally done at home by women for domestic consumption, by men in bakeries and restaurants for local consumption and when production was
industrialised, by machines in large factories. The art and skill of baking remains a fundamental one and important for nutrition, as baked goods, especially breads, are a
common food, economically and culturally important. A person who prepares baked goods as a profession is called abaker.
 The first evidence of baking occurred when humans took wild grass grains, soaked them in water, and mixed everything together, mashing it into a kind of broth-like
paste.[3] The paste was cooked by pouring it onto a flat, hot rock, resulting in a bread-like substance. Later, this paste was roasted on hot embers, which made bread-
making easier, as it could now be made any time fire was created. The Ancient Egyptians bakedbread using yeast, which they had previously been using to brew
beer.[4] Bread baking began in Ancient Greece around 600 BC, leading to the invention of enclosed ovens.[4] "Ovens and worktables have been discovered in
archaeological digs from Turkey (Hacilar) to Palestine (Jericho) and these date from about 5600BCE."[5]
 Baking flourished in the Roman Empire. In about 300 BC, the pastry cook became an occupation for Romans (known as the pastillarium). This became a respected
profession because pastries were considered decadent, and Romans loved festivity and celebration. Thus, pastries were often cooked especially for large banquets,
and any pastry cook who could invent new types of tasty treats was highly prized. Around 1 AD, there were more than three hundred pastry chefs in Rome, and Cato
wrote about how they created all sorts of diverse foods, and flourished because of those foods. Cato speaks of an enormous number of breads; included amongst these
are the libum (sacrificial cakes made with flour), placenta (groats and cress), spira (our modern day flour pretzels), scibilata (tortes), savaillum (sweet cake), and globus
apherica (fritters). A great selection of these, with many different variations, different ingredients, and varied patterns, were often found at banquets and dining halls. The
Romans baked bread in an oven with its own chimney, and had mills to grind grain into flour. A bakers' guild was established in 168 BC in Rome.[4]
 Eventually, the Roman art of baking became known throughout Europe, and eventually spread to the eastern parts of Asia. From the 19th century, alternative leavening
agents became more common, such as baking soda.[4] Bakers often baked goods at home and then sold them in the streets. This scene was so common
that Rembrandt, among others, painted a pastry chef selling pancakes in the streets of Germany, with children clamoring for a sample. In London, pastry chefs sold their
goods from handcarts. This developed into a system of delivery of baked goods to households, and demand increased greatly as a result. In Paris, the first open-air
café of baked goods was developed, and baking became an established art throughout the entire world.
 Commercial baking[edit]
 Baking developed into an industry using machinery that enabled more goods to be produced and which then had to be distributed more widely. In the United States the
baking industry "was built on marketing methods used during feudal times and production techniques developed by the Romans."[7]Some makers of snacks such
as potato chips or crisps have produced baked versions of their snack items as an alternative to the usual cooking method of deep-frying in an attempt to reduce the
calorie or fat content of their snack products. Baking has opened up doors to businesses such as cake making factories and private cake shops where the baking
process is done with larger amounts in bigger and open furnaces.
 The aroma and texture of baked goods as they come out of the oven is strongly appealing but it is a quality that is quickly lost. Since the flavour and appeal largely
depend on this freshness, commercial producers have had to compensate by using food additives as well as imaginative labelling. As baked goods are more and more
purchased from commercial suppliers, producers try to capture that original appeal by adding the label "home-baked". Such a usage seeks to make an emotional link to
the remembered freshness of baked goods and seeks also to attach any positive associations the purchaser has with the idea of "home" to the bought product.
Freshness is such an important quality that restaurants, although they are commercial (and not domestic) preparers of food, bake their own products for their
customers. For example, scones at The Ritz London Hotel "are not baked until early afternoon on the day they are to be served, to make sure they are as fresh as
possible."[8]
 Equipment[edit]
 Baking needs an enclosed space for heating - an oven. The fuel can be supplied by wood or coal; gas or electricity. Adding and removing items from an oven may be
done by a long handled tool called a peel.
 Many commercial ovens are provided with two heating elements: one for baking, using convection and thermal conduction to heat the food, and one for broiling or
grilling, heating mainly by radiation. Another piece of equipment still used in the 21st century for baking is the Dutch oven. "Also called a bake kettle, bastable, bread
oven, fire pan, bake oven kail pot, tin kitchen, roasting kitchen, doufeu (French: "gentle fire") or feu de compagne (French: "country oven") [it] originally replaced the
cooking jack as the latest fireside cooking technology," combining "the convenience of pot-oven and hangover oven."[9]
 HISTORY OF BAKING
On today’s market there is a never ending variety of the most delicious sweets and pastries to please both the palate and the eyes. We have become so used
to this diverse range of bread, mouth watering pastries and cakes that seldom we ask just how they come into existence.
 I guess my initial interest in the origin of the baking industry was not aroused by accident; rather I suspect it was kindled by a chain of events occurring earlier
in my life...
 My Grandfather owned a small hotel and bakery in Switzerland and when he retired my father who was an excellent pastry cook continued the business. As a
small child I spent many hours watching my dad at work and later followed in his footsteps almost as a matter of course.
 Then again, I have a suspicion that it may have been “fate-by-design” that made me take up pastry-cooking. The question still remains, was my career pre-
determined by the fact that my grandfather had thousands of letterheads printed for his bakery which included his name?
 The prospect of a hefty quantity discount would no doubt have made perfect sense to my frugal fore bearer; it must have been so much cheaper getting all
 this printing done in a big way.
 Grandfather should have realised (and I suspect that he might have) that there was not the slightest chance that any one generation could ever use up this
huge mountain of stationery.
 Granddad’s first name “Fritz” was also my father’s first name and when I was born there was never any question as to what my name should be! After all there
were still zillions of these letterheads leftover, so let’s not waste any money! Anyhow, Fritz was considered a perfectly good name by all and “Pfister” being the
old Swiss/German form used for “Baker” just another indication of a long family tradition.
Until modern days the old brotherhood of Swiss bakers was called the “Zunft der Pfistern”.

 The interesting history of baking and pastry-cooking! – Or how did it all start?
One thing is sure, people could never have survived without food, but what is now called the “staff of life,” bread, and the making of it started in comparatively
recent times.
 Right in the beginning of recorded history there was the discovery of fire making, thus along with light, heat could be generated. Then there followed the
discovery of different grasses and their seeds which could be prepared for nourishment.
 With the help of heat and grain, one was now able to prepare a kind of broth.
 Hot stones were covered with this broth or the broth was roasted on embers and “hey presto” the first unsoured flat bread was created. This ability to prepare
stable food radically changed the eating habits and lifestyle of our early ancestors, from being hunters they became settlers.
 The Egyptians
Records show that already in the years 2600-2100 B.C. bread was baked by Egyptians, who it is believed had learned the skill from the Babylonians. A relief
representing the royal bakery of Ramses features bread and cakes, some of these were shaped in the form of animals and used for sacrifices. Other early
records, this time by the Greek scholar (Aristophanes 450-385 B.C), show the existence of honey flans and patterned tortes. According to Aristophanes, the
ancient Greeks also had a type of doughnut made from crude flour and honey called “Dispyrus” a ring-cake that was submerged in wine and consumed hot.
Could this have been an early version of Baba or Savarin, still so popular today?

 The Roman Empire

Inevitably Greek culture influenced the Roman Empire ; bakery know-how was transformed and really flourished. During the fourth century A.D.,
evidence also emerges of the first pastry-cook’s association or “pastillarium” in those times nomenclature.
 Now it is well known, the Romans were a lusty, festivity loving lot and even though a decree was passed by the Senate designed to curb excesses
by citizens, the sweet art of pastry-cooking (considered decadent by some) emerged as a highly respected profession.
 Indeed the bakery business was so profitable that in the time of Christ around three hundred independent bakers existed in Rome . Just how
rewarding and diverse the trade then was is recorded by Cato (234-148 B.C.) Could it be that the French word Gâteaux used for tortes is a derivative
of this man’s name?
 Anyhow, Cato names a great many different kinds of bread, sacrificial cakes “libum”, cakes made with flour, groats and cress “placenta”, pretzels”
spira”, tortes “scibilata”, fritters “globus apherica”, Bowl-cake “erneum”, sweet cake “savaillum” and sidrer-cake “mustaceum”.
Quite a large selection made by early Roman “Dulciarius” or “Flour Confectioners”, isn’t it?

Engravings on a tomb-stone of a Roman baker, dating back to the first century A.D., show the different stages in the production of bread at that time.


 Clearly visible in this picture, an excavated bakery in Pompeii , is the bread oven with its chimney and in the foreground the remains of two grain-
mills.
 Europe
From the Roman Empire, the art of pastry-cooking gradually spread throughout Europe and the world.
 One of the best known painters, the Dutchman, Rembrandt, created a sketch in 1635 showing a pancake cook in the streets, surrounded by
children eagerly waiting and hoping for a sample.
 In Holland such pancake cooks belonged to the daily street scene at that time.



The Ginger Bread Merchant
Portrayed on the right is a gingerbread merchant selling his wares in one of the better streets in London .
 He uses a hand-cart as a shop on wheels, in contrast to the rather primitive shops of the ordinary merchants.
 Anecdotally, specially famed was the ginger bread from the city of Grantham .
  The two illustrations below are original copperplate engravings and depict street
scenes in Germany . The image, on the
left is that of a pie-man selling his pastries
in Strasburg and on the right a pastry-cook selling small cakes in Hamburg , 1800.

 The Original Open-Air Café or Dining Al Fresco!

This above lithography by C.T.Travies shows a typical early last century scene in Paris .
 A “Patissiere” has established herself in a busy street, possibly on a bridge, and sells hot coffee and freshly baked cakes to passers-by.
 I hope you have enjoyed this brief tour into the history of baking; things have changed a great deal from the “olden days”! Never the less, intending bakers
could benefit from taking a “Janusian approach”, that is to say - looking in both directions, the past and the future. Bakers can anticipate trends and
developments by looking at what is happening elsewhere in the world.
 Fred Pfister

 Rolling Pins
 Rolling pins come in all sizes, lengths and types of materials, but
the most common are wooden pins with or without
handles. There are also silicone pins as well as fancy (pattern-
making) models for specific tasks. Regardless of the type of pin
you choose, it's a matter of getting used to the feel of it and
how much flour it needs to keep the dough from sticking to
it. You need a rolling pin if you intend on making pastry, tea
biscuits, cut-out cookies, donuts and other delicacies, but not
for cakes, breads, muffins or squares. When choosing a pin,
consider the length - if you plan on making large pies or several
butter tarts, you might want to get a longer one, so you can roll
out a larger pastry. That being said, a shorter pin (less pastry) is
easier to handle and roll, if you're new to baking
 .2. Mixing Bowls
 Whether you bake a lot or only on special occasions, at least
one or two large mixing bowls are a must. You can use any type
of bowl - plastic, ceramic, glass or stainless, as long as you have
enough room to mix the amount of ingredients. If you plan on
making several loaves of bread, you would need an extra large
bowl for mixing the dough to the point where you turn the
dough out onto a board to knead. You'll more likely want to
have more than a couple of mixing bowls and different sizes are
very practical. When it comes to making cakes, many recipes
will call for dry ingredients to be mixed in a smaller bowl, to be
transfered later into a second, larger bowl that contains the wet
ingredients. Mixing bowls are very versatile kitchen equipment
that can be used for serving dishes, salads or left-overs.
 Cookie Cutters, Presses, Rosette Makers
 If you plan on making cut-out cookies - where you roll out the
dough with a rolling pin and cut out the cookies - you'll need a
few cookie cutters. Likewise if donuts are on your to-do list. A
cookie press is used with a simple dough recipe to make
pressed or formed dainty cookies, more commonly enjoyed
around the holidays. Presses are easy and fun to use, and
results look amazing. Cutters and presses are economical to buy
and very durable. Rosettes are a different kind of cookie, deep
fried using a rosette or timbale iron.
 Baking Sheets, Pans, Muffin Tins
 Baking pans come in various sizes and shapes from sheets for
baking cookies, pans for cakes, bread or muffins to shaped or
Bundt cake pans. If you want to bake a variety of goods, you'll
probably need one or two of each type. For cakes and dessert
mixes, you should have a 9"x13" pan for standard cakes, as well
as an 8" or 9" square pan for smaller mixes. While cookie baking
sheets are tin or stainless, you'll need to decide between
silicone, tin or glass for cake and bread pans. Muffin tins are
available in tin or silicone. Tin pans come in either plain or with
a nonstick coating which helps with food removal and clean-up,
but these pans require more care. Silicone bakeware is popular
with some and not so with others. If you do try out silicone
pans, follow my tips for best results and remember that they
are not nonstick and should be greased before using as you
would do with a tin pan.
 Measuring Cups, Spoons
 In order to follow any baking recipe, measuring cups and
spoons are essential. You'll also find that having duplicate cups
can be very handy. You can choose any type of measuring cups
and spoons in plastic, stainless or glass, and you'll find the see-
through (glass) one, two and four-cup measuring cups very
practical for baking and cooking. Standard measuring cup sets
usually have a 1-cup, 1/2-cup, 1/3-cup and 1/4-cup measures -
and you will use these different sizes depending on the recipe.
 Spatulas, Wooden Spoons and Whisks
 The term spatula refers to several types of kitchen utensils
including: rubber or silicone tools to blend or scrape the food
from the bowl; metal, silicone or plastic egg turners or
flippers. You need at least a couple of rubber or silicone
spatulas to scrape the bowl, as well as a small metal spatula to
serve desserts. A few wooden spoons for mixing and blending
are also handy. An icing spatula, which is a long flat off-set
knife, makes it easier to ice a cake. A couple of wire or silicone
whisks are also very practical baking utensils.
 Minute Timer, Candy Thermometer
 You can simply use the range timer if your's is so equipped, but
having a small minute timer can be very practical. It allows you
to take the timer outdoors with you or to another room, so you
can hear it and know that you should check or remove your
 baking. Having more than one timer is handy when you are
cooking and baking.
 There are various types of thermometers, but the most
common one used in baking is a candy thermometer if you plan
on making candies, chocolates or boiled frostings.
 Cooling Rack
 While you can just cool cakes or breads by removing from the
pan onto a board, the bottom of the baked goods tends to
become soggy. But if you use a cooling rack, the baking cools
evenly because air can flow around it. If you want to make it
easier to store, choose a cooling rack size based on the type of
baking items you usually bake.
 Pastry Blender, Pastry Cutter
 While they sound similar and are often referred to as the same
type of pastry tool, a blender is somewhat different than a
cutter. A pastry blender is used during the mixing of the pastry
dough. It also has lots of other applications, such as blending
the flour, sugar and butter for a fruit crisp or mashing boiled
eggs for egg salad. A pastry blender is a basic essential tool for
mixing pastry.
 Pastry Blender Offers Better Blending
 A pastry cutter on the other hand, is used after the dough has
been rolled, to cut out shapes as you would do with cookie
cutters, or to cut strips of dough with a rotaty-type of cutter, for
fancy pie crust tops or other pastry delicacies. Depending on
the type of baking you will be doing, you may find having a
pastry cutter very convenient.
 Parchment Paper, Muffin Liners, Silicone Liners
 Some home bakers cannot be without parchment paper to line
their baking sheets and pans, while others tend to grease the
tins. Parchment paper helps with cake removal, does make
pan cleaning quicker and it keeps them from discoloring.
o Springform Pans:
Springform pans are used for cheesecakes, streusel-
topped cake, delicate tortes, and other cakes that would
be damaged by turning them upside down to remove
them from the pan
Double Boiler:
A double boiler is a set of two pans nested together, with
enough room in the bottom pan for 1 or 2 inches of water.
Double boilers are used to cook or heat foods that need
gentle heat, such as melting chocolate. The water in the
bottom pan is brought to a simmer, and the second pan is
set on top
Mixing Bowls
A good set of mixing bowls will be your constant
companion while baking, used for mixing, whipping
creams or egg whites, preparing ingredients, raising
breads, or just storing food in the refrigerator
Measuring spoons
Measuring spoons are used for measuring small amounts
of ingredients such as spices, leaveners, and extracts, and
very small amounts of liquids. Pour liquids, such as vanilla
extract, to the rim of the spoon; level dry ingredients, such
as salt or baking soda with a straightedge
Scales:
Professional bakers use scales to weigh ingredients
instead of using measuring cups to measure by volume,
for the simple reason that weight measurements are more
precise and accurate
Spatulas:
Spatulas have many uses including scraping batters down
from the sides and bottom of a mixing bowl, spreading
fillings, stirring stovetop custards and chocolate while
heating, folding lighter ingredients into heavy batters,
scrambling eggs, and more.
Whisks:
A wire whisk is another versatile baking tool, used to
whisk or stir wet or dry ingredients together, beating egg
whites or cream, stirring ingredients as they heat in a
saucepan and folding ingredients together
Rolling Pin:
A good rolling pin is essential for rolling pie pastry, sugar
cookie dough, and bread dough
Wire Cooling Racks:
Wire cooling racks are a necessity for setting just-out-of-
the-oven hot baking pans to cool.
Kitchen Torch:
A small kitchen torch, used with propane, makes creating
a caramelized topping on crème brulee. It is also handy for
browning meringues and glazing tarts
Flan Rings:
A flan ring is a metal ring with no fluting around the sides,
and no bottom. The ring is set on a baking sheet that is
lined with parchment paper or a non-stick baking mat, and
then filled. The baking sheet serves as the bottom of the
pan. Flan rings are used to shape open-faced tarts, pastry
shells, and some candies
Muffin Pans and Baking Cups:
Muffin pans are a rectangular metal baking pan with six or
twelve cup, used to bake both muffins and cupcakes.
Muffin pan sizes are typically mini, standard, and jumbo
sized
Jelly Roll Pans:
Jelly roll pans are most often used to make bar cookies,
shortbread, sponge cakes, sheet cakes, focaccia breads,
and more
Cookie and Baking Sheets:
Cookie sheets are rimless, flat metal sheets, perfectly
 designed for placing rows of cookies
Loaf Pans:
Loaf pans are used for most quick bread recipes, such as
banana bread and zucchinibread.
Candy Thermometer:
A candy thermometer is very useful for cooking sugar
syrups and caramels
Food Processor:
Machine for chopping, dicing, mixing pastry dough, mixing
some cookie dough’s, and pureeing fruit.
Ovens
Baking always requires a heat source.
Mixers
Heavy duty table top mixers can knead bread doughs
using a hook and whip butter and eggs together with the
whisk attachment for flaky cookies.
Pastry brush
Use these to spread glazes and grease pans
 The Type Baking Equipment
 Cooling Racks
 You usually just leave the baked cake to remain in pans to cool
down by itself. However, there are several tools that require
refrigeration or cooling rack, to avoid condensation. Cooling
racks generally square or rectangular, and made ??of metal.
 Pans
 After mixing the ingredients, you often put the dough into the
pan, before placing them in the oven. There also require you to
use special pans, which you can use to form or organize better
heat conduction. Baking pans are usually made ??of metal,
glass, ceramics, and silicon.
 Mixing Bowls
 This bowl is in a range of materials, such as microwave-safe,
stainless steel, copper, and from ingredients such as pottery
bowl. You can use each type of bowl for specific ingredients and
techniques of baking.
 You can use a microwave-safe bowl to melt butter or chocolate,
and can serve as a container for baked stews or casseroles.
bowl of Stainless steel and copper ingredients ideal for
whipping egg whites with ease. Crockery bowls, on the other
hand, is perfect for baking bread, because they can remain warm
for a longer time.
 Measuring devices
 In order for bake your cake well, you need the right proportion
in mixing ingredients. Usemeasuring tools to produce precise
results.
 There are three main classifications measuring instruments:
measuring cups, spoons, and scales.
 Measuring cups can come in the form of glass, plastic, or
metal. measuring cup to measure both liquid and solid ingredients.
 Measuring cups for liquid ingredients have a funnel to pour
ingredients, and its a little bigger tool. its ideal for liquid
ingredients. Because it has a volume marker on both sides, to
accurately determine the volume of liquid required by the
recipe.
 Measuring instruments of Plastic and metal is perfect for dry or
solid materials. While the balance is the most traditional type of
tool for measuring instruments. They can measure ingredients
in ounces and pounds, not the number of fractions. Sugar and
flour are the most common type to be measured on the scales.
 Rolling Pins
 Use Rolling Pins to flatten, smooth, and make a thin dough,
cakes, and other ingredients. You can do this by pressing and
turning a rolling pin along the surface of the cake ingredients.
 Rolling pin is a type of forming device, characterized by a
cylindrical solid and hard. length ranged from 10 to 18 inches,
and two to three inches in diameter.
 That is the basic tool in the cake baking that you can use in
baking. hopefully this article useful for you.
 Measuring Equipment
 Baking is more scientific than other cooking techniques and
requires careful measuring. To ensure success, it is important to
accurately measure ingredients using the correct measuring
utensils. Pencils ready. Commence taking notes.
 Dry Measuring Cups
 Dry measuring cups allow you to fill the cup to the top and then
"level off" or remove any extra with a straight edge knife or
metal spatula. Available in nested sets of 4 to 8 cups. Made of
metal or plastic, these cups do not have a pouring spout.
 Measuring Bowls
 Measuring bowls are indispensable for the accurate measuring
of dry and liquid ingredients. Food measuring bowls are usually
made of glass. Available in graduated sizes, glass dry measuring
cups are flat-bottomed with flat edges.
 For measuring liquids, glass marked-in bowls are used. Lips and
handles ensure easy pouring.
 Measuring Spoons
 Available in metal or plastic, measuring spoons are used to
measure small quantities of liquid and dry ingredients.
 Liquid Measuring Cups
 Made of glass or plastic, these cups have a lip for pouring.
Measuring cups made of glass or clear plastic are easiest to use
and most accurate.
 Thermometers
 All ovens are not created equal! Even the most faithful of ovens
can burn you and your culinary ambitions by suddenly heating
to a temperature different than what was selected. The correct
baking temperature is critical to successful baking, so it is
important to verify that your oven thermostat is working
properly.
 Oven Thermometers
 Oven thermometers are designed to either stand or hang on an
oven rack. Since oven temperatures can vary from one part of
an oven to another, position the thermometer on the oven rack
where the baking sheet or pan will be placed. If there's room,
 keep the thermometer positioned next to the baking sheet
during baking, so that you can determine if the temperature is
changing too much during baking or when cookie sheets are
switched.
 If the thermometer reads differently than the oven
temperature you select, change the oven temperature
accordingly (i.e., if the thermometer reads 25°F too high,
reduce the temperature by 25°F). If your oven is off 75°F or
more, it would be advisable to call a service technician to
professionally calibrate the oven.
 Oven thermometers can be purchased in the housewares
department of grocery and hardware stores or anywhere
baking equipment is sold. Instant read thermometers or meat
and candy thermometers are NOT suitable for checking oven
temperature.
 Candy Thermometer
 A candy thermometer is used to test the temperature during
the cooking of candy, jams and jellies. It often has an adjustable
clip so that it can rest against the sides of a heavy-gauge
saucepan.
 Baking Pans, Dishes & Sheets
 Many different kinds of pans, dishes and sheets are used in
baking, as likely evidenced by your over-flowing cabinets. It is
essential that you use choose the correct size and shape to
ensure the right texture and appearance of your baked good.
The time has come for you to become better acquainted with
your assorted pans.
 Shiny Aluminum Pans
 The best choice for baked goods consistent in color and texture.
It prevents biscuits, quick bread loaves and coffeecakes from
becoming too dark on the bottom and around the sides of the
pan.
 Insulated Pans
 Consists of two thin sheets of aluminum with a layer of air
between them. Baked goods baked in insulated baking pans
may require more baking time, and they often don't brown well
on the bottoms and sides.
 Ovenproof Glass
 Ovenproof glass loaf pans and baking dishes are sometimes
used to bake quick breads, loaves and coffeecakes. Baked goods
baked in glass brown well and you can see the coloring all
around. When substituting a glass baking dish for a metal
baking pan, reduce the oven temperature by 25°F.
 Disposable Aluminum Pans
 Readily available in supermarkets, these are perfect for baked
goods which will be given away as gifts. While available in sizes
comparable to aluminum baking pans and glass baking dishes,
they are often 1/4- to 1/2-inch smaller in length, width and
depth. Baking times will need to be adjusted accordingly.
 Dark nonstick
 These pans help keep your baked goods from sticking. However,
they tend to brown their contents quickly, particularly on the
edges and the bottom. Many nonstick baking pan
manufacturers recommend reducing the oven temperature by
25ºF.
 Springform Pan
 This round pan, used for making cheesecakes and other
desserts that are tricky to remove from their pans, has a
bottom that is separate from the side. A clamp holds the pan
together and opens to allow the side to easily be pulled away
from the baked dessert.
 Tart Pan
 Tart pans come in many different shapes and sizes. Their
removable bottom makes it easy to neatly transfer a tart to a
serving plate. Tart pans come in both dark-colored and shiny
pan varieties, and can also have varying depths with deeper tart
pans used for quiche, and shallower pans used for delicate
dessert tarts.
 Pie Tins/Pans
 Generally, pies are baked in a relatively deep pan with sloped
sides that can hold a large amount of filling. Materials for pie
plates range from ovenproof glass, glazed ceramic, heavy foil,
aluminum, tinned steel, stainless steel and nonstick coated
steel.
 Standard Muffin Pans
 Available in 12-and 6-cup pans, the standard muffin cup is
about 2-3/4 inches in diameter and 1-1/8 inches deep and holds
a scant 1/2 cup batter.
 Jumbo Muffin Pans
 Available in 6-cup pans, the jumbo muffin cups are at least 3
inches in diameter and 1-1/2 inches deep. Each jumbo muffin
cup holds approximately 1 cup batter.
 Mini Muffin Pans
 Available in 12- and 24-cup pans, the mini muffin cup is
approximately 1-3/4 inches in diameter and 7/8-inch deep. Each
muffin cup holds approximately 2 tablespoons batter.
 Muffin Tops (Caps) Pans
 Available in 6-cup pans, each muffin top cup is approximately 3
inches in diameter and 1/2-inch deep. Each muffin top cup
holds approximately 3 tablespoons batter.
 Shiny Aluminum Muffin Pans
 Shiny aluminum pans prevent muffins from becoming too dark
around the sides.
 Dark Nonstick Muffin Pans
 Dark nonstick pans keep the muffins from sticking. They tend to
brown muffin edges and bottoms quickly. Many nonstick baking
pan manufacturers recommend reducing the oven temperature
by 25°F.
 Loaf Pan
 Aluminum loaf pans can turn out tender cakes, while dark,
nonstick or glass pans will produce a crunchy-chewy crust. You
can make quick breads, brioche and meatloaf in a loaf pan.
 Bundt/Tube Pan
 Also known as an angel food cake pan, this deep pan has a
hollow tube in the center that promotes even baking. Most
tube pans have removable bottoms.
 Fluted Tube Pan
 The fluted sides bring a decorative look to the finished product.
It comes in various sizes; a 12-cup pan is the most common.
 Double Boiler
 A double-pan arrangement that features two pots formed to fit
together, with one sitting partway inside the other. A single lid
fits both pans. The lower pot is used to hold simmering water,
which gently heats the mixture in the upper pot. Double boilers
are used to warm or cook heat-sensitive food such as custards,
delicate sauces and chocolate.
 Baking Dish
 Baking "dish" refers to a glass baking dish. For best results, use
the correct size baking dish called for in your recipe. To
measure the size of a baking dish, measure the top inside of the
dish with a ruler for length or width. To determine the depth of
a baking dish, measure the inside from the bottom to the top
edge.
 To measure the volume of a baking dish, set it flat on the
kitchen counter or table. Fill the dish with water, 1 cup at a
time, until the water reaches the rim of the baking dish.
 If you do not have the baking dish size specified in the recipe,
substitute a dish of equal volume. Baking time will need to be
adjusted.
 Ramekin
 An individual baking dish (3 to 4 inches in diameter) that
resembles a miniature soufflé dish. Ramekins are usually made
of porcelain or earthenware and can be used for both sweet
and savory dishes - either baked or chilled. A tiny baked pastry
filled with a creamy cheese custard is also referred to as a
"Ramekin".
 Soufflé Dish
 Soufflés are customarily baked in a classic soufflé dish, which is
round and has straight sides to facilitate the soufflé's rising.
These special dishes are ovenproof and come in a variety of
sizes ranging from 3 1/2-ounce (individual) to 2-quart. They're
available in kitchenware shops and the housewares section of
most department stores. Foil or parchment "collars" are
sometimes wrapped around the outside of a soufflé dish so that
the top of the foil or paper rises about 2 inches above the rim of
the dish. Such collars are used for cold dessert soufflés so that
the sides of the frozen or molded mixture are supported until
they set. Once the collar is removed, the soufflé stands tall and
appears to "rise" out of the dish.
 Baking/Cookie Sheets
 Perhaps one of the most essential pieces of bakeware, these
flat, rigid sheets of metal are where such comforting
confections as cookies, breads and biscuits are baked. It usually
has one or more turned-up sides for ease in handling. Common
sizes for baking sheets are: 17x14-inch and 12x15-inch. For even
heat circulation, baking sheets should be at least 2 inches
smaller all around than the interior of the oven. There are a
variety of kinds of baking sheets, the three most common are
aluminum, dark nonstick and insulated sheets.
 Aluminum Sheets
 Shiny, heavy-gauge aluminum baking sheets are good heat
conductors and will produce evenly baked and browned goods.
 Dark Nonstick Sheets
 Dark sheets absorb heat and should be used only for items on
which a dark, crisp exterior is desired.
 Insulated Sheets
 Insulated baking sheets (two sheets of aluminum with an air
space sealed between them) are good for soft cookies or bread
crusts, but many baked goods will not get crisp on them.
 Baking Stone
 A heavy, thick plate of beige or brown stone that can be placed
in the oven to replicate the baking qualities of a brick-floored
bread oven. Baking stones can be round or rectangular.
 Spatulas
 There isn't much good in baking delectable delights if you can't
properly remove them from cooking surface. Thankfully, there
is such a tool for doing so, and it has a fantastic name: "the
spatula." The spatula is used for a variety of purposes including
lifting and turning baked goods and spreading fillings and
frostings. "Spatula" is a term that is frequently used
interchangeably for the following different baking utensils:
 Straight Edge Spatula
 The straight edge spatula is similar in shape to a knife but rarely
has a sharp edge. It is used for spreading foods like frosting,
jams, cream cheese, cake and bar cookie batters, etc. It also is
used when measuring dry ingredients to "level off," or remove
excess ingredient from the measuring cup.
 Pancake Turner
 A pancake turner is sometimes referred to as a metal spatula,
particularly when it is smaller in size. This utensil is wide at the
base which picks up the food, and it has an easy-to-grip handle.
It is used to remove baked foods from baking sheets (i.e.,
cookies) or foods from skillets and griddles (i.e., pancakes,
eggs). The sharp edge of the metal literally "cuts" the cookie
from the cookie sheet. Plastic spatulas are too thick to remove
delicate, warm cookies from cookie sheets.
 Rubber Scraper or Rubber Spatula
 A rubber scraper or rubber spatula has a wooden or plastic
handle with a flexible rubber paddle-shaped end. Used in
baking, the rubber end can scrape batter from the sides of a
bowl or pan and helps remove all the batter or dough from a
bowl.
 Liners
 Function and form are the staples for any accessory, and liners
are no different. Liners help create a nonstick surface for baked
goods, and also help prevent them from burning during baking.
Liners also create an easy release and transfer from the pan to
the cooling surface, and help create layered barriers during
storage.
 Parchment Paper
 A heavy, grease- and moisture-resistant paper with a number of
culinary uses including lining baking pans and wrapping foods
that are to be baked. Parchment paper is available in gourmet
kitchenware stores and many supermarkets.
 Wax Paper
 Semitransparent paper with a thin coating of wax on both sides.
Because of its moisture-proof and nonstick characteristics, wax
paper plays a major role in the kitchen for duties such as
covering food and lining baking pans.
 Aluminum Foil
 Aluminum that has been rolled into a thin, pliable sheet. It's an
excellent barrier to moisture, air and odors and can withstand
flaming heat and freezing cold. It comes in regular weight (for
wrapping food and covering containers) and heavy-duty weight
(for freezer storage and lining pans and grills).
 Cheesecloth
 Cheesecloth is a lightweight natural cotton cloth that does not
fall apart when wet and will not flavor the food it touches.
Cheesecloth has a multitude of culinary uses including straining
liquids, forming a packet for herbs and spices that can be
dropped into a soup or stock pot and lining molds. It comes in
both fine and coarse weaves and is available in gourmet shops,
supermarkets and the kitchen section of many department
stores.
 Electric Mixers
 Electric mixers allow you to control the mixing with a range of
speeds from extra slow to extra fast. Mixing with an electric
mixer, as compared to mixing by hand, provides a much faster
mixing action and thorough blending of ingredients within the
bowl. Electric mixers come with a variety of attachments for
various styles of mixing, whisking and kneading depending on
the type of mixer - though try to resist the temptation to lick
the beaters...especially when they are turned on.
 Electric Hand-Held Mixer
 An electric mixer is a kitchen appliance used to beat, mix or
whip batter.
 Electric Stand-Up or Table-Top Mixer
 An electric mixer is a kitchen appliance used to beat, mix or
whip batter. Many of the more powerful stand mixers have
special attachments such as dough hooks or paddle beaters.
 Kitchen Equipment
 Ready to take your baking to the next level? Check out these
specialized tools that can assist you as you channel your inner
Julia Child.
 Pastry Blender
 A pastry blender is made of five or six parallel U-shaped steel
wires attached at both ends to a handle. It is used to cut cold
butter into a flour mixture to distribute the fat without melting
it, often for making pie crusts or biscuits.
 Pastry Brush
 A baking tool that looks similar to a small paintbrush, about 1 to
1 1/2-inches thick. Common liquids used with a pastry brush are
milk, water and egg whites. Use a pastry brush to brush
marinades over meats too.
 Pastry Cloth
 A pastry cloth is a large canvas cloth on which pastry or dough
can be rolled.
 Pastry Crimping Wheel
 A pastry crimping wheel is a rolling-bladed tool with a fluted
design. It is used to cut dough and add a decorative edge
treatment to pie crusts.
 Pastry Cutter
 A pastry cutter has a straight-edged rolling wheel and is often
used to cut narrow strips of dough for a lattice-topped pie.
 Cookie Cutter
 A cookie cutter is used to cut decorative shapes from dough
that has been rolled out. Cookie cutters are made from
aluminum, copper or plastic. Common sizes are 2-inch to 3-inch;
however, cutters are available in 1/2-inch up to 12-inches.
 Rolling Pin
 Though this kitchen tool is used mainly to roll out dough, it's
also handy for a number of other culinary tasks including
crushing crackers and bread crumbs, and shaping cookies.
Rolling pins can be made of almost any material including brass,
ceramic, copper, glass, marble, plastic and porcelain. The
favored material, however, is hardwood. The heavier pins
deliver the best results because their weight and balance
produce smoother doughs with less effort.
 Whisk
 A kitchen utensil made of a group of looped wires held together
by a long handle. Whisks are used in baking for whipping
ingredients such as eggs and cream to incorporate air into
them. The more wires a whisk contains, the more effectively it
will incorporate air into a mixture. Whisks are available in a
variety of different sizes for different tasks.
 Wooden Spoon
 Wooden spoons do not scratch non-stick pans. The bowl end of
a wooden spoon is thicker in size than a metal spoon of the
same size. Therefore it is easier to mix batter because it does
not cut into the batter, but rather, stirs or mixes it. Keep a
variety of wooden spoons available for baking projects. Always
wash and dry wooden spoons after use. Allow them to air dry.
 Sifter
 A mesh-bottomed kitchen utensil used to sift ingredients such
as flour or confectioners' sugar. Sifters are usually made of
stainless steel or heavy-weight plastic.
 Pie Weights
 Small ceramic or aluminum pellet-like weights used to keep an
unfilled pie or tart crust from shrinking during baking. Pie
weights can be found in gourmet stores and in the baking
section of some supermarkets.
 Kitchen Shears
 A heavy-duty strong scissors with one serrated blade. Used for
cutting fish, poultry, meats and produce. They can even be used
to crack nuts or trim herbs into a dish. Some kitchen shears
have additional tools as part of the handle, such as a can
opener or screwdriver.
 FLOUR
 Flour is a basic ingredient in all bread making. Wheat flour is the
most common type of flour used when baking with yeast.
Wheat flours include bread flour, all-purpose flour and whole
wheat flour. When wheat flour is mixed with liquid, proteins in
the flour combine to form gluten. As the gluten is manipulated
in the kneading process, it becomes elastic and forms the
structure of the dough. This structure, or network of gluten
strands, captures the carbon dioxide gas produced by the yeast
allowing the dough to rise and expand.
 Bread flour contains the highest amount of gluten-forming
proteins. Bread flour is the ideal for yeast-raised breads. All-
purpose flour has a lower amount of proteins, making a weaker
gluten network. All-purpose flour does not always withstand
the actions of a mixer or bread machine. Whole-wheat flour
contains only a small amount of gluten-forming proteins.
Breads made with 100% whole-wheat flour will be heavier and
dense. Substituting in some bread flour will provide more
gluten, making the bread lighter and airier.
 LIQUIDS
 Liquids hydrate and dissolve yeast granules, blend and bind
ingredients together, and mix with the flour to form gluten. The
type of liquid used and the temperature it is used at will have a
great impact on the overall quality of your yeast-leavened
bread. For traditional baking use liquid temperatures 110°F –
115°F when dissolving dry yeast directly in liquids, and use
120°F – 130°F liquids when adding dry yeast directly to your
other dry ingredients. For bread machine baking, use liquid
temperatures at 80°F. Using a thermometer is the most
accurate way to determine the correct liquid temperature. Any
thermometer will work as long as it measures temperatures
between 75°F and 130°F. Liquids that are too hot will kill the
yeast, and liquids that are too cold will slow down or stop yeast
activity.
 SALT
 Salt regulates the rate of yeast activity, providing a slow, steady
rise. This allows the yeast to develop the characteristic bread
flavor. Salt strengthens the gluten structure of the dough, not
allowing the trapped carbon dioxide bubbles to expand too
quickly. This helps produce bread with fine texture and grain.
Salt also enhances the flavor of your product.
 SWEETENERS
 Sugar provides "food" for yeast, which converts it to carbon
dioxide and alcohol; sugar enhances bread flavor; gives the
crust a golden color; improves the crumb texture; and helps
retain moisture in bread. White sugar, brown sugar, honey,
corn syrup and molasses can be interchanged equally in bread
dough. Artificial sweeteners do not provide food for the yeast
so they cannot be used in breads to perform the same function
as sugar does.
 FATS
 Fats include butter, margarine, oil and shortening. They add
richness, moisture and make the bread tender.
 EGGS
 Eggs make yeast breads richer, help provide color and volume
and also bind the ingredients together.
 Yeast
 Yeast is the heart of the breadmaking process. It’s the essential
ingredient that makes the dough rise and gives home-baked
bread its wonderful taste and aroma. Other ingredients are
added to complete the reactions that result in a perfectly baked
loaf of hot, crusty homemade bread. In each yeast envelope,
there are thousands of living plant-like microorganisms. When
activated by warm liquid, and fed by sugar or starch, the yeast
releases tiny bubbles of carbon dioxide gas. This gas is what
makes the dough rise and achieve its light texture after baking
 Fleischmann’s Active Dry Yeast
The original dry yeast product was introduced in 1943. This
product works best when dissolved in water prior to mixing.

 Fleischmann’s RapidRise™ Yeast
This is Fleischmann’s quick and easy instant active dry yeast.
You do not need to dissolve it first, but you can combine it with
other ingredients when you use the quick, one-rise method.
And since only one rise is required, the time it takes for dough
to rise is significantly shortened...by as much as 50%.
 
 Fleischmann’s Fresh Active Yeast
Also known as compressed or cake yeast, this product comes in

a cake form. To use, simply crumble into dry ingredients or
soften in warm water first.

Flour
 Wheat is the most common type of flour used in bread baking.
It includes all-purpose flour, bread flour and whole wheat flour.
Wheat is rich in gluten, a protein that gives dough its elasticity
and strength. When yeast and flour are mixed with liquid and
then kneaded or beaten, the gluten forms and stretches to
create a network that traps the carbon dioxide bubbles
produced by the yeast.
Recipes with whole wheat flour have less gluten and make
denser loaves. That’s why these recipes generally require some
all-purpose flour which increases the gluten and makes lighter,
taller loaves.

Liquids
 Water
is the most important liquid because it does 2 critical things:
 It dissolves and activates the yeast.
 It blends with the flour to create a sticky and elastic dough.
 Milk, buttermilk, cream or juice
may be added to enhance the flavor or texture. Only warm
liquids should be added to dry ingredients in a recipe because:
 A too-cool liquid will slow or stop yeast action.
 A too-hot liquid will destroy the yeast and prevent it from
rising.
 Ideal temperature ranges are 100°F-110°F, when yeast is
dissolved directly in water; 120°F-130°F when undissolved yeast
is added to dry ingredients.

Sweetner
 Sugar adds flavor and rich brown color to a bread's crust. Brown  Apple pie spice mix (1/4 cup cinnamon, 4 tsp allspice, 2 tsp
sugar, honey, molasses, jams and dried fresh fruits may also be nutmeg, 2 tsp mace, 1 tsp cloves)
used.  Cocoa powder
  Extracts (wet team)
 Vanilla
Salt  Mint
 Salt is an important ingredient in bread baking because it:  Almond
 Slows rising time, allowing the flavor of the dough to develop.  Lemon
 Adds structure to the dough by strengthening the gluten, which  Chemical agents (dry team)
keeps the carbon dioxide bubbles from expanding too rapidly.  Salt
 Never omit salt when it’s a recipe ingredient. Salt-free recipes  Baking powder
are available if you need them.  Baking soda
  Cream of tartar
 Eggs (or egg substitute)
Eggs  Cornstarch
 Eggs add food value, color and flavor to breads. They also help  Wet team additions
make the crumb fine and the crust tender. Eggs add richness  Milk (or milk substitute)
and protein. Some recipes call for eggs to be used as a wash  Sweetened condensed milk
that adds color.
 Applesauce

 Butter
 Canola Oil
Fat
 Oil spray to prevent muffins from sticking to pans (ex: high heat
 Butter, margarine, shortening or oil add flavor and make bread
canola spray oil)
tender and moist. Fat slows moisture loss, helping bread stay
 Dry team additions
fresh longer. Fat is heated with liquid when using RapidRise™
 Dried coconut flakes
Yeast. Do not substitute oil for margarine/shortening unless the
recipe calls for it  Nuts (walnuts, pecans, peanuts, almonds, pistachios)
 Sugars/sweeteners (usually in the “wet team”)  Chocolate chips/baking chocolate
 Brown sugar  Dried fruit (apple, cranberries, mango)
 Granulated (white) sugar  Oatmeal or rolled oats
 Powdered sugar  Seeds (poppy, sesame, sunflower)
 Honey/agave  Baking powder is probably the most common aerating agent in
baked products like cakes. It is made up of bicarbonate of soda
 Maple syrup
and cream of tartar. Baking powder is a chemical aeration
 Molasses
agent.
 Flour (“dry team”)
 Eggs are another basic ingredient in many baked products. They
 AP flour (all purpose)
provide structure, aeration, flavour and moisture. They also
 Cake flour
tenderise cakes and add colour and nutritive value.
 Whole wheat flour
 Fats and oils Generally, fats are solid while oils are liquid. Fats
 Cornmeal come from a variety of animals and plants. Oils mostly come
 Spices (in ground/powder form unless specified otherwise — from plants. In baking, butter, margarine, shortening and oils
added with dry team) are commonly used. Their main functions are to shorten or
 Cinnamon tenderise the product, to trap air during creaming and so aerate
 Ginger the cake during baking to give good volume and texture, to
 Allspice assist with layering in puff pastry, to help prevent curdling by
 Cloves forming an emulsion, and to add flavour. They also provide
 Cardamom powder some nutritive value. It is important to add the correct amount
 Nutmeg of fat as too much far will make the baked product greasy and
 Black pepper unpleasant to eat, while too little fat will leave you with a
 Pumpkin pie mix (2 tbsp cinnamon, 1 tbsp ginger, 2 tsp nutmeg, product that lacks flavour and stales quickly.
1 tsp cloves, 1/4 tsp salt)  Flour is the ingredient on which most baked products are
 Chili Powder (1/4 cup ancho chile powder, 1/4 cup red New based. Flour is made up of starch, protein, sugar and minerals.
Mexico chile powder, 2 tbsp ground cumin, 2 tbsp onion The protein content decides what the end use of the flour will
powder, 2 tbsp oregano, 1 tbsp chipotle chile powder, 1 tbsp be.
garlic powder, 1 tsp allspice)  Milk is used in baked products to improve texture and
mouthfeel. The protein in milk also gives a soft crumb structure
 in cakes, and contributes to the moisture, colour and flavour of
a baked product. Cakes that contain milk also tend to have a
longer shelf life.
 Salt is usually only added in very small amounts to baked
products, but it has a noticeable effect on the flavour of baked
products. It not only provides its own flavour but brings out the
natural flavour of other ingredients. In bread doughs, salt
strengthens gluten and improves the consistency of the dough.
Carbon dioxide given off by the yeast is more easily trapped by
the strengthened gluten, which makes a better loaf of bread.
Salt is also a good preservative as it absorbs water so there is
less free water for bacterial and fungal growth.
 Sugar gives cakes and other baked products sweetness and is
used in many forms and many ways. In yeast raised products,
sugar acts as food for the yeast. In cakes, sugar assists with the
aeration and stabilising of batters. Sugars improve the crust
colour of baked products, improve flavour and help to retain
moisture, keeping products softer for longer and so reducing
staling. Examples of sugar forms are granulated sugar, castor
sugar and icing sugar. Sugar also comes in liquid forms such as
syrup, treacle, corn syrup, honey and caramel.
 Yeast belongs to the fungi family. It ferments carbohydrates
(sugars) to produce carbon dioxide gases and alcohol, which
aerate bread and other yeasted products, giving it volume and
texture. These by-products of yeast also contribute to the
colour and aroma of bread and other yeasted products.
 Kinds of Flour
 Bread Flours are available to industry and consumers. They are
very high in gluten so allow bread to be readily made using
machines.
 All-Purpose Flour is the most commonly used flour. With care, it
can be used for most baking.
 Pastry Flour has less gluten than all-purpose and is designed for
pastry making.
 Cake Flour is made from soft wheat. It contains very little gluten
but more starch. It is designed for cake making, especially
tender cakes.
 Whole Wheat Flour – The whole kernel is ground up to make
the flour.
 Self-Rising Flour has a leavener and salt added at the mill. For
1cup of flour, 1/2 teaspoon salt is added and 1 1/2 teaspoons
baking powder.
 Instant-Blending Flour – This flour mixes instantly with water. It
is more granular than regular flour. It is ideal for thickening a
liquid.
 Flour Terms
 Pre-Sifted – All flour is sifted many times before it is bagged and
sold. The idea of advertising flour as pre-sifted and not needing
sifting before the baker uses the flour at home was thus very
effective. However, this flour still packs.
 Enriched Flour – Factory-made nutrients are added to white
flour to make it as nutritious as it would be if the bran and germ
were not removed. The bulk of the bran, however, is not
replaced. Enriching flour does not affect the taste or
appearance of flour.
 Bleached Flour – North Americans prefer white flour, so during
the manufacturing process a bleaching agent is added.
 Bromated – A bromate is added to improve the protein in flour
and give a larger volume.
 Leaveners
 Leaveners are ingredients that make a product rise. Leaveners
were not always as convenient as they are today. At one time
flour and potato water were mixed together and allowed to sit
in a warm place until it fermented. Cornmeal, water and sugar
were also used to ferment. This fermented substance is very
acid or sour – thus it is called “sourdough”. There are still
recipes available for making starter. (Sourdough Canadian
Cookbook (1961), page 547).
 Recipe for Sourdough
 2 cups  (500mL)  all purpose flour
 1 – 4 tbsp sugar  (15 – 60 mL)  sugar
 1 tsp  (5 mL)  salt
 2 cups (approx.)  (500 mL)  water
 Combine the flour, sugar and salt with the lukewarm water to
make a creamy batter. Use water in which rice or macaroni has
been boiled if possible.
 Put the batter in an empty shortening kettle; Cover closely with
a lid in which a number of small holes have been punched.
 After about 5 days the dough will be ready. The worse the
souring smell the better it is. When baked the smell disappears.
 Note - 1 dry yeast cake may be added, in which case the
sourdough will be ready in 3 days.
 This product is sometimes maintained by daily additions of flour
and liquid. People sometimes call it the “monster”. As the
product increases in quantity because of the additions, a
housewife passes “the stuff” on to a friend with a recipe for
Friendship Cake.
 Ashes were another leavening agent used. Ashes were soaked
in water and the alkaline (base) substance in the ashes
dissolved into the water. When the water evaporated, a
powder remained. This powder, when mixed with an acid
ingredient, gave off gases and leavened the product. Potash
was used in the same way. In fact, some special recipes still use
potash.
 Baking soda was introduced in the 1800′s. It has to be used with
an acid ingredient such as cream of tartar, sour milk, fruit juices,
molasses. Someone later came up with the idea of combining
baking soda and cream of tartar in proper proportions and
selling it as baking powder. The only problem with this idea was
that moisture in the air made the two react and give off the
carbon dioxide even in the can. This meant that when the
product was put in a batter it could not give off the carbon
dioxide to make the product rise. Starch is now added to the
mixture of baking soda and cream of tartar. The starch readily
absorbs the moisture and the other two chemicals do not react
until in the product. The starch also acts as a filler so companies
guarantee that 100 grams of baking powder always yields 14%
carbon dioxide. This allows the baker to substitute one kind of
 baking powder for another and the baker knows that each kind
will have the same amount of leavening action.
 Classes of Leavening Agents
 Chemical - These leaveners release gas into the product.
Generally, the gas released (from baking powder) is carbon
dioxide. Baking powders come as single or double action baking
powder. A single action baking powder gives off all its gas as
soon as it is mixed with moisture. A double action baking
powder releases only a small amount of gas when mixed with
moisture. Most is released during the baking process. Double
Action (like Blue Ribbon) baking powder is preferred in quantity
cooking.
 Baking powder + moisture + heat = CO2 + salt. If baking soda is
used alone, an acid ingredient must be added.
 Baking Soda + acid ingredient = CO2 + salt + water. Some acid
ingredients frequently used in baking are: cream of tartar, sour
milk, vinegar, fruit juices, molasses, and brown sugar. If the acid
ingredient is not added, a soapy taste often remains.
Sometimes an acid ingredient is not added to a chocolate cake.
The chocolate cake takes on a reddish tinge and is called Devil’s
Food Cake.
 When the carbon dioxide is heated it expands in volume and
rises, taking the unbaked product with it. When the product
cooks, it will keep this “expanded” shape.
 Physical - Water and air make a product rise by physical means.
Water makes up a big proportion of milk. Other ingredients
such as eggs and butter also have water in them. When heated,
water turns to steam. When water changes to steam, its
volume increases by approximately 1600 times. Steam also rises
when it heats. As it rises, the steam takes the product with it.
 Air is beaten into eggs and fat. Meringues have a considerable
amount of air. Air behaves in the same way as CO2 when
heated.
 Some products have only air and moisture in them as leavening
agents. Cream puffs, Yorkshire pudding, popovers and pie crust
all rise because of the air and moisture in them.
 Biological - Sourdough is made by bacterial action. Yeast is a
plant that is used as a leavener. Just as all plants, yeast requires
air, warmth, moisture, and food for growth. Yeast produces an
enzyme which splits the sugar molecule up into alcohol and
carbon dioxide.
 Sugar (with yeast) = alcohol and carbon dioxide.
 C6H1206 = 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
 In baking with yeast, the carbon dioxide helps the product rise.
In the baking, the yeast is killed. The alcohol evaporates so no
alcohol is left. If you were making wine, you would concentrate
on catching the alcohol and let the CO2 dissipate into the air.
 Yeasts are present in the air. There are many kinds of yeasts
and each does different things. Bread-making yeast does not
make good wine and conversely, wine-making yeast does not
make good bread. In fact, various winemaking yeasts help give
different flavours to the wine.
 Yeasts can be purchased in compressed or dry-active form. The
compressed yeast is in a cake. The cake form contains yeast and
moisture so therefore (to get the same rising power) a larger
volume of compressed yeast is needed than dry active. It must
be refrigerated and can be kept for about a month. Dry active
yeast is in granules. It can be stored for a short time. Quick rise
yeast is now available on the market. This high activity yeast
strain makes doughs rise up 50% faster than regular yeast.
 In order to grow properly and quickly, yeast needs minerals.
Soft water does not have minerals in it so it does not make a
good water for making yeast products. Commercial kitchens
and bakeries may add a substance called yeast foods to enable
the yeast to grow better. The yeast foods contain substances
which make yeast grow better.
 Sugar
 Sugar is added to a product to:
 Tenderize the product
 Give a golden color
 Add flavour
 Work with yeast
 Improve texture
 White refined sugar is the most commonly used sugar in baking.
The granules of sugar are available in various sizes. For baking,
fine or extra fine granulated is preferred because it mixes or
dissolves more readily than a coarse sugar. Berry or Fruit sugar
has very small granules. Sugar that has been put through a
machine to pulverize it is called Confectioner’s, Icing Sugar or
Castor Sugar. Because this pulverized sugar tends to pack,
starch is added to prevent this from happening.
 Brown sugars can vary greatly in color; they can range from
almost white to a color as dark as roasted coffee. Demerra
sugar is a dark brown sugar. Brown sugar is partially refined
sugar cane. The darker the sugar, the less molasses has been
removed in the refining process. The darker the sugar, the
higher the molasses and acid content and the softer the sugar.
 Molasses is a by-product of sugar refining. Since molasses is an
acidic ingredient, baking soda is used with it.
 Syrup is another sweetener. It is made from cornstarch.
Starches are very complicated molecules which when broken
down give sugars. To make true syrup, an enzyme or an acid is
applied to cornstarch to break the starch molecule up into
sugars.
 Honey is a type of sugar that draws moisture to it. Products
made from honey tend to stay moist longer than products make
from regular sugar. Honey is not healthier than sugar – it is still
sugar. To substitute honey for sugar, use 1 cup honey for every
11/4-cup sugar and 1/4 liquid.
 Fat
 The purpose of fat in a baking product is to:
 Tenderize
 Add Richness
 Grease the gluten so it stretches better
 Hold air
 Most of the edible fats come from butter, lard, soybean, canola,
cotton seed, peanut or corn. Butter is made by beating cream
until it separates into butter and a liquid called buttermilk. Lard
is the fat from pork (pigs). The fat is slowly melted down
(rendered) and then cooled. Soybeans, peanuts and corn are
 squashed so their oil can be squeezed out. Oils, which are  To partially cook food by plunging it into boiling water for a
liquids, can be turned into solid by a process brief period, then into cold water to stop the cooking process.
calledhydrogenation. In this process, hydrogen atoms are  Boil
forced to join with the oil atom. The more hydrogen atoms  To heat a liquid until bubbles rise continually to the surface and
added, the harder the fat becomes. Some oils that have strong break.
flavors to them go through a process whereby they are  Caramelize
deodorized. Canola oil goes through this process.  To heat sugar until it is melted and brown. Caramelizing sugar
 Shortening is any fat that will tenderize a product. Shortenings gives it a distinctive flavor.
may be from animal or vegetable sources. Shortenings hold air  Chop
very well when beaten. This is why solid fat tends to give a  To cut into small pieces using a sharp knife, appliance, or
lighter cake than does oil. Shortenings at room temperature scissors.
hold more air than when cold.  Coats spoon
 Eggs  When a thin, even film covers a metal spoon after it has been
 In baking, eggs: dipped into a cooked mixture and allowed to drain.
 Add richness  Combine
 Form structure  To stir together two or more ingredients until mixed.
 Hold air  Cool
 Since egg yolks are rich in fat, the yolk adds richness to the  To come to room temperature.
product. The egg white protein (albumen is the main protein)  Cream
solidifies in cooking and forms the structure along with the  To beat one or more ingredients, usually margarine or butter,
protein in flour (gluten). Air can be beaten into the whole egg or sugar, and/or eggs, until the mixture is smooth and fluffy.
the egg’s yolk and white can be separated and air beaten into  Crimp
the white. This air then helps to leaven the product. For best
 To seal the edges of two layers of dough with the tines of a fork
results, eggs should be at room temperature and relatively
or your fingertips.
fresh.
 Cut in
 Salt
 To distribute solid fat throughout the dry ingredients using a
 Salt adds flavour to a product and controls the rate of growth of
pastry blender, fork, or two knives in a scissors motion.
yeast. Since yeast is a plant, its growth is affected by the
 Dash
concentration of salt.
 A measurement less than 1/8 teaspoon.
 Dough
 Liquids
 A soft, thick mixture of flour, liquids, fat, and other ingredients.
 Liquids are needed to:
 Dot
 Give a moist product
 To distribute small amounts of margarine or butter evenly over
 Dissolve the sugar
the surface of pie filling or dough.
 Allow yeast to work
 Drizzle
 Develop the gluten
 To drip a glaze or icing over food from the tines of a fork or the
 Liquids may come from water or milk. Other ingredients such as
end of a spoon.
butter, margarine, and eggs may also have small amounts of
 Dust
liquid in them.
 To sprinkle lightly with sugar, flour, or cocoa.
 Flute
 The language of baking clarifies what techniques and methods
are needed for each recipe. Once you learn this language,  To make or press a decorative pattern into the raised edge of
you’re on your way to mastering any recipe. pastry.
 Bake  Fold in
 To cook in an oven with dry heat. The oven should always be  To gently combine a heavier mixture with a more delicate
heated for 10 to 15 minutes before baking. substance, such as beaten egg whites or whipped cream,
without causing a loss of air.
 Batter
 Glaze
 A mixture of flour, liquid, and other ingredients that is thin
enough to pour.  To coat with a liquid, thin icing, or jelly before or after the food
is cooked.
 Beat
 Grate
 To thoroughly combine ingredients and incorporate air with a
rapid, circular motion. This may be done with a wooden spoon,  To shred with a handheld grater or food processor.
wire whisk, rotary eggbeater, electric mixer, or food processor.  Grease
 Blanch  To rub fat on the surface of a pan or dish to prevent sticking.
 Grind
 To produce small particles of food by forcing food through a  Stir
grinder.  To combine ingredients with a spoon or whisk using a circular
 Knead motion.
 To fold, push and turn dough or other mixture to produce a  Toss
smooth, elastic texture.  To mix lightly with a lifting motion, using two forks or spoons.
 Lukewarm  Whip
 A temperature of about 105°F, which feels neither hot nor cold.  To beat rapidly with a wire whisk or electric mixer to
 Mix incorporate air into a mixture in order to lighten and increase
 To stir together two or more ingredients until they are the volume of the mixture.
thoroughly combined.  Zest
 Mix until just moistened  The colored outer peel of citrus fruit, which is used to add
 To combine dry ingredients with liquid ingredients until the dry flavor. The zest is often referred to as “grated peel” in recipes.
ingredients are thoroughly moistened but the mixture is still To create zest, choose the diagonal-hole side of a box grater (it
slightly lumpy. will zest more cleanly than if you use the nail-hole side) and rub
 Partially set lightly to avoid getting the white pith, which is bitter. For
 To refrigerate a gelatin mixture until it thickens to the broader strips of zest, use a swivel-blade peeler or a sharp knife
consistency of unbeaten egg whites. to cut away the peel.
 Peel  Bake – Cook with dry, radiant heat in an oven.
 To remove the skin of a fruit or vegetable by hand or with a  Batter – A mixture of flour, eggs, dairy, or other ingredients that
knife or peeler. This also refers to the skin or outer covering of a is liquid enough to pour.
fruit or vegetable.  Beat – Stir together very rapidly in order to incorporate air. This
 Proof can be achieved with a spoon, whisk, electric mixer, or food
 To allow yeast dough to rise before baking. Or to dissolve yeast processor.
in a warm liquid and set it in a warm place for 5 to 10 minutes  Blend – Stir ingredients together until well mixed.
until it expands and becomes bubbly.  Caramelize – Heat a sugar substance until it begins to turn
 Refrigerate brown.
 To chill in the refrigerator until a mixture is cool or until dough  Combine – Stir ingredients together just until mixed.
is firm.  Cream – Beat together sugar and butter until a light, creamy
 Rind texture and color has been achieved. This method adds air to
 The skin or outer coating of such foods as citrus fruit or cheese. batter, which helps the leavening process. Sometimes eggs are
 Rolling boil also added during the creaming step.
 To cook a mixture until the surface billows rather than bubbles.  Cut In – Incorporating butter (or another solid fat) into flour just
 Rounded teaspoon until the fat is in small, granular pieces resembling coarse sand.
 When dough is slightly mounded, not level. This is achieved by using two knives in a cross cutting motion,
 Scald forks, or a special pastry cutter.
 To heat a mixture or liquid to just below the boiling point.  Drizzle – Pour a thin stream of a liquid on top of something.
 Score  Dust – Coat the surface of something with a light sprinkling of a
 To cut slits in food with a knife, cutting partway through the dry substance (flour, sugar, cocoa powder, etc.).
outer surface.  Fold – Gently combine two substances in effort to not deflate a
 Softened delicate, lofty texture. Using a spatula, fold the bottom of the
bowl up and over the top, turn the bowl 90 degrees, fold again,
 Margarine, butter, ice cream, or cream cheese that is in a state
and repeat the process until combined.
soft enough for easy blending, but not melted.
 Glaze – Coat with a thick, sugar based sauce.
 Shred
 Grease – Coat the inside of a baking dish or pan with a fatty
 To cut food into narrow strips using a sharp knife, grater, or
substance (oil, butter, lard) to prevent sticking.
food processor fitted with a shredding disk.
 Knead – Combine dough by hand on a hard surface. This
 Soft peaks
involves folding the dough over, pressing down, turning 90
 Egg whites or whipping cream beaten to the stage where the
degrees and then repeating the process. Kneading mixes dough
mixture forms soft, rounded peaks when the beaters are
as well as developing gluten strands that give strength to
removed.
breads and other baked goods.
 Steam
 Lukewarm – Slightly warm, or around 105 degrees Fahrenheit.
 To cook food on a rack or in a wire basket over boiling water.
 Proof – Allowing bread dough to rise or yeast to activate.
 Stiff peaks
 Rolling Boil – Water that boils with large, fast, and vigorous
 Egg whites beaten to the stage where the mixture will hold stiff,
bubbles.
pointed peaks when the beaters are removed.
 Scald – Heat to near boiling.
 Score – Cut lines or slits into something.
 Softened – A solid, high fat content substance that has been
brought to room temperature in order to make it more pliable.
 Soft Peaks – Egg whites or cream that has been whipped to the
point at which a peak will bend or slump over to one side. To
create a peak, pull the whisk or beater straight up and out of
the foam.
 Stiff Peaks – Egg whites or cream that has been whipped to the
point at which a peak will stand completely erect. To create a
peak, pull the whisk or beater straight up and out of the foam.
 Whip – Stir briskly with a whisk to incorporate air.
 Whisk – A kitchen tool made of wire loops that tends to add air
as it mixes substances together.
 Active Dry Yeast
Yeast that has been dried, forming small dehydrated granules.
This product was developed in the 1940's for use by the armed
forces.
 Alcohol
Along with carbon dioxide - one of the two major by-products
of yeast fermentation. The alcohol in bread dissipates in baking
 All-Purpose Flour
A blend of hard and soft wheat and contains lower amounts of
the proteins that form gluten. It is the most versatile of all the
wheat flours and can be used for cookies, cakes and pies. Yeast-
leavened breads made with All-Purpose flour tend to be smaller
and more compact.
 Bake
To cook food in an oven with dry heat.
 Baker's Yeast
Yeast used to leaven baked goods, derived from the species
Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
 Bread Flour
Contains higher levels of gluten-forming proteins. It is
recommended for use in yeast-raised products, and is the best
choice when using a bread machine.
 Bread Machine Yeast
Instant dry yeast designed for easy dispersion and tolerance of
the handling in bread machines.
 Brewer's Yeast
An inactive yeast product that is a by-product of beer making. It
is processed as a nutritional supplement for humans.
 Cake Yeast
Also known as fresh or compressed yeast, this "wet" yeast can
be added directly to dry ingredients or dissolved in warm liquids
prior to mixing.
 Carbon Dioxide
One of the two main by-products of yeast fermentation, this
gas is trapped in the dough by the gluten network - causing
the dough to rise.
 Emulsifier
A chemical that can bind two incompatible items, such as oil
and water.
 Fermentation
The process by which yeast converts available sugars to carbon
dioxide and alcohol.
 Flour
Wheat flour is used to make yeast-raised products. It contains
gluten forming proteins, which are necessary to support the
fermentation of yeast. The most common wheat flours used in
baking are whole wheat flour, bread flour and all-purpose flour.
 Gluten
The endosperm of wheat flour contains two proteins - glutenin
and gliadin. When the flour is hydrated and kneaded, these
proteins combine to form gluten. Gluten provides the dough
structure that is responsible for holding the carbon dioxide gas
produced by yeast, and gives the dough strength and elasticity.
 Hard Wheat Flour
Recommended for use in yeast-raised bakery foods. It contains
a high level of wheat proteins that form the gluten network
when flour is hydrated and kneaded.
 Instant Yeast
This type of yeast is also known as "fast-rising" or "fast-acting"
dry yeast. Instant yeast can shorten the rising time in traditional
baking by as much as 50%.
 Knead
Kneading is the process of developing dough into a smooth,
elastic ball. When flour is mixed with liquid, gluten strands are
formed. Kneading develops the gluten by making it stronger
and more elastic for better volume and gas retention.
 Leavener
A substance that helps make baked products rise. Yeast, baking
powder and baking soda are the most common leaveners for
baking.
 Levain
A bread starter consisting of flour, water and wild yeasts.
 Nitrogen Packed
Nitrogen is used to replace the oxygen in the package.
Particularly important for items that are sensitive to oxygen
exposure - like yeast.
 Proof
In bread making this refers to the rising step for bread. Most
often this is in an acclimate controlled "proof box".
 Proofing Yeast
Activating yeast before adding it to the dry ingredients by
mixing it with warm water and a pinch of sugar.
 Quick Bread
Any bread leavened with a chemical leavener - baking powder,
baking soda and an acid - rather than yeast. Muffins and
biscuits are the most popular.
 Rise
The stage when making yeast breads where the dough is set in
a warm, draft-free place for a period of time while the yeast
ferments some of the sugar in the dough into carbon dioxide
and alcohol. The carbon dioxide gas helps the dough to rise.
 Salt Rising Bread
Bread that was traditional before the use of yeast. Made with a
fermented mixture of cornmeal, salt, sugar, water and flour.
 Soft Wheat
Contains a lower amount of the proteins responsible for gluten
formation compared to hard wheat flour. It is commonly used
for chemically-leavened products such as cakes, cookies and
crackers. It can be used in yeast-leavened bread, but is not
recommended for use in bread machines.
 Sorbitan Monosterate
An emulsifier used in yeast manufacturing to aid in the drying
process. Sorbitan Monosterate protects the yeast from excess
drying and aids in the rehydration of the yeast cells.
 Sourdough Starter
A mixture of flour, water and yeast that is allowed to sit in a
warm place for the yeast to ferment and develop a sour flavor.
Once fermented the starter can be used in bread recipes to
provide a unique flavor.
 Unbleached Flour
White flour without bleaching or aging agents added to hasten
the aging process. This flour whitens naturally as it ages.
 Underproofed
A dough that has not risen enough.
 Unleavened
Bread or dough product containing no yeast or chemical
leavener.
 Vacuum Packed
A method of removing oxygen from a package. Larger bulk
packages of dry yeast are vacuum packed.
 Vital Wheat Gluten
 Vital Gluten is the dried protein taken from the flour by getting
rid of the starch. It is a good dough conditioner or enhancement
for yeast breads especially for whole grain breads or when using
all-purpose flour.
 Whole Wheat Flour
Wheat flour milled using the whole wheat berry, and contains
lower amount of gluten-forming proteins. When using whole
wheat flour to make yeast-raised baked goods, the addition of
bread flour and/or vital wheat gluten is recommended to create
a more desirable loaf that is lighter and taller.
 Yeast
A group of microscopic single cell fungi found practically
everywhere on earth. Baker's yeast comes from one species of
the yeast family called Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and is very
strong and capable of fermentation (converting sugar into
carbon dioxide and alcohol).
 Yeast Bread
Any bread whose primary leavening action results from the
fermentation of sugar by yeast.
 Baking Terminology and Definition
 BAKE : To cook in an oven or oven-type appliance. This term
typically applies to pastries, cookies, breads, casseroles, and
occasionally fish and poultry.
 BAKE BLIND : To bake an empty pie crust by half filling it with
dried peas, etc., to ensure that it holds its shape.
 BATTER : A semi liquid mixture of liquid, eggs, and starch used
to make pancakes, cookies, or a coating for foods to be fried.
 CHOUX ( shoo ) PASTE : A dough of flour, butter, egg, and
water.
Example butter crust used for pies.
 DOUGH : A mixture of liquid, flour, etc., that is stiff enough to
be handled or kneaded, rolled and shaped. Example bread
dough.
 FONDANT : A sugar and water mixture cooked to the soft-ball
stage ( 234º F), cooled and kneaded. Used for cake icing or
candies.
 FROST : To put frosting on a cake. Where frosting and ICING
change places is mostly a matter of semantics. Frosting is
thicker than icing, not nearly so liquid, and will stay in place
when applied . The word is also used for the icy glaze that forms
on the outside of a glass filled with crushed ice.
 ICING : The sweet and decorative topping for a cake. Classically,
it must be white, but in practice it applies to any topping,
usually a thin one. Thicker toppings are then referred to as
frosting.
 FUDGE : A semi-soft confection made from brown or white
sugar, butter, cream, and evaporated milk (or plain water) and
flavored usually with either chocolate or vanilla, but sometimes
with ginger, glazed fruits, maple syrup, nuts, or orange.
 GANACHE : A French pastry filling of semisweet chocolate and
heavy cream.
 CUPCAKE : A small cake baked in a cuplike mold.
 MACAROON : A small cake made of egg white, sugar, and
ground almonds or desiccated coconut.
 MUFFIN : Light quick bread made from a drop batter. Baked in a
pan that has 6 - 12 wells or cups. Looks like cupcakes but of
coarser texture, slightly heavier, pebbly crust and less sweet in
flavor.
 PASTRY : Sweet baked food made with a flour-shortening-liquid
dough.
Example tarts, pies.
 PHYLLO PASTRY : Pastry dough comprised of numerous very
thin sheets made from flour and water.
 ABAISSE : A French term referring to a sheet of rolled-out pastry
 BISCUIT : In baked goods, a small roll (either yeast or quick
bread).
 COOKIE : Small sweet cakes chiefly used as snack items.
 WAFER : Thin crisp cookie or biscuit.
 CRIMP : To use a fork to press the edges of an unbaked piecrust
against the rim of the pie plate to seal in the filling and provide
a traditional decoration. If you don't want to use a fork, use
your fingers, but you just won't get the same decorative effect.
 All-Purpose Flour — This is a wheat flour that is made from the
milling of hard wheat or a mixture of hard and soft wheat. It can
be bleached or not and is often enriched with iron and the
vitamins folic acid, riboflavin, folic acid, niacin. All-purpose flour
is commonly used in homes for noodles, cookies, cakes, quick
breads, pastries, and certain yeast breads.
 Amaranth Flour — Amaranth flour is milled from amaranth
seeds, and since it lacks gluten, it can only be used in yeast
breads if it is combined with a wheat flour. Many people enjoy
this flour due to its strong flavor that is particularly well suited
for savory pastries or breads. It also gives quick breads a
smooth texture.
 Ascorbic Acid — More commonly known as vitamin C, ascorbic
acid is added to bread flour because it enables bread dough to
gain a greater volume when it is baked into a loaf.
 Baking — Baking is the process of using dry heat to cook food. It
is usually performed in an oven.
 Baking Pan — A baking pan is a pan of any shape or size that is
used to bake cookies, pies, breads, biscuits, cakes, or specialty
baked goods. Today, they are usually made of light- to heavy-
gauge steel, although heavy-gauge aluminum is used in the
construction of two-layer, insulated baking pans. Mid-gauge
aluminum is most often used for the pans that test kitchens rely
upon to define baking standards such as time and
temperature. See also definitions for cookie pan, nonstick,
baking sheet, jelly-roll pan, and insulated pan.
 Baking Powder — Baking powder is a product used for
leavening that is a combination of baking soda and either citric
or tartaric acid or a mixture of the two. This powder, when it is
wet and hot, will react without acid from other ingredients in
the food that is baked. Home-use baking powder typically has
two kinds of acid, one that reacts to liquids in the baking dough
and the other reacts when baking heats the product. The baked
goods are made lighter via the carbon dioxide that is produced
by the powder. Over time, baking powder can lose its strength,
and it should be tested if it has been sitting on the shelf for a
while. Good baking powder will bubble strongly when one
teaspoon of it is mixed with one-quarter cup of hot water.
 Baking Sheet — A baking sheet is a rigid metal sheet, often with
one or more turned-up edges, that can be used to bake biscuits,
breads, cookies, and other goods. There are several types of
baking sheets. Dark, heavy-gauge baking pans are used to bake
specialty goods with crisp crusts. Test kitchens will use shiny,
heavy-gauge aluminum to bake and brown evenly. Soft-cookies,
rolls, and tender-crusted breads are often baked using insulated
sheets, which are two sheets of aluminum with a space for air in
between them. See also cookie sheet, jelly-roll pan, and
insulated bakeware.
 Baking Soda — Baking soda reacts with an acid when it is wet to
produce carbon dioxide and lighten baked goods. The wet,
acidic ingredients that typically cause this reaction with baking
soda in a batter include buttermilk, sour milk, citrus juices,
chocolate, vinegar, or honey, and the reaction will begin
immediately when liquids are added to the dry ingredients.
Baking soda is a bicarbonate of soda that is created from trona,
a mineral that is mined in Green River, Wyoming.
 Baking Stone — A baking stone is a plate of stone or other
unglazed, tile-like material. It can be round or rectangular, and
it is used to help simulate the properties of a brick oven floor in
a home oven. Place the stone on the lowest rack in the oven
and only preheat the stone if the manufacturer recommends it.
The food that is to be baked can be placed directly on the stone
or in a pan and then on a stone.
 Barley Flour — Barley flour has a sweet taste and it gives cakes,
quick breads, and cookies moisture and a light texture. It is
milled from hulled barley and it is low in gluten.
 Beating — Beating is the process of stirring or whipping with a
spoon, electric mixture, wire whisk, or beater to create a
smooth mixture of ingredients.
 Blend — To blend ingredients is to mix two or more of them
together with a spoon or whisk or an appliance such as a
blender, mixer, or processor.
 Bloom 1.) In bread, bloom is the brown color found in the crust
of a well-baked loaf.
 2.) In chocolate, bloom refers to pale, grayish streaks or
blotches that appear on the surface of chocolate that
demonstrates that separation of cocoa butter from the
chocolate itself. It occurs when chocolate has been stored in an
environment that is too warm, but it does not mean that the
chocolate is no longer usable.
 Bran — Bran is the name of the outer layers of a grain kernel
that are found just below the hull of the grain. Dietary fiber and
other nutrients can be added to cereals and baked goods with
bran, which makes up approximately 14.5 percent of all types of
whole-wheat flour. The bran that results when bran layers are
removed from a grain kernel during milling is known as “miller’s
bran.”
 Bread Flour — Bread flour is the preferred flour for those who
use bread machines to bake bread. It is an unbleached wheat
flour that is high in protein, which aids in the development of
 better yeast bread. It is good to use a bread flour that is
enriched with various vitamins and minerals.
 Brownie — This favorite desert is a chewy, dense, cake-like
cookie that is sliced into bars for serving. Usually, brownies are
chocolate-flavored and colored brown, hence their name.
 Buckwheat Flour — Despite its name, buckwheat is not a
relative of the grain known as wheat. Buckwheat is originally
from Russia, and its distinctive flavor is treasured in pancakes
and other baked goods like multi-grain breads. Appropriately,
Russian blini made from buckwheat flour, as are groats and
kasha. Buckwheat flour has not gluten and it is created from the
grinding of hulled buckwheat seeds.
 Bulgur — Bulgur refers to whole-wheat kernels after they have
been steamed, dried, and cracked. Bulgur can be ground up and
made into flour, or it can be soaked or cooked for addition to
baked goods.
 Butter — According to U.S. standards, butter is comprised of 80
percent milk fat and 20 percent milk solids and water. It is
created through churning cream into a semi-solid, and it can be
salted or unsalted. Bakers use butter on account of its flavor
and its facility for creating crispness, flaky layers, flavors,
tenderness, and a golden-brown color.
 Cake Flour — Cake flour is a low-protein flour that is silky and
fine in texture that can be used for pastries, cakes, cookies, and
certain breads.
 Canning & Pickling Salt — This is a salt that can be used just like
table salt in baking. It is a pure, granulated salt that has no free-
flowing agents or other additives, and it may cake if it is
exposed in an environment that has a greater than 75 percent
relative humidity. See also salt.
 Chocolate — This favorite and familiar food and ingredient gets
its name from xocolatl, an Aztec word that means “bitter
water.” Many forms of chocolate are used in baking, but
whether it is unsweetened, milk, bittersweet, or semi-sweet
chocolate, all of these forms use a base of “cocoa liquor” that is
derived from ground, roasted, and blended small pieces of the
cacao bean called nibs. See also the other types of chocolate
listed in this glossary.
 Chop — To chop is to cut up food into tiny bits.
 Cocoa Butter — The portion of the cacao bean that is fat is
known as cocoa butter.
 Cocoa Powder — Fermented, roasted, dried, and cracked cacao
beans can be made into an unsweetened powder called cacao
powder. The nibs or small pieces of the cacao beans are ground
up in order to make this powder, and 75 percent of the cacao
butter is extracted to form the thick paste that is known as
cocoa butter. Dutch cocoa is a special cocoa powder with a
neutralized acidity due to its having been treated with alkali.
 Combine — To combine ingredients is to mix them together.
 Confectioners’/Powdered Sugar — One of the most widely used
baking ingredients is confectioners’ or powdered sugar, which is
a granulated sugar crushed into a fine powder and combined
with cornstarch. Only about 3 percent of the final product is
cornstarch, which helps prevent the confectioners’ sugar from
clumping.
 Convection Cooking — Convection cooking is a method used to
cook certain foods faster, and it also allows the baker to cook a
larger quantity of food and use multiple baking racks all at the
same time. In convection cooking, a fan will circulate heated air
continually in the oven, and the thoroughness of the cooking
means that convection cooking often requires lower oven
temperatures.
 Convection Oven — The convection oven has a fan to circulate
hot air around that which is being cooked on a continual basis,
allowing the baking of several products on different racks all at
once. A convection oven can be either gas or electric, may not
need preheating, and the temperature required to cook a
product in a conventional oven can often be reduced by 25
degrees in a convection oven.
 Cookie — Deriving its name from the Dutch word koekje or
“little cake,” a cookie is a sweet, hand-held small cake with a
flour base.
 Cookie Pan —?Cookie pans are flat, rectangular pans made of
rigid steel or aluminum. Its four sides will all have a lip of 5/8–
3/4 inches high to keep the cookies from sliding off when it is
moved. This lip also makes it easier to take the pan out of the
oven. In many cases, the “cookie pans” used for home baking
are actually jelly roll pans.
 Cookie Sheet — Ranging in size from 10x8 inches to 20x15
inches, cookie sheets are flat, rectangular baking pans made of
rigid aluminum or steel. Two of the four sides on a cookie sheet
will have no raised edge in order to facilitate the removal of
baked cookies.
 Cool — To cool hot foods is to reduce their temperature until
they are neither very hot nor very cold.
 Cooling Rack — Baked goods are often cooled on a cooling rack,
which is typically a rectangular grid made of thick wire with
“feet” or “legs” to raise it off the countertop and allow cooler
air to circulate all around the finished good. Usually, baked
goods will be cooled for a short while on their pan before they
are removed and put on a cooling rack. After they are done
cooling on this rack, they can be placed in storage or frozen.
The exceptions to this rule are yeast breads, which are usually
transferred from a baking pan immediately to a cooling rack in
order to keep the crust from getting soggy.
 Corn Bread — Corn bread is a quick bread made from a flour
incorporating 50 percent or more cornmeal. Corn bread can be
thick and light or thin and crisp, and common forms of corn
bread include Johnnycakes, spoon bread, and hushpuppies.
 Corn Flour — Corn flour is flour that is made from the milling of
whole corn. This flour has a corn flavor and is great in
cornbread, waffles, and muffins, and when mixed with
cornmeal.
 Cornmeal — This is a medium, coarse, or fine meal made from
dry degerminated or whole grain kernels of corn (yellow, blue,
or white).
 Creaming — Creaming is the process of mixing sugars and fats
like butter, margarine, or shortening together with a mixer,
large spoon, or beaters until the mixture is creamy in its
appearance.
 Cut In — To cut in is to use two knives or a pastry blender to
combine cold fats (butter, margarine, or shortening) with flour
or sugar without creaming or mixing air in the ingredients. A
crumbly- or grainy-looking mixture is what results.
 Degerminated — A degerminated food is a grain food that has
had its germ removed in the process of milling.
 Dissolve — To dissolve is to mix a dry substance into a liquid
until the solids have all disappeared. Fore example, bakers can
dissolve sugar into water, yeast into water, and more.
 Dry Ingredients — Dry ingredients are those recipe ingredients
that are dry and might need to be blended before they are
added to another kind of mixture in the recipe. Dry ingredients
can include sugar, salt, baking cocoa, spices, flour, and herbs.
 Dry Measuring Cups — Some of the standard home-baking
measuring tools used in the United States are dry measuring
cups. These cups have straight sides with a handle attached to
them at the top, and they come in graduated sizes including ¼
cup, 1/3 cup, ½ cup, 1, and 2 cup measurements. Usually they
nest within one another for more storage. As one would expect
from their name, dry ingredients like sugar, cornmeal, brown
sugar, and flour are measured using these cups. These
ingredients are spooned into the cup and then leveled off for
measuring using a straight-edged knife or other utensil.
 Dust — Dusting is the light sprinkling of a baked good or other
surface with a dry ingredient like flour, meal, or powdered
sugar.
 Eggs — In baking, eggs can perform many tasks for a recipe,
including thickening, binding, leavening, coating, glazing,
moisturizing, drying, or emulsifying. They also introduce flavor,
color, and nutrients into the baked good, or they can be used in
frostings to slow crystallization. The standard-size egg called for
in most recipes is large, unless the recipe says otherwise.
 Egg Wash — An egg wash is a mixture that gives a rich color or
gloss to the crust of a baked good when it is brushed on the
unbaked surface o the product. It is made from combining one
whole egg, egg white, or egg yolk with one tablespoon cold milk
or water.
 Fermentation — Fermentation is the chemical change in a food
during the baking process in which enzymes leavens a dough
and helps add flavor. In baking it is the first stage in which bread
dough is allowed to rise before being shaped. Fermenting
agents include yeast and other bacteria and microorganisms.
 Flour — The major ingredient in the vast majority of baked
goods, flour can be made from many different kinds of grains
and other substances like beans, legumes, seeds, corn, oats,
soybeans, teff, quinoa, amaranth, buckwheat, rye, spelt, and
more. Wheat flours, however, are by far the most common
flours used in baking.
 Focaccia — Focaccia is an Italian bakers’ snack whose name
comes from the Latin term focus or hearth. Originally, focaccia
was baked on a stone hearth.
 Gluten — This protein is found in wheat and various cereal
flours. Although some people are allergic to it, gluten makes up
the structure of the bread dough and holds the carbon dioxide
that is produced by the yeast or other substance during the
fermentation process. When flour is combined with liquids,
gluten develops as the liquid and flour is mixed and then
kneaded. Formed from the proteins glutenin and gliadin, gluten
provides the elasticity and extensibility or stretch for bread
dough.
 Gluten-Free — Some people are allergic to gluten, but there are
many ways to bake without producing the gluten protein.
Gluten-free flours include rice, corn, soy, amaranth, and potato
flours. Stone-ground, graham, or whole-wheat flours made
from hard or soft wheats or both kinds are also usable. These
are produced through the milling of whole-wheat kernels or
combining white flour, bran and germ. Even though these
gluten-flours may differ in coarseness from their gluten
counterparts, the nutritional value is virtually the same.
 High-Altitude Baking — Baking in environments at higher
elevations require adjustments in ingredients and temperatures
to produce the same results as baking that occurs in lower
altitudes. When cooking is done at an elevation greater than
3,000 feet, amounts of liquids, leaving agents, and sugar, as
well as oven temperature may need to be changed.
 Honey — Produced from flower nectar through the work of
bees, honey is an all-natural sweetener that produces a golden-
colored curst and holds moisture in different baked goods. Its
color and flavor will vary according to the nectar that the bees
use.
 Ice Cream Salt — The coarse solar or rock salt used to help
freeze ice cream should never be used in baking as it is not food
grade. See also salt.
 Instant-Read Thermometer — This is a stainless-steel probe
thermometer that will register a temperature almost
immediately when it is inserted into a mixture, dough, liquid or
meat. Bakers typically use it in the baking of yeast breads.
 Insulated Bakeware — Insulated bakeware is metal bakeware
that is made up of two layers of metal with layer of air in
between. Typically, insulated bakeware results in more
consistent baking results than when it is done with its non-
insulated counterpart. The bottom crust also tends to have less
browning. When insulated bakeware is used, longer bake times
may be needed for most baked goods, though the temperature
will not need to be adjusted. Cakes and brownies made in such
insulated pans, however, will require a temperature 25 degrees
higher than that which the recipe lists.
 Invert Sugar — Used in fondant icings for cakes, invert sugar is
sugar syrup that has been slightly heated and exposed to small
amount of acid in order to break up sucrose into fructose and
glucose and reduce crystal size in the sugar.
 Jelly-Roll Pan — Known commercially as a “half-sheet pan,” a
jelly-roll pan is a rectangular baking pan with a one inch edge
and dimensions, usually, of 18x13 inches. Jelly-roll pans that are
used for home baking come in a variety of sizes, and perhaps
the most common one recommended in recipes is 15½x10½x1.
Usually, a jelly-roll pan is used to bake sponge cakes, bars, or
sheet cakes, and it derives its name from the fact that the
sponge cake for a jelly-roll cake is baked in this kind of pan.
 Kneading — Kneading is the process of working dough with the
heels of one’s hands, pressing and folding it and turning it a
 quarter of a turn after each time the dough is pressed and
folded.
 Kosher Salt — Kosher salt is used to top baked goods, kosher
meat, or for recipes where coarse salt is preferred because it
has a coarse-flake structure. Usually, kosher salt will not be
iodized, but it may have an anti-caking agent included within it.
 Leavening — Leavening refers to the production of a gas in a
dough batter using an agent like baking powder, yeast, baking
soda, or even eggs. Leavening agents work via the production of
carbon dioxide in the dough, and long ago these agents were
also known as “lifters.”
 Liquid Measure — A liquid measure is a clear, hard, plastic, or
glass cup that can be used for pouring because of its special lip.
Most of the time, a liquid measure is a quart or pint-sized tool
that is marked with lines to help measure liquids in home-
baking recipes. The lines will mark the levels in ounces,
milliliters and sizes of 1/8, ¼, 1/3, ½, 2/3, ¾, 1 cup, and more.
When baking at home, all liquids should be measured in this
cup, and the cup should be placed on a flat surface for accuracy.
 Margarine — Margarine, which may be salted or not, was
created as an alternative to butter in the late nineteenth
century. Eighty percent of margarine is partially-hydrogenated
vegetable oil to give it a solid form and the other 20 percent is
made up of flavoring, coloring, liquids, and other additives.
 Meal — Grains or seeds that have been ground or milled more
coarsely than normal flour make up meal.
 Measuring Cups and Spoons — These are spoons and other
containers of different, graduated sizes that can be used to
measure liquid or dry ingredients accurately in the process of
cooking and baking.
 Melt — To melt is to heat an otherwise solid food until it
achieves liquid form. In baking, sugar, butter, and chocolate are
often melted.
 Milk Chocolate — Milk chocolate is made up of a sweetened
dark chocolate combined with other milk solids. At least 10
percent of the product will be chocolate liquor, and the milk
solids will comprise at least 12 percent of the final product.
 Millet Flour — Produced from whole millet, millet flour is a low-
gluten, starchy flour that is finely ground. Its texture is quite
similar to that of rice flour.
 Mixing — Mixing is the art of combining two or more individual
ingredients until no one ingredient can be seen or identified.
This is usually accomplished through stirring with a spoon.
 Muffin Pans — Muffin pans are used for the baking of muffins,
and they come in several different sizes and shapes. There are
even pans for “muffin tops.” The muffin pan that is most
commonly called for has 6 or 12 muffing cups that measure 2½
inches in diameter at the top, although there are also mini-
muffin tins in 12- and 24-cup sizes. These mini-muffins are also
known as “tea muffins,” and whether the muffins being baked
are large or small, lining the tins with paper liners or greasing
the muffin cups will produce the best results. See also insulated
pans, nonstick, and baking pans.
 No-Knead — Also known as “batter breads,” no-knead is a
baking method for yeast breads that can be produced without
any kneading.
 Nonstick — Nonstick coating is a coating applied to a pan to
prevent baked goods from sticking to it. It can be applied via
high-temperature coil-coating before the pan is actually
formed, or it can be sprayed onto the pan after it has been
constructed. Nonstick coatings are usually silicone-based or
PTFE-based (polytetraflourethylene or Teflon).
 Nut Flour — Nut flour is made up on nut meats that have been
finely ground. The nuts that are used can be either toasted or
not, and the flour is used for breads, cookies, cakes, and pastry
crusts.
 Nuts — Nuts are the dry fruits of legumes, seeds, or trees.
Made up of an edible kernel surrounded by a dry, hard shell,
nuts are high in nutrients and flavor. They can have as much as
90 percent fat, although nut fats are primarily
monounsaturated and very healthy. The different textures and
flavors of nuts can provide much sensory satisfaction in baked
goods.
 Oats — Oats are made up of any grain that is hulled, cleaned,
toasted, and cooked whole (groats). These groats can also be
steel-cut, steamed, or rolled (flattened). Rolled oats can be
made quick-cooking when they receive additional cuts, and they
can be used interchangeably with other oats in baking because
they are whole grains. Instant oats, however, have been more
finely cut and cooked, so they cannot be used in place of
normal oats.
 Oat Flour — Oat flour is made up of rolled oats or groats that
have been finely ground.
 Oat Bran — Oat bran refers to the outer layers of an oat kernel.
Oat bran is a good additive for baked goods as it is high in
soluble fiber.
 Oils — Liquid fats that are derived from pressing plants and
their seeds/nuts are known as oils. This oil can be extracted via
cold-pressing or solvent extraction, and common home-baking
oils include, safflower, corn, canola, olive, sunflower, and
soybean oils. None of these plant oils have cholesterol, but they
all vary in the amount of poly-unsaturated, mono-unsaturated,
and saturated fats they contain.
 Oven — An enclosed space with parts that supply air flow and
heat in order to cook. Electric elements or gas burners are used
in conventional ovens for baking, broiling, or roasting, while
convection ovens also include a fan to circulate heated air all
around the food. Electric ovens usually have controls to cycle
the temperatures of the upper and lower elements for
consistent cooking temperatures. Some ovens are clean by
hand (standard oven), while others are self-cleaning or
continuous cleaning. Ovens can range in width from 20 to 36
inches, and they can exist as drop-ins, slide-ins, free-standing,
or wall-mounted appliances. In recent years, ovens that use
microwaves or halogen lights to increase cooking speed have
been developed.
 Pastry Flour —?Pastry flour is low in gluten and high in starch. It
is usually fine-textured and soft, and it comes in bleached,
unbleached, and whole wheat varieties. Soft red or white wheat
is typically used in the production of pastry flours.
 Preheat — To preheat an oven is to heat an empty oven to the
proper temperature for the recipe before the food product is
placed within it.
 Proof — Proof is the amount of time that a baking product is
allowed to rise after it has been shaped and placed in or on the
proper pan. Generally speaking, most baked goods proof until
they have doubled in size or until a lightly placed finger on the
good leaves a marked indentation. A humid, draft-free location
with a temperature of between 95 and 100 degrees is required
for proofing, and at home a slightly damp, clean, non-terry cloth
towel or plastic wrap that has been sprayed with a pan spray
can be laid on the product in order to retain moisture and keep
the crust from drying out. Many ovens have a proofing feature,
so consult the instructions before baking.
 Pumpernickel — Pumpernickel is a rye flour of medium-to-
course grinding that is light brown in its color. Sometimes it is
called “medium rye,” which is mixture of wheat and rye flours
to produce the bread. Often, molasses will be added to the
dough to improve color and flavor in the pumpernickel bread.
 Punch Down — This term used in reference to bread dough
describes the point at which a dough has doubled in its size or
when a marked dent is visible after two fingers are lightly
pressed into the dough about half of an inch. Punching down a
dough can be achieved via touching the dough with the fingers,
making a fist, and pushing it down into the center of the dough
before pulling the dough edges into the center and turning the
dough over. After doing this, cover the dough and let it rest or
rise again before it is shaped into a loaf.
 Quick Bread — Quick bread is a bread that can be made very
quickly because not time is needed for kneading or rising in its
production.
 Quinoa Flour — Quinoa flour made from the grinding of quinoa
grain. It is free of gluten and very nutritious. Its tender, moist
crumb is favored for waffles, fruitcakes, pancakes, and cookies.
 Red Wheat — The second major kind of U.S. wheat, red wheat
refers to three of the six classes of wheat recognized in the
United States. Its kernels have a reddish color, and it is ground
into flour for baking.
 Rye Flour — Rye flour is milled from the rye grain and is low in
gluten. It is also darker and heavier than wheat flour, and is sold
in dark, medium, and light forms for use in baking at home.
Light and medium rye flour has had most of its bran removed,
while dark rye flour is a whole grain flour. See also
pumpernickel.
 Salt — Used to add flavor to baked goods and/or control
fermentation in breads, salt, also known as sodium chloride
(NaCl), salt is made one of three different ways. Salt (Sodium
Chloride - NaCl) can be produced three ways. It can be made
through he evaporation of salt brine in shallow ponds, the
mining of deposits of rock salts, or by boiling and evaporating a
brine of higher purity. Soft pretzels and other unique breads are
often topped with coarse salt.
 Salt Substitute — Used in order to reduce sodium intake, a salt
substitute is usually granular potassium chloride. Since it has a
bitter taste, it is not usually recommended for baking.
 Sauté — To sauté is to cook or brown food in a small amount of
hot fat or oil. This softens the food and releases its flavors.
 Scratch Baking — Scratch baking begins with the use of basic
ingredients like sugar, butter, leavening, and flour, and makes
use of a recipe, not pre-made mixes.
 Sea Salt — Sea salt is a salt produced via the evaporation
outdoors of salt brine in shallow ponds. The amount of refining
of sea salt will vary, as will its coarseness. Sea salt is suitable for
baking unless it is very coarse.
 Self-Rising Cornmeal — As one of the first convenience baking
mixes, self-rising cornmeal has helped shorten the time it takes
for people to make cornbreads and other cornmeal-based
products. Most self-rising cornmeal is a blend of cornmeal (1½
cups), all-purpose flour (½ cup), baking powder (1 tablespoon),
and salt (1 teaspoon).
 Self-Rising Flour — Self-rising flour is another early
“convenience mix” that when used in a recipe, allows for the
baking powder and salt in the directions to be ignored. It is
usually a combination of 1 cup all-purpose flour, 1½ teaspoons
baking powder and ½ teaspoon salt.
 Semi-Sweet Chocolate — Semi-sweet baking chocolate is a
chocolate containing anywhere between 15 and 35 percent
chocolate liquor plus sugar, cocoa butter, sugar, lecithin, and
vanilla. Though it is not interchangeable with milk chocolate, it
can be substituted for bittersweet or sweet chocolate in recipes
that call for those forms of chocolate.
 Semolina Flour — Also known as pasta flour, semolina flower is
made through the grinding of semolina (granules) that come
from durum wheat. Many specialty breads will include semolina
or part-semolina flour in their ingredients.
 Spreads — Spreads are solids or semi-solids in tubs or sticks
containing less than 80 percent fat. They are not good for
baking on account of their high water content.
 Soy Flour — Hulled and roasted soybeans can be milled and
ground to produce whole-grain, high-protein soy flour. This
flour can be fat free, low fat or full fat depending on how it is
produced.
 Sprinkle — To sprinkle is to scatter small particles of toppings or
sugars over a surface like cake, bread, frosting, and more.
 Standard — Standards are recipes, methods, ingredients,
measuring tools, and equipments that are used to produce
consistent results in a particular product in home baking.
Standards are a great help to both manufacturers and
consumers.
 Staple — A staple is one or more of the most important items,
grown, sold, or made in a specific place, country, or region.
 Starter — Starters are mixtures of sugar, water, yeast, and flour
that are permitted to ferment in a warm location until they are
foamy. These starters can be used in lieu of a package of yeast
in breads, and usually a portion of two cups is the amount used.
Usually this amount is taken after the mixture has been fed with
more flour and water, something that needs to be done every
two weeks after the starter has begun. In between feedings, the
starter is often kept in a refrigerator.
 Stir — To stir is to use a spoon to mix ingredients with a spoon
using a figure-eight or circular motion.
 Stone-ground Flour or Meal — This is a flour or meal that
results from the grinding of grain between two stoners. It can
be coarse or fine, though it is usually made up of whole grains.
 Sugar — Though most people are not aware of this fact, sugar
or sucrose occurs as a carbohydrate in every fruit and
vegetable. It is the major product of photosynthesis, or the
method by which plants convert energy from the sun into food.
Most of the sugar used in home cooking is made in large
quantities from sugar beets and sugar cane. There are several
different kinds of sugar. Granulated Sugar is often called “white
sugar” and is made up of fine or extra-fine white sugar
crystals. Brown Sugaris made up of sugar crystals contained in a
molasses-based syrup. Brown sugar comes in dark and light
varieties according to the amount of molasses used, and the
different forms can be substituted for one another according to
taste. Confectioners’or Powdered Sugar has been defined
earlier in this list. Raw Sugar contains about 98 percent sucrose
and is tan or brown in its color. Although it is often found in
foods, the USDA does not consider it fit for such uses. Raw
sugar is coarse and made via the evaporation of clarified sugar
cane juice. Turbinado Sugar is a sugar given a light tan color via
its washing in a centrifuge. Its surface molasses is removed,
making it closer to refined sugar than its raw counterpart.
 Table Salt — Table salt, which is also known as granulated salt,
is produced through the boiling and evaporation of brine. Table
salt is often iodized, and anti-caking agents are usually added to
it.
 Temperature — This refers to the intensity of heat occurring in
a baked product, mixture, or oven. In the United States,
temperature is measured in degrees Fahrenheit, although the
Celsius scale is used in much of the rest of the world.
 Texture — The appearance and feel of a cut part of a cake or
bread.
 Underproofed Loaves or Rolls — These are rolls and breads that
though they have been shaped, have not attained the volume
or height that is desired before they are baked.
 Unleavened — This term describes baked goods that do not use
a leavening agent like baking soda, cream of tartar, baking
powder, or yeast.
 Unbleached Flour — An unbleached flour is one that has
bleached naturally in its aging process without the addition of
maturing agents. It is no different from bleached flour
nutritionally, and it can be used interchangeably with its
bleached counterpart in baking.
 Vegetable Shortening — Vegetable shortening is a soybean or
cottonseed oil that has been hydrogenated in order to make it a
solid. Being 100 percent fat with no additives like water, milk
fat, or other solids, it is almost flavorless and good for making
baked goods flaky and tender.
 Zest — Zest is the thin, outer skin of a citrus fruit. It is fragrant and removed with a paring knife, vegetable peeler, or citrus so
that it can be added to baked gods for a citrus flavor.
 Wheat Flour —?Wheat flour is a popular flour used for cakes,
waffles, pastries, and more when it milled from soft white or
red wheat or for yeast breads, bagels, certain rolls, hearth
breads, and pizza crust when milled from hard white or red
wheat. Home baking wheat flours (or “family flours” according
to the milling industry) can be unbleached or bleached all-
purpose, pastry, whole-wheat, cake, graham, and bread flours.
Some breads are made from high-protein durum wheat or
semolina wheat flours, but such flours are usually reserved for
pasta.
 Whip?Beating — Whip beating is the process of incorporating
air into a food rapidly via a mixer, beater, or whip in order to
increase its volume.
 White Chocolate — While chocolate is a mixture of cocoa
butter, lecithin, vanilla, milk solids and vanilla. True white
chocolate always includes cocoa butter, and those products
that do not contain it but are called white chocolate are actually
more properly called confectionary or summer coating. White
chocolate chips or pieces are popularly used in home baking.
 White Wheat — U.S. wheat is classified into six different
classes, three of which have a bran coat that is “white” or pale
to amber in its color. Such white wheats include soft white
wheat, durum wheat, and hard white wheat. See also red
wheat.
 Whole Grain — A whole grain food makes use of whole or
ground kernels of grains like barley, corn, oat, wheat, and rye in
its production.
 Whole-Wheat Flour — Whole-wheat flour is made from the
whole kernel of white or red wheat. Usually, whole-wheat flour
is made in flour mills, but it can also be stone-ground in a mill.
Another name for whole-wheat flour is graham flour.
 XXX or XXXX Confectioners’ Sugar — The Xs on the package of
confectioners’ sugar indicates how finely it has been ground.
Four X sugar is slightly finer than 3 x sugar, but the two different
kinds can be sued interchangeably in the same recipe. Whether
or not sifting of the powdered sugar is required will be
determined by the recipe’s particular directions.
 Yeast — The yeast that is used in baking is the single-celled
fungi of the speciessaccharomyces cerevisiae. This fungi is a
rising agent that ferments sugar, producing carbon dioxide and
alcohol and expanding the bread dough. Home-baking yeast can
be active dry or fast-rising yeast, and some supermarkets will
have fresh or compressed yeast in their refrigerated cases. For
measuring equivalencies, ¼ ounce of dry yeast is about 2¼
teaspoons worth, and it equals one 0.6-ounce cake of the
compressed, refrigerated fresh yeast.
 Yield — Yield is the amount of a baked good that results from
the combination of a given amount of different baking
ingredients.
A

Ingredient Amount Substitutes

Alcohol see Alcohol Substitutions In Cooking

Substitutions

Almond paste 1 1/3 cups 1 3/4 cups ground blanched almonds plus 1 1/2 cups
powdered sugar plus 1 egg white plus 1 teaspoon almond
extract plus 1/4 teaspoon salt

Allspice 1 teaspoon 1/2 teaspoon cinnamon and 1/2 teaspoon ground cloves

Anchovies 1 fillet 1/2 teaspoon anchovy paste

Anise Seed 1 teaspoon 1 teaspoon star anise

1 teaspoon cardamom

Anise Extract 1 teaspoon 1 1/2 teaspoon ground anise seed

1/2 teaspoon anise powder

Apple pie spice 1 teaspoon 1/2 teaspoon cinnamon, 1/4 teaspoon nutmeg, 1/8
teaspoon ground allspice, and either 1/8 teaspoon ground
cardamom, ginger or cloves

Arrowroot starch 1 tablespoon 1 tablespoon cornstarch

2 tablespoons flour (to thicken)

2 1/4 teaspoons of either potato starch or rice starch

Ingredient Amount Substitutes

Baking dish and see Baking Dish and Pan Sizes - How to substitute
pan sizes different pans sizes
Baking powder, 1 teaspoon 1/4 teaspoon baking soda and 5/8 teaspoon cream of
double acting tartar

Rule: 1 teaspoon 1/3 teaspoon baking soda and 1/2 teaspoon cream of
for every 1 cup tarter
flour
1/3 teaspoon baking soda and 1/2 teaspoon cream of
tartar

1/4 teaspoon baking soda and 1/2 cup sour milk,

buttermilk, or yogurt (decrease liquid amount called for in
recipe by 1/2 cup)

1/4 teaspoon baking soda and 1/2 teaspoon lemon juice

or vinegar used with sweet milk to make 1/2 cup
(decrease liquid amount called for in recipe by 1/2 cup)

1/4 teaspoon baking soda and 1/4 cup molasses

(decrease liquid amount in recipe by 1 to 2 tablespoons)

1 1/2 teaspoons phosphate or tartate baking powder

1 1/2 teaspoons single-action baking powder

Baking 1 teaspoon You need to use 2 to 3 times more double-acting baking

Soda (Sodium powder than baking soda. Replace acidic liquid ingredient
Bicarbonate) in recipe with non-acidic liquid.

Rule: 1/4 teaspoon 3/4 teaspoon Ammonium bicarbonate

for every 1 cup
flour

Bay leaf 1 whole 1/4 teaspoon crushed bay leaves

Beau Monde 1 teaspoon 1 teaspoon seasoning salt

seasoning
1/2 teaspoon table salt plus dash of garlic salt, onion salt,
and celery salt

1/2 teaspoon Mei Yen seasoning

see Beau Monde Seasoning Salt recipe

Beer 1 cup 1 cup water, white grape juice, apple cider or apple juice,
diluted peach or apricot syrups. (Substitute equal
amounts of liquid.)

Brandy 1/4 cup 1 tsp brandy extract plus enough water or liquid called for
in recipe to make 1/4 cup

Water, white grape juice, apple cider or apple juice,

diluted peach or apricot syrups. (Substitute equal
 amounts of liquid.)

Bread Crumbs, dry 1 cup 1 cup crushed cracker crumbs

1 cup matzo meal

1 cup crushed cornflakes

1 cup ground oats

1 cup crushed potato chips

Bread Crumbs, Soft 3/4 cup 1 slice soft or fresh bread

Broth, beef or 1 cup 1 bouillon cube dissolved in 1 cup boiling water

chicken
1 cup boiling water

1 teaspoon powdered broth base dissolved in 1 cup

boiling water

Butter 1 cup 7/8 to 1 cup hydrogenated fat (shortening) and 1/2

teaspoon salt
Rule: Don't use
spreads or low-fat 7/8 cup lard plus 1/2 teaspoon salt
butter in baking
1 cup margarine

7/8 cup oil plus 1/2 teaspoon salt

7/8 cup oil

To reduce fat and calories - applesauce or prune puree for

half of the butter in the recipe

Buttermilk (sour 1 cup 1 cup milk plus 1 tablespoons vinegar (white or cider) or
milk) lemon juice (let stand 5 minutes before using)

1 cup milk plus 1 1/2 to 1 3/4 teaspoons cream of tartar

1 cup mild-flavored soy milk, plus 1 tablespoons vinegar

(white or cider) or lemon juice (let stand 5 minutes before
using)

1 cup plain or low fat yogurt

1 cup sour cream

1 cup water plus 1/4 cup buttermilk powder

C

Ingredient Amount Substitutes

Cajun Spice 1 tablespoon 1/2 teaspoon white pepper, 1/2 teaspoon garlic powder,
1/2 teaspoon onion powder, 1/2 teaspoon ground red
pepper, 1/2 teaspoon paprika, and 1/2 teaspoon black
pepper

Cake Flour 1 cup 1 cup all-purpose flour minus 2 tablespoons

Can sizes and see Can Sizes and Equivalents

equivalents
Cardamon, ground 1 teaspoon 1 teaspoon ground anise

Catsup 1 cup 1 cup tomato sauce, 1/2 cup sugar, and 2 tbsp vinegar
(for use in cooking)

Chervil, fresh 1 tablespoon 1 tablespoon chopped fresh parsley

chopped
Chicken stock base, 1 teaspoon 1 chicken bouillon cube
instant
Chicken stock base, 1 tbsp 1 cup canned chicken broth
instant dissolved in 1
cup water 1 cup homemade chicken broth or chicken stock

Chili sauce 1 cup 1 cup tomato sauce, 1/4 cup brown sugar, 2 tbsp vinegar,
1/4 tsp cinnamon, dash of ground cloves, and dash of
allspice

Chives, finely 2 teaspoons 2 teaspoons finely chopped green onion tops

chopped
Chocolate chips, 1 ounce 1 ounce sweet cooking chocolate
semi-sweet
Also check 1 ounce unsweetened chocolate plus 1 tablespoon sugar
out Chocolate
Substitution Chart
Chocolate chips, 6-ounce 2 squares unsweetened chocolate, 2 tablespoons
semi-sweet chips, package shortening, and 1/2 cup sugar
melted
Chocolate, semi- 1 2/3 ounces 1 ounce unsweetened chocolate and 4 teaspoon sugar
sweet
Chocolate, 1 square or 1 3 tablespoons cocoa powder plus 1 tablespoon butter or
unsweetened ounce margarine

3 tablespoon carob powder plus 2 tablespoons water

Chocolate, white 1 ounce 1 ounce milk chocolate

1 ounce sweet dark chocolate

Cocoa powder, 3 tablespoons 1 ounce (square) chocolate (decrease fat called for in
natural recipe by 1/2 tablespoon)
unsweetened
3 tablespoon Dutch-processed cocoa plus 1/8 teaspoon
cream tartar, lemon juice or white vinegar

3 tablespoons carob powder

Cocoa, Dutch 3 tablespoons 3 tablespoons natural unsweetened cocoa powder plus

Processed 1/8 teaspoon baking soda

1 ounce unsweetened chocolate plus 1/8 teaspoon baking

soda (reduce fat in recipe by 1 tablespoon)

3 tablespoons carob powder

Coconut 1 tablespoon 1 1/2 tablespoons fresh grated coconut

grated, dry
Coconut cream, 1 cup 1 cup heavy cream or whipping cream
canned
Coconut milk, 1 cup 1 cup whole milk
canned
Coffee, strong 1/4 cup 2 tablespoons instant espresso powder dissolved in 3
brewed tablespoons hot water

Condensed cream 1 (10.75-ounce 1 (10.75 ounce can) condensed cream of celery, cream of
of mushroom soup can) chicken, or golden mushroom soup.

Cornmeal, self- 1 cup 7/8 cup plain, 1 1/2 tablespoons baking powder, and 1/2
rising teaspoon salt

Cornmeal, stone 1 cup 1 cup regular milled cornmeal, corn grits, polenta, or
ground maize meal

Corn syrup 1 cup 1 cup granulated sugar and 1/4 liquid (use whatever
liquid is called for in the recipe)

1 cup honey

1 cup light corn syrup

3/4 cup light corn syrup and 1/4 cup molasses

1 cup maple-flavored syrup

Cornstarch (for 1 tablespoon 2 tablespoon all-purpose flour
thickening)
2 tablespoon granulated tapioca

1 tablespoon potato or rice starch

1 tablespoon arrowroot

4 teaspoon. instant tapioca

Cottage cheese 1 cup 1 cup farmer's cheese

1 cup ricotta cheese

Cracker crumbs 1 cup 1 cup dry bread crumbs

1 cup ground oats

1 cup matzo meal

Cream, half-and- 1 cup 1/2 cup whole milk, plus 1/2 cup light cream
half
7/8 cup milk and 1/2 tablespoon butter or margarine

1 cup evaporated milk, undiluted

3 tablespoons oil plus enough milk to equal 1 cup

1/2 cup coffee cream plus 1/2 cup milk

Cream, heavy (36 1 cup 3/4 cup milk and 1/3 cup butter or margarine (for use in
to 40% fat) cooking or baking)

2/3 cup buttermilk plus 1/3 cup oil

1 cup evaporated skim milk

equal parts of part skim milk ricotta cheese and nonfat

yogurt beaten until smooth (this mixture cannot be
heated because of separation)

Cream, light (18 to 1 cup 3/4 cup milk and 3 tablespoons butter or margarine (for
20% fat) use in cooking or baking)

1 cup evaporated milk, undiluted

Cream, whipped any amount Chill a 13 ounce can of evaporated milk for 12 hours. Add
1 tablespoon lemon juice. Whip until stiff.

Beating until stiff, 1/2 cup ice-cold water and 1/2 cup
nonfat dry milk. Slowly add 1/2 cup sugar while beating.
 Add 2 tablespoons lemon juice (for cooking only)

1 cup frozen whipped topping, thawed

Cream cheese 1 cup 1 cup pureed cottage cheese

1 cup plain yogurt, strained overnight in a cheesecloth

Cream of tartar 1 teaspoon 1 teaspoon lemon juice or vinegar

Creme fraiche 1 cup Combine 1 cup heavy cream and 1 tablespoon plain
yogurt. Let stand for 6 hours at room temperature

1 cup sour cream

1/2 cup sour cream plus 1/2 cup heavy cream

1 cup mascarpone cheese

Currants 1 cup 1 cup raisins

1 cup chopped dates

1 cup other dried fruit (cranberries, blueberries, cherries)

Ingredient Amount Substitutes

Dill plant, fresh or 3 heads 1 tablespoons dill seed

dried

Ingredient Amount Substitutes

Egg 1 whole (3 3 tablespoons and 1 teaspoon thawed frozen egg

tablespoons or
1.7 ounce) 2 1/2 tablespoons sifted, dry whole egg powder and 2 1/2
tablespoons warm water

2 yolks and 1 tablespoon water (in cookies)

2 yolks (in custards, cream fillings, and similar mixtures)

1/2 teaspoon baking powder, 1 tablespoon vinegar, and 1

 tablespoon liquid (in baking)

1 egg in every 3 can be replaced with 1 tablespoon

cornstarch in baking

Soften 1 tablespoon unflavored gelatin in 3 tablespoons

cold water; add 3 teaspoons boiling water; cool and beat
until frothy; add to recipe (reduce other liquid by 2
tablespoons)

1/4 cup commercial egg substitute

Egg white 1 white (2 2 tablespoons thawed frozen egg white

tablespoons)
2 teaspoons sifted, dry egg white powder plus 2
tablespoons lukewarm water

Egg yolk 1 yolk (1 1/2 2 tablespoons sifted, dry egg yolk powder and 2
tablespoons) teaspoons water

1 1/3 tablespoons thawed frozen egg yolk

Extracts (such ash 1 teaspoon 1/4 teaspoon of oil of similar flavor

lemon or
peppermint) 1/4 teaspoon 2 drops oil of similar flavor

Ingredient Amount Substitutes

Fish sauce 1 teaspoon 1 teaspoon Worcestershire sauce

1 teaspoon light soy sauce with salt

Flour, all-purpose 1 tablespoon 1 1/2 teaspoon cornstarch, arrowroot starch, potato

(for thickening) starch, or rice starch

1 tablespoon granular tapioca

1 tablespoon waxy rice flour

1 tablespoon waxy corn flour

2 tablespoons browned flour

1 1/2 teaspoon whole wheat flour and 1/2 teaspoon all

purpose flour
Flour, all-purpose 1 cup sifted 1 cup and 2 tablespoons cake flour

Note: Specialty 1 cup minus 2 tablespoons unsifted all-purpose flour

flours added to
yeast bread recipes 1 1/2 cup bread crumbs
will result in a
reduced volume 1 cup rolled oats
and heavier
product.
1/3 cup cornmeal or soybean flour and 2/3 cup all-
purpose flour

1/2 cup cornmeal, bran, rice flour, rye flour or whole

wheat flour and 1/2 cup all-purpose flour

3/4 cup whole wheat flour or bran flour and 1/4 cup all-
purpose flour

1 cup rye or rice flour

1/4 cup soybean flour and 3/4 cup all-purpose flour

Flour, cake 1 cup sifted 1 cup sifted all-purpose flour minus 2 tablespoons sifted
all-purpose flour

Flour, self-rising 1 cup 1 cup minus 2 tablespoons all-purpose flour plus 1/1/2
tsp baking powder and 1/2 tsp salt

Flour, whole wheat any amount Substitute whole wheat flour for 1/4 to 1/2 of the white
flour called for in a recipe

Ingredient Amount Substitutes

Garlic 1 clove, small 1/8 teaspoon garlic powder

1/4 teaspoon instant minced garlic

1/2 teaspoon granulated garlic

1/2 to 1 teaspoon garlic salt (reduce amount salt called

for in recipe)

Garlic Salt 3/4 teaspoon 1 medium-size clove or 1/2 teaspoon minced fresh garlic

Gelatin, powdered 1 envelope 2 teaspoons agar agar

(plain or (1/4 ounce), 1
unflavored) tablespoon 4 sheets gelatin
granulated
Gelatin, leaf or 4 leaves or 1 (1/4 ounce) envelope powdered gelatin
sheet sheets
Gelatin, flavored 3-ounce 1 tablespoon plain gelatin and 2 cups fruit juice
package
Ghee 1 tablespoon 1 tablespoon butter

1 tablespoon vegetable oil

Ginger root, fresh 1 teaspoon 1/2 teaspoon ground ginger

freshly grated
1 tablespoon candied ginger, rinsed and finely chopped

Green onions, fresh 1/2 cup 1/2 cup chopped onion

chopped
1/2 cup chopped leek

1/2 cup chopped shallots

Ingredient Amount Substitutes

Herbs, fresh 1 tablespoon 1 teaspoon dried ground herbs

finely cut
1 teaspoon dried crumbled herbs

Herring 8 ounces 8 ounces sardines

Honey 1 cup 1 1/4 cup granulated sugar and 1/4 cup liquid (use liquid
called for in recipe)

1 cup light molasses, light or dark corn syrup, light

treacle syrup, or maple syrup

Horseradish 1 tablespoon 2 tablespoons bottled

fresh
Hot pepper sauce 1 teaspoon 3/4 teaspoon cayenne pepper plus 1 teaspoon vinegar

Ingredient Amount Substitutes

Italian Seasoning Combine 1 teaspoon basil, 1 tablespoon fresh or dried

parsley, and 1/2 teaspoon oregano
L

Ingredient Amount Substitutes

Lemon juice, 1 tablespoon 1 tablespoon bottled lemon juice

freshly squeezed juice
1 tablespoon fresh lime juice

Lemon, whole 1 medium 2 tablespoons lemon juice and 2 to 3 teaspoons lemon

rind (zest)

Lemon peel, dried 1 teaspoon 1 to 2 teaspoons grated fresh lemon peel (zest)

grated peel of 1 medium lemon

1/2 teaspoon lemon extract

Lemon zest (peel) 1 teaspoon 1/2 teaspoon lemon extract

2 tablespoon lemon juice

1 teaspoon lime zest

Lemon grass Equal amount of grated lemon zest moistened with a bit
of fresh lemon juice

Lime juice, freshly 1 tablespoon 1 tablespoon bottled lime juice

squeezed juice
1 tablespoon fresh lemon juice

Lime zest (peel) 1 teaspoon 1 teaspoon grated fresh lemon peel (zest)

Ingredient Amount Substitutes

Macaroni, (4 cups 2 cups 2 cups spaghetti, uncooked

cooked) uncooked
4 cups noodles, uncooked

Maple sugar 1/2 cup 1 cup maple syrup (reduce liquid in recipe by 1/4 cup)

3/4 cup granulated white sugar plus 1 teaspoon pure

maple extract

1 cup granulated white sugar

Maple Syrup about 2 cups Combine 2 cups sugar and 1 cup water, bring to clear
boil; take off heat; add 1/2 teaspoon maple flavoring

1 cup honey

Marshmallows, 1 cup 8 to 10 large marshmallows

miniature
Marshmallow crème 1 jar melt 16 ounces of marshmallows and 3 1/2 tablespoons
corn syrup in a double broiler

Mascarpone cheese 1 cup 1 cup creme fraiche

1 cup sour cream

Mayonnaise (for 1 cup 1/2 cup yogurt and 1/2 cup mayonnaise
use in salads and
salad dressings 1 cup either yogurt, salad dressing, or sour cream

1 cup cottage cheese pureed in blender

Me Yen seasoning 1 teaspoon 1 teaspoon Beau Monde seasoning

1/2 teaspoon table salt

Milk, evaporated 1 cup plus 1 cup liquid whole milk

(whole or skim)
1 cup regular cream, whipping, or heavy cream

Milk, skim 1 cup 4 to 5 tablespoons non-fat dry milk powder and enough
water to make one cup, or follow manufacturer's
directions

Milk, skim 1/4 cup 4 teaspoons non-fat dry milk powder and enough water to
make 1/4 cup, or follow manufacturer's directions

2 tablespoons evaporated skim milk and 2 tablespoons

water

Milk, sweetened 1 can (about 1 Heat the following ingredients until sugar and butter are
condensed 1/3 cups) dissolved: 1/3 cup and 2 tablespoons evaporated milk, 1
cup sugar, 3 tablespoons butter or margarine

Milk, whole 1 cup 1 cup reconstituted non-fat dry milk and 2 tsp butter or
margarine

1/2 cup evaporated milk and 1/2 cup water

1/2 cup condensed milk plus 1/2 cup water

 4 tablespoons whole dry milk and 1 cup water, or follow
manufacturer's directions

1 cup fruit juice or 1 cup potato water (for use in baking)

1/4 cup non-fat dry milk and 2 tsp butter or margarine

and 7/8 cup water

1 cup soy or almond milk

1 cup water plus 1 1/2 tsp butter in baking

1 cup buttermilk plus 1/2 tsp baking soda (decrease

baking powder in recipe by 2 tsp)

Mint leaves, fresh 1/4 cup 1 tablespoon dried mint leaves

chopped
Molasses 1 cup 1 cup honey, dark corn syrup, maple syrup, brown rice
syrup, or barley malt syrup

3/4 cup sugar, increase liquid by 5 tablespoons, decrease

baking soda by 1/2 teaspoon, and add 2 teaspoons
baking powder to recipe

Mushrooms, fresh 1 pound 3 ounces dried mushrooms plus 1 1/2 cups water

1 (10-ounce) can

Mustard, dry 1 teaspoon 1 tablespoon prepared mustard

1/2 teaspoon mustard seeds

Mustard, Dijon 1 tablespoon 1 tablespoon dry mustard mixed with 1 teaspoon water, 1
teaspoon white wine vinegar, 1 tablespoon mayonnaise,
and a pinch of sugar

Ingredient Amount Substitutes

Nuts, chopped, 1 cup 1 cup similar nuts (your favorite) prepared in the same
ground or whole way

1 cup rolled oats, browned (in baked products)

O
Ingredient Amount
 Substitutes

Oil (for sauteing) 1/4 cup 1/4 cup melted margarine, butter, bacon drippings,
shortening, or lard

Old Bay Seasoning see Old Bay Seasoning Recipe

Onion, fresh 1 small rehydrate 1 tbsp instant minced onion

Onion 1 small 1/4 cup chopped, fresh green onions

1 1/3 teaspoons onion salt

1 to 2 tablespoons instant minced onion

1 teaspoon onion powder

2 tablespoons dried minced onion

Orange, whole 1 medium 6 to 8 tablespoons juice and 2 to 3 tablespoon grated rind

(zest)

Orange juice, 1 cup 1 cup reconstituted frozen orange concentrate

freshly squeezed
1 cup other citrus juice (of your choice)

Orange peel (zest), 1 medium 2 to 3 tablespoons grated fresh orange peel (zest)
fresh
1 teaspoon lemon juice

1/2 teaspoon orange extract

Ingredient Amount Substitutes

Parmesan cheese, 1/2 cup 1/2 cup grated Asiago cheese or grated Romano cheese
grated
Parsley, fresh 1 teaspoon 1 teaspoon dried parsley
chopped
1 tablespoon chopped fresh chervil

Peanut Butter 1 cup 1 cup of another nut butter (such as almond or hazelnut
butter)

1 cup tahini (sesame paste)

Pepper, white 1 teaspoon 1 teaspoon black pepper

Peppers, green bell 1 tablespoon 3 tablespoons fresh green pepper, chopped

dried
Peppers, red bell 1 tablespoon 3 tablespoons fresh red bell pepper, chopped
dried
2 tablespoons chopped pimento

Peppermint, dried 1 tablespoon 1/4 cup chopped fresh mint

Pimento 2 tablespoons, rehydrate 1 tablespoon dried red bell peppers

chopped
3 tablespoons fresh red bell pepper, chopped

Polenta, dry 1 cup 1 cup cornmeal

1 cup maize meal

1 cup corn grits

Poultry seasoning 1 teaspoon 1/2 teaspoon ground sage, 1/2 teaspoon dried thyme,
and 1/2 teaspoon dried rosemary

Pumpkin pie spice 1 teaspoon 1/2 teaspoon cinnamon, 1/4 teaspoon ginger, 1/8
teaspoon allspice, and 1/8 teaspoon nutmeg

Ingredient Amount Substitutes

Raisins 1 cup 1 cup dried currants

1 cup dried blueberries, cranberries, or cherries

1 cup other dried fruit (chopped into small pieces)

Rennet 1 tablet 1 tablespoon liquid rennet

Rice (3 cups 1 cup regular, 1 cup uncooked converted rice

cooked) uncooked
1 cup uncooked brown rice

1 cup uncooked wild rice

1 cup bulgur or pearl barley, cooked

Ricotta cheese 1 cup 1 cup cottage cheese

Rum 1/4 cup 1 tablespoon rum extract plus enough liquid to make 1/4
cup

Ingredient Amount Substitutes

Saffron equal amount of Turmeric

Shortening, melted 1 cup 1 cup cooking oil (cooking oil should not be substituted if
recipe does not call for melted shortening)

Shortening, solid 1 cup 1 cup minus 2 tablespoons lard

(used in baking)
1 cup butter

1 cup margarine

Sour cream, 1 cup 3/4 cup sour milk and 1/3 cup butter or margarine
cultured
3/4 cup buttermilk and 1/3 cup butter or margarine

Blend until smooth: 1/3 cup buttermilk, 1 tbsp lemon

juice, and 1 cup cottage cheese

1 cup plain yogurt

3/4 cup milk, 3/4 tsp lemon juice, and 1/3 cup butter or
margarine

Spearmint, dried 1 tablespoon 1/4 cup chopped fresh mint

Star Anise, ground 1 teaspoon 1 teaspoon ground anise seed

1 teaspoon ground fennel seed

Sugar, brown (light 1 cup firmly 1 cup granulated sugar

or dark) packed
1 cup granulated sugar plus 1/4 cup unsulpured molasses

1/2 cup liquid brown sugar

1 cup raw sugar

Sugar, superfine 1 cup 1 cup granulated white sugar processed in a food processor
or grinder
Sugar, white 1 cup 1 cup corn syrup, decrease liquid called for in recipe by
1/4 cup (never replace more than 1/2 cup sugar called for
in recipe with corn syrup)

1 1/3 cup molasses (decrease liquid called for in recipe by

1/3 cup)

1 cup caster (superfine) sugar

1 cup powdered (confectioners') sugar

1 cup brown sugar (light or dark), firmly packed

1 cup honey (decrease liquid called for in recipe by 1/4

cup)

Ingredient Amount Substitutes

Tahini 1 tablespoon 1 tablespoon peanut butter

Tapioca, instant or 1 tablespoon 2 tablespoons pear tapioca, soaked

quick-cooking
Tapioca, quick- 1 tablespoon 1 tablespoon of flour
cooking for
thickening
Tomatoes, canned 1 cup 1 1/3 cups diced fresh tomatoes simmered 10 minutes

Tomatoes, fresh 2 cups, 1 (16-ounce) can tomatoes

chopped
Tomatoes, packed 1 cup 1/2 cup tomato sauce plus 1/2 cup water

Tomato Juice 1 cup 1/2 cup tomato sauce and 1/2 cup water

Tomato Sauce 2 cups 3/4 cup tomato paste plus 1 cup water

Tomato Soup 1 (10 3/4 1 cup tomato sauce plus 1/4 oz. can cup water
ounce) can
Treacle 1 cup 1 cup light or dark brown sugar

Ingredient Amount Substitutes

Vanilla bean 1/2 bean 1 tablespoon pure vanilla extract

Vanilla Extract, pure 1 teaspoon 1/2 vanilla bean

1/2 to 1 teaspoon other extract (such as almond,

peppermint, lemon, orange, etc.)

Vegetable Shortening, 1 cup 1 cup butter

solid
1 cup lard

1 cup margarine

Vinegar, Balsamic 1 tablespoon 1 tablespoon sherry vinegar or cider vinegar

Vinegar, regular 1 tablespoon 1 tablespoon lemon or lime juice

(white or cider)

Ingredient Amount Substitutes

Worcestershire 1 teaspoon 1 teaspoon bottled steak sauce

sauce

Ingredient Amount Substitutes

Yeast, active dry 1 tablespoon 1 yeast cake, compressed

1 package active dry yeast

1 tablespoon instant or fast-rising active yeast

Yogurt, plain 1 cup 1 cup buttermilk

1 cup cottage cheese blended until smooth

1 cup sour cream

 Cups To Grams Conversions (Metric)

Butter Measurements

Table
Cups Sticks Pounds spoon Grams
s

1/4 1/2 1/8 4 55 g

1/2 1 1/4 8 112 g

1/2+1 & 1/3 5&

1/3 n/a 75 g
tbspns 1/3

10 &
2/3 1 + 2 & 2/3 tbspns n/a 150 g
2/3

3/4 1 & 1/2 3/8 12 170 g

1 2 1/2 16 225 g

2 4 1 32 450 g

Baking Measurements

If a recipe calls for You can also measure it this

this amount way

2 or 3 drops (liquid) or less than

Dash
1/8 teaspoon (dry)

1 tablespoon 3 teaspoons or 1/2 ounce

2 tablespoons 1 ounce

1/4 cup 4 tablespoons or 2 ounces

1/3 cup 5 tablespoons plus 1 teaspoon

1/2 cup 8 tablespoons or 4 ounces

3/4 cup 12 tablespoons or 6 ounces

 If a recipe calls for You can also measure it this
this amount way

1 cup 16 tablespoons or 8 ounces

2 cups or 16 ounces or 1
1 pint
pound

1 quart 4 cups or 2 pints

1 gallon 4 quarts

1 pound 16 ounces

Volume Measurements

Canadian Australian
US Units
Units Units

1/4 teaspoon 1 ml 1 ml

1/2 teaspoon 2 ml 2 ml

1 teaspoon 5 ml 5 ml

1 tablespoon 15 ml 20 ml

1/4 cup 50 ml 60 ml

1/3 cup 75 ml 80 ml

1/2 cup 125 ml 125 ml

2/3 cup 150 ml 170 ml

3/4 cup 175 ml 190 ml

1 cup 250 ml 250 ml

1 quart 1 liter 1 liter

1 and 1/2 quarts 1.5 liters 1.5 liters

2 quarts 2 liters 2 liters

 Canadian Australian
US Units
Units Units

2 and 1/2 quarts 2.5 liters 2.5 liters

3 quarts 3 liters 3 liters

4 quarts 4 liters 4 liters

Weight Measurements

Canadian
US Units Australian Metric
Metric

1 ounce 30 grams 30 grams

2 ounces 55 grams 60 grams

3 ounces 85 grams 90 grams

4 ounces (1/4 pound) 115 grams 125 grams

8 ounces (1/2 pound) 225 grams 225 grams

500 grams (1/2

16 ounces (1 pound) 455 grams
kilogram)

Temperature Conversions

Farenheit Celsius

32 0

212 100

250 120

275 140

300 150

325 160

350 180
Farenheit Celsius

375 190

400 200

425 220

450 230

475 240

500 260