The first flying vertebrates were true reptiles in which one of the fingers of the front limbs became

very elongated, providing support for a flap of stretched skin that served as a wing. These were the
pterosaurs, literally the "winged lizards." The earliest pterosaurs arose near the end of the Triassic
period of the Mesozoic Era, some 70 million years before the first known fossils of true birds occur,
and they presumably dominated the skies until they were eventually displaced by birds. Like the
dinosaurs, some the pterosaurs became gigantic; the largest fossil discovered is of an individual that
had a wingspan of 50 feet or more, larger than many airplanes. These flying reptiles had large, tooth-
filled jaws, but their bodies were small and probably without the necessary powerful muscles for
sustained wing movement. They must have been expert gliders, not skillful fliers, relying on wind
power for their locomotion.

Birds, despite sharing common reptilian ancestors with pterosaurs, evolved quite separately and
have been much more successful in their dominance of the air. They are an example of a common
theme in evolution, the more or less parallel development of different types of body structure and
function for the same reason-in this case, for flight. Although the fossil record, as always, is not
complete enough to determine definitively the evolutionary lineage of the birds or in as much detail
as one would like, it is better in this case than for many other animal groups. That is because of the
unusual preservation in a limestone quarry in southern Germany of Archaeopteryx, a fossil that
many have called the link between dinosaurs and birds. Indeed, had it not been for the superb
preservation of these fossils, they might well have been classified as dinosaurs. They have the skull
and teeth of a reptile as well as a bony tail, but in the line-grained limestone in which these fossils
occur there are delicate impressions of feathers and fine details of bone structure that make it clear
that Archaeopteryx was a bird. All birds living today, from the great condors of the Andes to the
tiniest wrens, race their origin back to the Mesozoic dinosaurs.

Vertebrata terbang pertama adalah reptil yang benar di mana salah satu jari kaki depan menjadi
sangat memanjang, memberikan dukungan untuk lipatan kulit membentang yang berfungsi sebagai
sayap. Ini adalah pterosaurus, yang secara harfiah adalah "kadal bersayap". Pterosaurus paling awal
muncul di dekat akhir periode Trias pada Era Mesozoikum, sekitar 70 juta tahun sebelum fosil
pertama yang diketahui dari burung yang benar terjadi, dan mereka mungkin mendominasi langit
sampai akhirnya mereka dipindahkan oleh burung. Seperti dinosaurus, beberapa pterosaurus
menjadi raksasa; fosil terbesar yang ditemukan adalah individu yang memiliki lebar sayap 50 kaki
atau lebih, lebih besar dari banyak pesawat terbang. Reptil terbang ini memiliki rahang besar yang
diisi gigi, tetapi tubuh mereka kecil dan mungkin tanpa otot-otot yang kuat yang diperlukan untuk
gerakan sayap yang berkelanjutan. Mereka pastilah ahli glider, bukan selebaran yang terampil,
mengandalkan kekuatan angin untuk pergerakan mereka.

Burung, meskipun berbagi nenek moyang reptil yang sama dengan pterosaurus, berevolusi secara
terpisah dan telah jauh lebih sukses dalam dominasi udara mereka. Mereka adalah contoh tema
umum dalam evolusi, perkembangan paralel yang lebih kurang dari berbagai jenis struktur dan
fungsi tubuh untuk alasan yang sama - dalam hal ini, untuk penerbangan. Meskipun catatan fosil,
seperti biasa, tidak cukup lengkap untuk menentukan secara pasti garis evolusi burung-burung atau
sedetail yang diinginkan, lebih baik dalam hal ini daripada banyak kelompok hewan lainnya. Itu
karena pelestarian yang tidak biasa di tambang batu kapur di Jerman selatan Archaeopteryx, fosil
yang banyak disebut hubungan antara dinosaurus dan burung. Memang, kalau bukan karena
pelestarian luar biasa dari fosil-fosil ini, mereka mungkin telah diklasifikasikan sebagai dinosaurus.
Mereka memiliki tengkorak dan gigi reptil serta ekor tulang, tetapi di batu kapur garis-garis di mana
fosil-fosil ini terjadi ada kesan halus dari bulu-bulu dan detail-detail halus dari struktur tulang yang
membuatnya jelas bahwa Archaeopteryx adalah seekor burung. Semua burung yang hidup hari ini,
dari burung-burung kondor Andes sampai yang paling kecil, berasal dari dinosaurus Mesozoikum.

11. What does the passage mainly discuss?

A. Characteristics of pterosaur wings
B. The discovery of fossil remains of Archaeopteryx
C. Reasons for the extinction of early flying vertebrates
D. The development of flight in reptiles and birds

12. Which of the following is true of early reptile wings?

A. They evolved from strong limb muscles.
B. They consisted of an extension of skin.
C. They connected the front and back limbs.
D. They required fingers of equal length.

13. The word 'literally' in line 3 is closest in meaning to

A. creating
B. meaning
C. related to
D. simplified

14. It can be inferred from the passage that birds were probably dominant in the skies
A. in the early Triassic period
B. before the appearance of pterosaurs
C. after the decline of pterosaurs
D. before dinosaurs could be found on land.

15. The author mentions airplanes in line 8 in order to

A. illustrate the size of wingspans in some pterosaurs
B. compare the energy needs of dinosaurs with those of modern machines
C. demonstrate the differences between mechanized flight and animal flight
D. establish the practical applications of the study of fossils

16. The word 'They' in line 10 refers to

A. powerful muscles
B. bodies
C. jaws
D. flying reptiles
17. According to the passage, pterosaurs were probably 'not skillful fliers' (line 11) because
A. of their limited wingspan
B. of their disproportionately large bodies
C. they lacked muscles needed for extended flight
D. climate conditions of the time provided insufficient wind power

18. In paragraph 2, the author discusses the development of flight in birds as resulting from
A. a similarity in body structure to pterosaurs
B. an evolution from pterosaurs
C. the dominance of birds and pterosaurs over land animals
D. a separate but parallel development process to that of pterosaurs

19. The word 'classified' in line 21 is closest in meaning to

A. perfected
B. replaced
C. categorized
D. protected

20. Which of the following helped researchers determine that Archaeopteryx was not a dinosaurs?
A. Its tail
B. Its teeth
C. The shape of its skull
D. Details of its bone structure

21. What is the significance of the discovery that was made in southern Germany?
A. It is thought to demonstrate that birds evolved from dinosaurs.
B. It is proof that the climate and soils of Europe have changed over time.
C. It suggests that dinosaurs were dominant in areas rich in limestone.
D. It supports the theory that Archaeopteryx was a powerful dinosaur.

Atmospheric pressure can support a column of water up to 10 meters high. But plants can
move water much higher, the sequoia tree can pump water to its very top, more than 100
meters above the ground. Until the end of the nineteenth century, the movement of water's
in trees and other talls plants was a mystery. Some botanists hypothesized that the living
cells of plants acted as pumps, but many experiments demonstrated that the stems of plants
in which all the cells are killed can still move water to appreciable heights. Other
explanations for the movement of water in plants have been based on root pressure, a push
on the water from the roots at the bottom of the plant. But root pressure is not nearly great
enough to push water to the tops of tall trees, Furthermore, the conifers, which are among
the tallest trees have unusually low root pressures.

_____If water is not pumped to the top of a tall tree, and if it is not pushed, to the top of a
tall tree, then we may ask. How does it get there? According to the currently accepted
cohesion-tension theory, water is pulled there. The pull on a rising column of water in a
plant results from the evaporation of water at the top of the plant. As water is lost from the
surface of the leaves, a negative pressure or tension is created. The evaporated water is
replaced by water moving from inside the plant in unbroken columns that extend from the
top of a plant to its roots. The same forces that create surface tension in any sample of
water are responsible for the maintenance of these unbroken columns of water. When water
is confined in tubes of very small bore, the forces of cohesion ( the attraction between water
molecules) are so great that the strength of a column of water compares with the strength
of a steel wire of the same diameter. This cohesive strength permits columns of water to be
pulled to great heights without being broken.

Tekanan atmosfer dapat mendukung kolom air hingga 10 meter. Tetapi tanaman dapat
memindahkan air jauh lebih tinggi, pohon sequoia dapat memompa air ke bagian paling
atas, lebih dari 100 meter di atas tanah. Hingga akhir abad kesembilan belas, pergerakan air
di pepohonan dan tanaman bersarang lainnya adalah sebuah misteri. Beberapa ahli botani
berhipotesis bahwa sel-sel hidup tanaman bertindak sebagai pompa, tetapi banyak
percobaan menunjukkan bahwa batang tanaman di mana semua sel yang terbunuh masih
dapat memindahkan air ke ketinggian yang cukup tinggi. Penjelasan lain untuk pergerakan
air di tanaman didasarkan pada tekanan akar, dorongan pada air dari akar di bagian bawah
tanaman. Tetapi tekanan akar tidak cukup besar untuk mendorong air ke puncak pohon-
pohon tinggi. Selanjutnya, tumbuhan runjung, yang termasuk pohon tertinggi memiliki
tekanan akar yang sangat rendah.

Jika air tidak dipompa ke bagian atas pohon tinggi, dan jika tidak didorong, ke puncak
pohon tinggi, maka kita mungkin bertanya. Bagaimana caranya sampai di sana? Menurut
teori ketegangan kohesi yang diterima saat ini, air ditarik di sana. Tarikan pada kolom air
naik di tanaman hasil dari penguapan air di bagian atas tanaman. Ketika air hilang dari
permukaan daun, tekanan atau ketegangan negatif tercipta. Air yang menguap diganti
dengan air yang bergerak dari dalam pabrik dalam kolom tak terputus yang membentang
dari bagian atas tanaman hingga ke akarnya. Kekuatan yang sama yang menciptakan
tegangan permukaan dalam setiap sampel air bertanggung jawab untuk pemeliharaan
kolom air yang tidak terputus ini. Ketika air terkurung dalam tabung-tabung yang sangat
kecil, kekuatan-kekuatan kohesi (daya tarik antara molekul-molekul air) begitu besar
sehingga kekuatan kolom air sebanding dengan kekuatan kawat baja dengan diameter yang
sama. Kekuatan kohesif ini memungkinkan kolom air untuk ditarik ke ketinggian yang besar
tanpa patah.

1. How many theories does the author mention?

(A) One
(B) Two
(C) Three
(D) Four

2. The passage answers which of the following questions ?

(A) What is the effect of atmospheric pressure on foliage?
(B) When do dead cells harm plant growth?
(C) How does water get to the tops of trees?
(D) Why is root pressure weak?

3. The word "demonstrated" in line 6 is closest in meaning to

(A) ignored
(B) showed
(C) disguised
(D) distinguished

4. What do the experiments mentioned in lines 6-8 prove?

(A) Plant stems die when deprived of water.
(B) Cells in plant sterns do not pump water.
(C) Plants cannot move water to high altitudes.
(D) Plant cells regulate pressure within stems.

5. How do botanists know that root pressure is not the only force that moves water in
plants?
(A) Some very tall trees have weak root pressure.
(B) Root pressures decrease in winter.
(C) Plants can live after their roots die.
(D) Water in a plant's roots is not connected to water in its stem.

6. Which of the following statements does the passage support?

(A) Water is pushed to the tops of trees.
(B) Botanists have proven that living cells act as pumps.
(C) Atmospheric pressure draws water to the tops of tall trees.
(D) Botanists have changed their theories of how water moves in plants.

7. The word "it" in line 13 refers to

(A) top
(B) tree
(C) water
(D) cohesion-tension theory

8. The word "there" in line 15 refers to

(A) treetops
(B) roots
(C) water columns
(D) tubes

9. What causes the tension that draws water up a plant?

(A) Humidity
(B) Plant growth
(C) Root pressure
(D) Evaporation

10. The word "extend" in line 19 is closest in meaning to

(A) stretch
(B) branch
(C) increase
(D) rotate

11. According to the passage, why does water travel through plants in unbroken columns?
(A) Root pressure moves the water very rapidly.
(B) The attraction between water molecules is strong.
(C) The living cell of plants push the water molecules together.
(D) Atmospheric pressure supports the columns.

12. Why does the author mention steel wire in line 24?
(A) To illustrate another means of pulling water
(B) To demonstrate why wood is a good building material
(C) To indicate the size of a column of winter
(D) To emphasize the strength of cohesive forces in water

13. Where in the passage does the author give an example of a plant with low root
pressure?
(A.) Lines 3-5
(B) Lines 6-8
(C) Lines 11-12
(D) Lines 13-14

Panel painting, common in thirteenth -and fourteenth -century Europe, involved a painstaking,
laborious process. Wooden planks were joined, covered with gesso to prepare the surface for
painting , and then polished smooth with special tools. On this perfect surface, the artist would
sketch a composition with chalk, refine it with inks, and then begin the deliberate process of
applying thin layers of egg tempera paint (egg yolk in which pigments are suspended) with small
brushes. The successive layering of these meticulously applied paints produced the final, translucent
colors.

Backgrounds of gold were made by carefully applying sheets of gold leaf, and then embellishing of
decorating the gold leaf by punching it with a metal rod on which a pattern had been embossed.
Every step in the process was slow and deliberate. The quick-drying tempera demanded that the
artist know exactly where each stroke be placed before the brush met the panel, and it required the
use of fine brushes. It was, therefore, an ideal technique for emphasizing the hard linear edges and
pure, fine areas of color that were so much a part of the overall aesthetic of the time. The notion
that an artist could or would dash off an idea in a fit of spontaneous inspiration was completely alien
to these deliberately produced works.

Furthermore, making these paintings was so time-consuming that it demanded assistance. All such
work was done by collective enterprise in the workshops. The painter or master who is credited with
having created painting may have designed the work and overseen its production, but it is highly
unlikely that the artist's hand applied every stroke of the brush. More likely, numerous assistants,
who had been trained to imitate the artist's style, applied the paint. The carpenter's shop probably
provided the frame and perhaps supplied the panel, and yet another shop supplied the gold. Thus,
not only many hands, but also many shops were involved in the final product.

In spite of problems with their condition, restoration, and preservation many panel paintings have
survived, and today many of them are housed in museum collections.

Lukisan panel, umum di Eropa ketiga belas dan keempat belas, melibatkan proses yang melelahkan
dan melelahkan. Papan-papan kayu disambung, ditutup dengan gesso untuk menyiapkan permukaan
untuk lukisan, dan kemudian digosok halus dengan peralatan khusus. Pada permukaan yang
sempurna ini, seniman akan membuat sketsa komposisi dengan kapur, memolesnya dengan tinta,
dan kemudian memulai proses yang disengaja menerapkan lapisan tipis cat tempera telur (kuning
telur di mana pigmen-pigmen ditunda) dengan sikat kecil. Pelapisan berturut-turut dari cat yang
diaplikasikan secara cermat ini menghasilkan warna-warna akhir yang tembus cahaya.

Latar belakang emas dibuat dengan hati-hati menerapkan lembaran daun emas, dan kemudian
menghias dekorasi daun emas dengan meninju dengan batang logam di mana pola telah timbul.
Setiap langkah dalam proses itu lambat dan disengaja. Tempera yang cepat kering menuntut agar
sang seniman tahu persis di mana setiap sapuan ditempatkan sebelum sikat bertemu dengan panel,
dan itu membutuhkan penggunaan kuas halus. Oleh karena itu, teknik yang ideal untuk menekankan
tepi linier keras dan murni, bidang warna yang baik yang begitu banyak bagian dari estetika
keseluruhan waktu. Gagasan bahwa seorang seniman dapat atau akan memunculkan ide dengan
inspirasi spontan benar-benar asing bagi karya-karya yang sengaja diproduksi ini.

Selanjutnya, membuat lukisan-lukisan ini sangat memakan waktu sehingga membutuhkan bantuan.
Semua pekerjaan tersebut dilakukan oleh perusahaan kolektif di bengkel. Pelukis atau tuan yang
dikreditkan karena telah menciptakan lukisan mungkin telah merancang pekerjaan dan mengawasi
produksinya, tetapi sangat tidak mungkin tangan seniman itu mengaplikasikan setiap sapuan kuas.
Lebih mungkin, banyak asisten, yang telah dilatih untuk meniru gaya artis, mengaplikasikan cat. Toko
tukang kayu mungkin menyediakan bingkai dan mungkin memasok panel, dan toko lain memasok
emas. Jadi, tidak hanya banyak tangan, tetapi juga banyak toko yang terlibat dalam produk akhir.

Terlepas dari masalah dengan kondisi mereka, pemulihan, dan pelestarian banyak lukisan panel
telah bertahan, dan hari ini banyak dari mereka yang ditempatkan di koleksi museum.

11. What aspect of panel paintings does the passage mainly discuss?
A. Famous examples
B. Different styles
C. Restoration
D. Production

12. According to the passage, what does the first step in making a panel painting ?
A. Mixing the paint
B. Preparing the panel
C. Buying the gold leaf
D. Making ink drawings

13. The word 'it' in line 4 refers to

A. chalk
B. composition
C. artist
D. surface

14. The word 'deliberate' in line 5 is closest in meaning to

A. decisive
B. careful
C. natural
D. unusual

15. Which of the following processes produced the translucent colors found on panel paintings?
A. Joining wooden planks to form large sheets
B. Polishing the gesso
C. Applying many layers of paint
D. Covering the background with gold leaf

16. What characteristic of tempera paint is mentioned in the passage ?

A. It dries quickly
B. It is difficult to make
C. It dissolves easily
D. It has to be applied directly to wood

17. The word 'demanded' in line 17 is closest in meaning to

A. ordered
B. reported
C. required
D. questioned

18. The 'collective enterprise' mentioned in line 18 includes all of the following EXCEPT
A. supplying the gold leaf
B. building the panels
C. applying the paint
D. selling the painting
19. The word 'imitate' in line 22 is closest in meaning to
A. copy
B. illustrate
C. promote
D. believe in

20. The author mentions all of the following as problems with the survival of panel painting EXCEPT
A. condition
B. theft
C. preservation
D. restoration

21. The word 'them' in line 27 refers to

A. problems
B. condition, restoration, preservation
C. panel paintings
D. museum collections

When Jules Verne wrote Journey to the Center of the Earth in 1864, there were many conflicting
theories about the nature of the Earth's interior. Some geologists thought that it contained a highly
compressed ball of incandescent gas, while others suspected that it consisted of separate shells,
each made of a different material. Today, well over a century later, there is still little direct evidence
of what lies beneath our feet.

Most of our knowledge of the Earth's interior comes not from mines or boreholes, but from the
study of seismic waves - powerful pulses of energy released by earthquakes.

The way that seismic waves travel shows that the Earth's interior is far from uniform. The continents
and the seabed are formed by the crust - a thin sphere of relatively light, solid rock. Beneath the
crust lies the mantle, a very different layer that extends approximately halfway to the Earth's center.
There the rock is the subject of a battle between increasing heat and growing pressure.

In its high levels, the mantle is relatively cool; at greater depths, high temperatures make the rock
behave more like a liquid than a solid. Deeper still, the pressure is even more intense, preventing the
rock from melting in spite of a higher temperature.

Beyond a depth of around 2,900 kilometers, a great change takes place and the mantle gives way to
the core. Some seismic waves cannot pass through the core and others are bent by it. From this and
other evidence, geologists conclude that the outer core is probably liquid, with a solid center. It is
almost certainly made of iron, mixed with smaller amounts of other elements such as nickel.

The conditions in the Earth's core make it a far more alien world than space. Its solid iron heart is
subjected to unimaginable pressure and has a temperature of about 9,000oF. Although scientists can
speculate about its nature, neither humans nor machines will ever be able to visit it.
Ketika Jules Verne menulis Perjalanan ke Center of the Earth pada tahun 1864, ada banyak teori
yang saling bertentangan tentang sifat dasar Bumi. Beberapa ahli geologi berpikir bahwa itu berisi
bola pijar yang sangat padat, sementara yang lain menduga bahwa itu terdiri dari cangkang terpisah,
masing-masing terbuat dari bahan yang berbeda. Hari ini, lebih dari seabad kemudian, masih ada
sedikit bukti langsung tentang apa yang ada di bawah kaki kita.

Sebagian besar pengetahuan kita tentang interior Bumi bukan berasal dari ranjau atau lubang bor,
tetapi dari studi gelombang seismik - pulsa energi yang kuat yang dilepaskan oleh gempa bumi.

Cara perjalanan gelombang seismik menunjukkan bahwa interior Bumi jauh dari seragam. Benua dan
dasar laut terbentuk oleh kerak bumi - bola tipis yang relatif ringan, batuan padat. Di bawah kerak
terletak mantel, lapisan yang sangat berbeda yang memanjang kira-kira setengah jalan ke pusat
Bumi. Di sana batu adalah subjek pertempuran antara meningkatnya panas dan tekanan yang
semakin besar.

Dalam levelnya yang tinggi, mantelnya relatif dingin; pada kedalaman yang lebih besar, suhu tinggi
membuat batu berperilaku lebih seperti cairan daripada padatan. Lebih dalam lagi, tekanannya
bahkan lebih kuat, mencegah batu meleleh terlepas dari suhu yang lebih tinggi.

Di luar kedalaman sekitar 2.900 kilometer, perubahan besar terjadi dan mantel memberi jalan
menuju inti. Beberapa gelombang seismik tidak dapat melewati inti dan yang lain dibengkokkan
olehnya. Dari ini dan bukti lainnya, ahli geologi menyimpulkan bahwa inti luar mungkin cair, dengan
pusat yang solid. Hampir pasti terbuat dari besi, dicampur dengan unsur-unsur lain dalam jumlah
yang lebih kecil seperti nikel.

Kondisi di inti Bumi membuatnya menjadi dunia yang jauh lebih asing daripada ruang angkasa.
Jantung besi padatnya mengalami tekanan yang tak terbayangkan dan memiliki suhu sekitar 9000oF.
Meskipun para ilmuwan dapat berspekulasi tentang sifatnya, baik manusia maupun mesin tidak akan
pernah dapat mengunjunginya.

1. The word 'conflicting' in line 2 is closest in meaning to

A. controlling
B. outdated
C. opposing
D. important

2. What is today's richest source of information about the Earth's interior for geologists?
A. Boreholes
B. Shells
C. Seismic waves
D. Mines

3. The word 'There' in line 12 refers to the

A. mantle
B. crust
C. seabed
D. Earth's center.

4. Which of the following is a primary characteristic of the Earth's mantle?

A. Light, solid rock
B. Uniformity of composition
C. Dramatically increasing pressure
D. Compressed, incandescent gas

5. The phrase 'gives way to' in line 18 is closest in meaning to

A. runs along
B. rubs against
C. turns into
D. floats on

6. The word 'it' in line 19 refers to

A. mantle
B. core
C. change
D. depth

7. Why does the author state in line 22 that the Earth's core is 'more alien' than space?
A. Government funds are not available to study the Earth's core.
B. Scientists aren't interested in the characteristics of the Earth's core.
C. It is impossible to go to the Earth's core to do research.
D. The Earth's core is made of elements that are dangerous to humans.

8. The word 'speculate' in line 24 is closest in meaning to

A. report
B. learn
C. worry
D. hypothesize