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Pet owner educational atlas

PARASITES
Diagnosis, control and prevention
Texts and review: Sergio Villanueva Saz Asier Basurco Pérez

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Pet owner educational
atlas

PARASITES
Diagnosis, control
and prevention

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For this English edition:
Pet owner educational atlas
Parasites. Diagnosis, control and prevention
Copyright © 2017 Grupo Asís Biomedia, S.L.
Plaza Antonio Beltrán Martínez nº 1, planta 8 - letra I
(Centro empresarial El Trovador)
50002 Zaragoza - Spain

First printing: May 2017

This book has been published originally in Spanish under the title:
Atlas de información al propietario.
Parásitos. Diagnóstico, control y prevención
© 2017 Grupo Asís Biomedia, S.L.
ISBN Spanish edition: 978-84-16818-54-9

Translation:
Owen Howard
Illustrators:
Jacob Gragera Artal
Paula Marco Peinado

ISBN: 978-84-16818-71-6
D.L.: Z 706-2017

Design, layout and printing:


Servet editorial - Grupo Asís Biomedia, S.L.
www.grupoasis.com
info@grupoasis.com

All rights reserved.


Any form of reproduction, distribution, publication or transformation of this book is only permitted
with the authorisation of its copyright holders, apart from the exceptions allowed by law. Contact
CEDRO (Spanish Centre of Reproduction Rights, www.cedro.org) if you need to photocopy or
scan any part of this book (www.conlicencia.com; 0034 91 702 19 70/0034 93 272 04 47).

Warning:
Veterinary science is constantly evolving, as are pharmacology and the other sciences. Inevitably, it is
therefore the responsibility of the veterinary surgeon to determine and verify the dosage, the method
of administration, the duration of treatment and any possible contraindications to the treatments given
to each individual patient, based on his or her professional experience. Neither the publisher nor the
author can be held liable for any damage or harm caused to people, animals or properties resulting
from the correct or incorrect application of the information contained in this book.

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3
PREFACE

PREFACE
The objective of this informative book is to help veterinary surgeons provide pet owners with
simple explanations about different aspects of the diagnosis, treatment, prevention, and zoono-
tic risk of the main parasites of dogs and cats. Given the growing popularity of exotic pets,
we also felt that it was important to provide veterinary surgeons with the necessary tools to
answer basic questions related to their care. We have placed a particular emphasis on the
parasites that most commonly affect these animals, as well as those that can also potentially
affect humans.

The text in this educational atlas for pet owners is complemented by illustrations. These are de-
signed to facilitate communication between the veterinary surgeon and the pet owner, and to
help explain key concepts and ideas about the world of parasitic diseases and the importance
of parasites in animal health.

We have sought to provide straightforward answers to the issues of greatest interest to pet
owners, such as preventive care of pets and the relationship between the pet itself, parasites,
and humans.

Finally, we wish to note the excellent work done by the illustrators (Jacob Gragera and Paula
Marco) and editors (Leticia Escuin and Marta Borobia) who helped to shape this book.

We hope that the reader will find the content of interest and that this book serves as a useful
support tool for veterinary surgeons in their daily clinical practice.

The authors,
Asier Basurco Pérez
Sergio Villanueva Saz

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4 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

Table of contents
01 TYPES OF PARASITES

External parasites
1 Fleas ............................................................................................................................................................................. 7
2 Ticks ............................................................................................................................................................................. 8
3 Lice ................................................................................................................................................................................ 9
4 Mites ......................................................................................................................................................................... 10
5 Mosquitoes and sandflies .......................................................................................................................... 11

Internal parasites
6 Roundworms ....................................................................................................................................................... 12
7 Flukes and tapeworms ................................................................................................................................. 13
8 Microscopic agents ....................................................................................................................................... 14

02 PARASITIC DISEASES BY SYSTEMS

Digestive system
9 Caused by nematodes ................................................................................................................................. 15
10 Caused by cestodes ...................................................................................................................................... 16
11 Caused by trematodes ................................................................................................................................ 17
12 Caused by protozoa ..................................................................................................................................... 18

Cardiorespiratory system
13 Lungworms ........................................................................................................................................................... 19
14 Heartworm (canine dirofilariasis) ........................................................................................................ 20

Blood
15 Tick-borne diseases ........................................................................................................................................ 21
16 Other parasitic diseases of the blood .............................................................................................. 22

Renal system
17 Urinary parasites ............................................................................................................................................. 23

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5
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Systemic or multiorgan
18 Leishmaniasis ...................................................................................................................................................... 24
19 Toxoplasmosis .................................................................................................................................................... 25
20 Other diseases .................................................................................................................................................. 26

Cutaneous
21 Flea infestation: flea allergy dermatitis ............................................................................................ 27
22 Tick infestation ................................................................................................................................................... 28
23 Allergic reactions to bites .......................................................................................................................... 29
24 Mange ..................................................................................................................................................................... 30
25 Myiasis .................................................................................................................................................................... 31

Ocular
26 Ocular parasites .............................................................................................................................................. 32

03 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS
IN PARASITOLOGY

27 Stool analysis ..................................................................................................................................................... 33


28 Blood smear ........................................................................................................................................................ 34
29 Skin scrapings ................................................................................................................................................... 35
30 Trichogram ........................................................................................................................................................... 36
31 Adhesive tape test .......................................................................................................................................... 37
32 Flea comb ............................................................................................................................................................. 38
33 Analysis of otic exudate ............................................................................................................................. 39

04 MAIN ZOONOSES

34 Zoonoses from dogs ..................................................................................................................................... 40


35 Zoonoses from cats ........................................................................................................................................ 41

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6 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

05 MAIN PARASITES
OF EXOTIC ANIMALS

36 Parasites of birds ............................................................................................................................................. 42


37 Parasites of small rodents .......................................................................................................................... 44
38 Parasites of rabbits ......................................................................................................................................... 46
39 Parasites of ferrets ........................................................................................................................................... 48
40 Parasites of reptiles ........................................................................................................................................ 50

06 MISCELLANEOUS

41 How to remove a tick ................................................................................................................................... 52


42 Correct use of a pipette .............................................................................................................................. 53
43 How to administer an oral antiparasitic ......................................................................................... 54
44 How does an antiparasitic work? Presentations ....................................................................... 55
45 How do I know if my pet is parasitised? ........................................................................................ 56
46 Basic hygiene measures ............................................................................................................................. 57
47 Management recommendations ........................................................................................................... 58
48 Parasite control programmes .................................................................................................................. 59
49 How to remove fleas from the environment ................................................................................. 60
50 Avoid mosquito and sandfly bites ....................................................................................................... 61

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7
TYPES OF PARASITES

EXTERNAL PARASITES

1 Fleas
The adult forms of these small insects (Ctenocephalides spp.) require the blood of animals to com-
plete their life cycle. They pose a risk to the animal: massive infestations and hypersensitivity reac-
tions (flea allergy dermatitis, FAD). They can also transmit other diseases: dipylidiasis, bartonellosis,
haemoplasmosis (mycoplasmosis), filariasis, and rickettsiosis.

A high parasite load


in the environment can
lead to biting/infestation
of humans, and the Adult flea
transmission of various
pathogens.

Eggs

Pupa

Larva 1
Larva 2

Larva 3

Clinical signs
Dog: Cat:
■ Intense pruritus (scratching, biting, or licking). ■ Pruritus (licking).
■ Lumbosacral alopecia. ■ Symmetrical self-induced alopecia.
■ Seborrhoea and scaling. ■ Eosinophilic granuloma complex lesions.
■ Pyotraumatic dermatitis. ■ Miliary dermatitis.
■ Presence of Dipylidium caninum. ■ Presence of Dipylidium caninum.
■ Chronic cases: hyperpigmentation, lichenification, ■ Chronic cases: alopecia without lesions.
hyperkeratosis. ■ Massive infestations: ingestion of blood by fleas can
■ Massive infestations: ingestion of blood by fleas can cause anaemia.
cause anaemia.

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8 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

EXTERNAL PARASITES

2 Ticks
These temporary ectoparasites feed on varying amounts of blood and can harm animals or hu-
mans, either by direct action or by transmitting pathogenic agents. Ticks from two different families
can affect dogs and cats: Argasidae (soft ticks) and Ixodidae (hard ticks). The latter is the most
important family.

Life cycle of Ixodidae


Hatching

Larva
Female with eggs
falls to the ground Eggs deposited in the
environment

Feeding on blood
of the host

Feeding on blood
Moulting in the
of the host
environment

Nymph

Feeding on blood
of the host
Male Female Moulting in the
Adults environment

Clinical signs
■ Areas in which ticks are most commonly found: ears, face, neck, belly, axillae and interdigital areas.
■ Otitis externa.
■ Localised cutaneous inflammatory reaction: inflammatory nodules, microabscesses at point of attachment.
■ Massive infestations: anaemia.
■ Tick toxicosis: ascending paralysis, ataxia, etc.
■ Clinical signs associated with transmitted pathogen.

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9
TYPES OF PARASITES

EXTERNAL PARASITES

3 Lice
These insects are capable of causing infestations (pediculosis), mainly in young, aged, or debilitated
animals. They can be divided into two broad classes, depending on feeding habits: chewing or
biting lice (feed on organic debris and detritus) and blood-sucking lice.

Lice (Trichodectes canis) can


They are highly specific to also serve as intermediate hosts of
their host, and thus there is other parasites such as Dipylidium
no risk of transmission to caninum.
humans.

Egg

Nymphs
(several stages)

Dog
Trichodectes canis (chewing louse)
Linognathus setosus (blood-sucking
louse)

Cat
Felicola subrostratus
(chewing louse)

Clinical signs
■ Cutaneous: poor haircoat appearance, self-induced excoriations due to pruritus, scaling and
alopecia (dorsal area or generalised).
■ General: anaemia and weakness in the case of massive infestations with blood-sucking lice.

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10 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

EXTERNAL PARASITES

4 Mites
These are small parasites that can affect dogs (Sarcoptes scabiei), cats (Notoedres cati), or both
(Demodex spp., Otodectes cynotis, Cheyletiella spp., Straelensia cynotis, and Neotrombicula
autumnalis). They generally cause pruritus and skin alterations.

Cheyletiella Some mites can cause zoonosis.

Other mites

Sarcoptes
Adult

Eggs

Nymph
(several phases)

Otodectes

Notoedres

Larva
Demodex

Clinical signs
■ Alopecia.
■ Scaling.
■ Crusts.
■ Erythema.
■ Pruritus of varying intensity depending on the mite responsible. Neotrombicula
■ Thickening of the skin.
■ Papules and pustules.
■ Skin hyperpigmentation.
■ Erosions and ulcerations. Straelensia
■ Otitis with presence of dark-coloured cerumen (mites that affect
the inner ear).
■ Excoriations and lesions caused by scratching.

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11
TYPES OF PARASITES

EXTERNAL PARASITES

5 Mosquitoes and sandflies


Culicid mosquitoes (Culex spp., Aedes spp., Anopheles spp.) and sandflies (Phlebotomus spp.,
Lutzomyia spp.) are ectoparasites that rest temporarily on the skin of the animal to feed. They
can transmit important pathogens, including parasites such as Leishmania infantum (sandflies) and
Dirofilaria immitis (culicid mosquitoes).

Culicid Sandflies
mosquitoes
Terrestrial
Aquatic

Eggs
Anopheles Culex

Aedes

Larva (4 stages)

Pupa

Aerial Aerial

Adult

In the case of mosquitoes and


sandflies, it is the female that
Clinical signs bites and feeds on blood.

■ Swelling, pain and pruritus of varying intensity in the area of the bite.
■ Skin lesions: papules, crusting, erythema, lesions caused by scratching.
■ Possible hypersensitivity reactions.

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12 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

INTERNAL PARASITES

6 Roundworms
Parasites of this group are of variable size and are characterised by a cylindrical and elongated
body. They are commonly referred to as roundworms or nematodes. These parasites cause various
lesions and inflammatory reactions in the anatomical sites in which they are found. Some of these
worms affect either canine or feline species, while others can affect both species.

Ocular Urinary
parasites parasites
■ Thelazia spp. ■ Capillaria spp.
(T. callipaeda and T. californiensis)) (C. plica and C. feliscati)
■ Onchocerca lupi ■ Dioctophyma renale

Cardiorespiratory Blood
parasites parasites
■ Dirofilaria immitis Located in the subcutaneous tissue:
■ Angiostrongylus vasorum ■ Dirofilaria repens

■ Filaroides spp. ■ Acanthocheilonema

(F. osleri and F. hirthi) reconditum


■ Crenosoma vulpis Located in the
■ Capillaria aerophila abdominal cavity:
■ Aelurostrongylus abstrusus ■ Acanthocheilonema

■ Troglostrongylus spp. dracunculoides

Digestive parasites
Located in the oesophagus: ■ Trichuris vulpis
■ Spirocerca lupi ■ Ancylostoma spp.
Located in the stomach: (A. caninum, A. tubaeforme
■ Physaloptera spp.
and A. braziliense)
■ Uncinaria stenocephala
Located in the intestine:
■ Trichuris vulpis
■ Toxascaris leonina
■ Strongyloides stercoralis
■ Toxocara spp. (T. canis and T. cati)

Some of these parasites can


affect humans.

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13
TYPES OF PARASITES

INTERNAL PARASITES

7 Flukes and tapeworms


These have a soft, dorsoventrally flattened body, which lends them a flatworm-like aspect. Pets can be
affected by two distinct classes: trematodes (flukes) and cestodes (tapeworms). The main difference
between the two classes is the absence (flukes) or presence (tapeworms) of a segmented body.

Some of these parasites can


affect humans.

1 2 3

The degree of
parasitisation of
the affected animal
influences the clinical
picture and its severity.

Flukes Tapeworms
Clinical signs Clinical signs
Affected animals may show no clinical signs or, The owner will usually observe signs of anal pruritus in
conversely, may develop different associated affected animals (rubbing against the floor) and the presence
clinical manifestations (depending on the location of segments of the parasite (proglottids) in the perianal area
of the adult forms/migration of immature forms). or in the stool.
In severe cases the clinical signs are primarily gastrointestinal,
including diarrhoea/constipation, vomiting, abdominal
distension, and intestinal obstruction (highly parasitised animals).
Nonspecific clinical signs such as weight loss, anorexia and
poor haircoat appearance may also be observed.

Echinococcus (3)
Paragonimus (1) Opisthorchis (2) Alaria (3)

1. Pulmonary localisation
2. Hepatic localisation
Taenia (3)
3. Intestinal localisation

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14 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

INTERNAL PARASITES

8 Microscopic agents
Protozoa are unicellular parasites that cannot be observed with the naked
eye. Depending on their organ tropism, protozoa can have localised
effects (e.g. digestive protozoa, which cause gastrointestinal signs) or can Some of these parasites
spread systemically, damaging multiple organs (nonspecific and often can also affect humans.
variable clinical signs).

Digestive
Infectious form
Animals acquire the parasite by ingesting
infective forms. This is followed by various
stages of development and multiplication in Intestine
the intestine, and the life cycle is completed
with the production of new forms of the
parasite. These forms can be infective at the
moment of excretion or may require time
in the environment before becoming infective.

Systemic
These protozoa spread to various organs, resulting in
systemic infections.
Despite their intestinal multiplication phase, Toxoplasma
gondii and Neospora caninum can be considered
systemic protozoa given the nature of the clinical picture
they cause.

Babesia (erythrocytes) Cytauxzoon


(various blood cells)
Trypanosoma
(bloodstream)

Theileria Hepatozoon
(various blood cells) (various blood cells)

Leishmania (macrophage)

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15
PARASITIC DISEASES BY SYSTEMS

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

9 Caused by nematodes
Gastrointestinal nematodiasis is caused by different kinds of nematodes that affect dogs and/
or cats. These parasites can be found in the oesophagus (Spirocerca lupi: spirocercosis),
stomach (Physaloptera spp.: physalopteriasis) or intestine (Ancylostoma spp./Uncinaria spp.:
ancylostomiasis; Toxascaris leonina: toxocariasis; Toxocara canis: canine toxocariasis; Toxocara
cati: feline toxocariasis; Trichuris vulpis: trichuriasis; Strongyloides stercoralis: strongyloidiasis).

Some gastrointestinal nematodes


can pose risks to humans.

Clinical signs
■ Abdominal swelling.
■ Abnormal faeces (altered consistency, presence
of blood or mucus).
■ Vomiting.
■ Dehydration.
■ Lack of appetite.
■ Lethargy.
■ Cachexia.
■ Poor haircoat condition.
■ Anaemia.
■ Dysphagia.
■ Regurgitation.
■ Stunting.
■ Intestinal obstruction.
■ Lesions associated with larval migration, depending
on location.

This condition can have serious consequences


for puppies and young animals.

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Stool analysis. ■ Endoscopic removal ■ Correct and regular disposal of stools.
■ Diagnostic imaging. of parasites. ■ Proper use of internal antiparasitics, paying particular attention
■ Molecular diagnosis (PCR). ■ Anthelmintic treatment. to puppies and pregnant or lactating females.
■ Serology (antibody detection). ■ Supportive therapy if ■ Hygiene measures and cleaning to reduce environmental
■ Tests to detect antigens in stool. required. contamination (eggs, larvae).
■ Additional tests (endoscopy, ■ Regular stool examinations.
colonoscopy). ■ Prevent hunting and predatory behaviours.
■ Avoid feeding animals raw or undercooked products.
■ Concrete floors in outdoor accommodations.
■ Adequate control of relevant intermediate and/or paratenic hosts.

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16 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

10 Caused by cestodes
Cestodosis is caused by different types of tapeworms that infect dogs and cats. Adult parasites
cause damage while attaching to the intestinal wall of the animal. The most important species are:
Taenia spp. (T. serialis, T. ovis, T. multiceps, T. hydatigena, and T. pisiformis in dogs and T. taeniae-
formis in cats), Dipylidium caninum, Echinococcus spp. (E. granulosus and E. multilocularis in dogs
and E. multilocularis in cats), Mesocestoides spp., Diphyllobothrium latum and Spirometra spp.

Proglottids in perianal area

D. caninum, Echinococcus spp.,


D. latum, Spirometra spp. and
Eggs released from the proglottids Mesocestoides spp. pose a
zoonotic risk.

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Direct observation of parasite ■ Suitable anthelmintics. ■ Removal and proper disposal of faeces.
segments or proglottids (in faeces, ■ Antiparasitic control of ■ Periodic antiparasitic treatment of external (D. caninum)
vomit, perianal region) and infestations of fleas and lice and internal parasites.
morphological identification. (D. caninum). ■ Periodic stool analysis.
■ Stool analysis. ■ Supportive therapy. ■ Prevent hunting and predatory behaviours.
■ Molecular diagnosis (PCR). ■ Complete washing of animal ■ Avoid feeding animals raw or undercooked meat or fish.
■ Detection of antigens in stool (removal of infectious forms Provide them with commercial pet diets.
(Echinococcus spp.). attached to haircoat). ■ Avoid consumption of potentially unclean drinking water
■ Detection of parasites in abdominal (by humans and animals).
cavity (e.g. during surgery). ■ Wash fresh products (vegetables, fruits).
■ Cook all foods adequately.

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17
PARASITIC DISEASES BY SYSTEMS

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

11 Caused by trematodes
Forms of digestive trematodiasis that affect dogs and cats include liver fluke infection (Opisthorchis  spp.,
Metorchis spp., Platynosomum fastosum) and intestinal fluke infection (Alaria spp.). In the case of
P.  fastosum, only cats are affected.

Liver fluke infection Intestinal fluke infection


These parasites are located in the hepatobiliary Immature forms
system. are located in
■ Opisthorchis spp. the lung.
■ Metorchis spp.
■ Platynosomum fastosum

Alaria spp.

Mature forms
(adults) are
located in the
small intestine.

Consumption of certain products, such


as frogs’ legs and fish (containing
forms of the parasite), can be
dangerous unless adequately cooked.

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Stool analysis and morphological ■ Pharmacological ■ Adequate removal of faeces to prevent environmental contamination.
identification of eggs. treatment with ■ Periodic stool analysis.
■ Molecular diagnosis (PCR). appropriate anthelmintic. ■ Prevent hunting and predation of animals that act as hosts
■ Diagnostic imaging. ■ Supportive therapy. (intermediate or paratenic).
■ Avoid feeding pets raw or undercooked fish.

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18 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

12 Caused by protozoa
These diseases are caused by various species of protozoa that can affect dogs, cats, or both. These
include coccidiosis (Cystoisospora spp., Sarcocystis spp., Besnoitia besnoiti, Hammondia spp.),
cryptosporidiosis (Cryptosporidium spp.), giardiasis (Giardia) and trichomoniasis (Tritrichomonas
foetus). Consequences are more severe in young animals than in adults, and clinical signs are more
common in young and immunocompromised animals.

Clinical signs
■ Very mild or inapparent clinical signs.
■ Nonspecific clinical signs: anorexia, fever,
abdominal distension, weight loss, dehydration,
apathy and depression in the most severe cases.
■ Digestive clinical signs: diarrhoea, vomiting,
steatorrhea, presence of blood or mucus in stool.

Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. pose


a zoonotic risk. Wash hands after touching or
handling any animal.
Immunocompromised individuals should
avoid contact with the faeces of affected
animals or use adequate protective methods
to prevent contagion.

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Stool analysis. Animal: ■ Know the health status of new animals.
■ Other diagnostic tests may be ■ Anti-protozoan drugs. ■ Serial faecal analysis and parasite control depending on results.
required: ■ Supportive therapy. ■ Correct stool disposal (avoid dissemination).
■ Faecal immunodiagnostic ■ Treatment of all animals in the ■ Avoid overpopulation and implement adequate hygiene
tests. same environment. measures (group-housed animals).
■ Faecal analysis using specific ■ Complete washing of animal ■ Prevent hunting behaviours (ingestion of infective forms).
stains. (removal of infectious forms ■ Avoid situations that can compromise the immune response,
■ Molecular diagnosis (PCR). attached to haircoat). especially in puppies.
■ Culture for isolation of Environment: ■ Maintain good animal health.
causative agent. ■ Cleaning and disinfection of ■ Prevent drinking of potentially unsanitary water.
surfaces. ■ Proper preparation of raw foods.
■ Hygiene and disinfection of eating/drinking utensils.

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19
PARASITIC DISEASES BY SYSTEMS

CARDIORESPIRATORY SYSTEM

13 Lungworms
While these parasitic diseases are rare in companion animals, those that live outdoors are at greatest risk.
The main parasites affecting companion animals are:
■ Dog: Angiostrongylus vasorum (also in pulmonary arteries and heart), Filaroides osleri, Filaroides hirthi,
Crenosoma vulpis and Capillaria aerophila.
■ Cat: Capillaria aerophila, Aelurostrongylus abstrusus and various species of the genus Troglostrongylus.

Life cycle of Angiostrongylus vasorum


DH (dog)
In the lymph nodes, the larvae
mature and migrate to the heart
The DH ingests
and pulmonary arteries
parasitised molluscs

IH (land snail)

Adults

The L1 stage
penetrates the skin
of the snail Larva 1

Eggs

The L1 stage ascends


the pharynx, and is Alveoli and
swallowed and shed in pulmonary
the faeces capillary with
eggs and larvae
Adults develop and shed
eggs, which are then
DH: definitive host transported in the blood to
IH: intermediate host the pulmonary capillaries

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Stool analysis. ■ Pharmacological: suitable Animal:
■ Washing of airways. anthelmintic. ■ Regular internal parasite control.
■ Thoracic radiography. ■ Surgery: in cases of severe ■ Routine stool analysis.
■ Serology (A. vasorum). respiratory obstruction. ■ Avoid ingestion of hosts (intermediate and
■ Molecular diagnosis (PCR). ■ Supportive therapy. paratenic).
■ Haematological profile. ■ Rest. Environment:
■ Echocardiography (A. vasorum). ■ Application of molluscicide products.
■ Additional tests: bronchoscopy, aspiration and ■ Concrete floors in outdoor accommodations.
pulmonary biopsy.

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20 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

CARDIORESPIRATORY SYSTEM

14 Heartworm
(canine dirofilariasis)
Disease caused by the nematode Dirofilaria immitis. This is transmitted by mosquitoes (mainly
Culex spp., Aedes spp. and Anopheles spp.). The main locations of adult parasites of dogs are the
large blood vessels (pulmonary artery and vena cava) and heart (right ventricle).

Infected mosquitoes can also Infective L3 larvae penetrate the


bite humans and transmit wound caused by a mosquito bite
parasites. Pulmonary nodules
may develop.

IH
(Aedes, Culex,
and Anopheles,
among others)

This infection also


affects cats.

Adult worms located in the


pulmonary arterial tree and heart
IH: intermediate host Microfilaria in
the blood

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Blood smear. ■ Pharmacological treatment: Animal:
■ Detection of microfilaraemia: filter test ■ Adulticide and microfilaricide treatment. ■ Annual screening prior to commencing
and/or Knott’s test. ■ Appropriate antibiotic therapy against preventive treatment.
■ Serology: bacteria associated with the parasite. ■ Macrocyclic lactones against
■ Antigen detection in blood. ■ Supportive therapy. microfilariae during periods of risk.
■ Antibody detection (cat). ■ Surgery: in cases of involvement of the heart ■ External treatment with insecticide with

■ Additional tests: and large blood vessels. repellent activity.


■ Thoracic radiography. ■ Symptomatic treatment: severe clinical picture ■ Reduced exposure to vector.

■ Echocardiography. and/or pulmonary embolism. Environment:


■ Electrocardiogram. ■ Rest and restriction of exercise. ■ Vector control measures.

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21
PARASITIC DISEASES BY SYSTEMS

BLOOD

15 Tick-borne diseases
These diseases require ticks for transmission. They pose a great challenge to veterinary surgeons
owing to the difficulty associated with diagnosis and control.

Protozoa
Hepatozoonosis* Citauxzoonosis Babesiosis Theileriosis
(Hepatozoon spp.) (Cytauxzoon felis) (Babesia spp.) (Theileria spp.)

* Transmitted by ingestion of the tick.

Nematodes

Filariasis
(Acanthocheilonema
dracunculoides)

A single tick can transmit more


than one pathogen (parasitic,
bacterial or viral).

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Medical history: exposure to ticks. ■ Specific ■ Educate the owner about how to inspect the animal for
■ Clinical presentation: nonspecific. pharmacological ticks after walks.
■ Identification of the type of tick (if possible). treatment, depending ■ To prevent disease transmission:
■ Haematology, biochemistry and serum protein on the type of ■ Remove ticks as soon as possible.
analysis. transmitted pathogen. ■ Ensure that the animal does not ingest ticks.
■ Specific diagnostic tests: blood smears, cytology, ■ Supportive therapy. ■ Apply antiparasitic products with repellent activity.
biopsy, serology, molecular tests (PCR). ■ Vaccines (limited availability).
■ Limit exposure in areas of high tick density.

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22 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

BLOOD

16 Other parasitic diseases


of the blood
These diseases are caused by nematodes whose larval forms (microfila-
riae) can be detected in circulating blood. The adult worms, depending
on the species, are located in the subcutaneous tissue and muscle fascia They primarily affect the dog and
are vector-borne.
(Dirofilaria repens and Acanthocheilonema reconditum) or in the peritoneal
cavity (Acanthocheilonema dracunculoides).

Disease Parasite Vector

Subcutaneous dirofilariasis D. repens Culicid mosquitoes


A. reconditum Fleas and lice
Accanthocheilonemiasis
A. dracunculoides Ticks and flies

D. repens

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Detection and identification of microfilariae in ■ Surgical removal of parasites located in ■ Vectors: broad-spectrum ectoparasiticide.
the blood (concentration methods). the subcutaneous tissue (nodules). Incorporate topical repellent if necessary.
■ Specific histochemical staining (differentiation ■ Microfilaricide treatment if necessary ■ Avoid exposure to vectors.
of microfilariae). (evident clinical presentation). ■ Screening for microfilariae in blood
■ Molecular diagnosis (PCR). ■ For D. repens, combination of: before applying preventive treatment
■ Microhaematocrit: observation of fraction ■ Adulticide therapy. (D. repens).
beneath the buffy coat. ■ Microfilaricide therapy. ■ Preventive treatment with macrocyclic
■ Observation and identification of adult forms ■ Appropriate antibiotic therapy against lactones during periods of risk.
in the animal (e.g. during surgery/removal of bacteria associated with the parasite.
a node).

02_Diseases_systems.indd 22 3/5/17 13:01


23
PARASITIC DISEASES BY SYSTEMS

RENAL SYSTEM

17 Urinary parasites

The main urinary parasites affecting companion animals are:


Dioctophymiasis ■ Capillaria plica: located in the bladder and occasionally in
ureters and kidneys (cat and dog).
■ Dioctophyma renale: located in kidneys, but can migrate to
the abdominal cavity (dog).
■ Capillaria feliscati: parasite of the bladder with very similar
characteristics to C. plica (cat).

Most infestations caused by these


nematodes are usually subclinical
or inapparent.

Clinical signs
■ Urinary problems (cystitis, dysuria, kidney failure, etc.).
■ D. renale in abdominal cavity: liver damage, peritonitis,
haemoperitoneum.

Consumption of raw or
Capillariasis undercooked fish or frogs’ legs
poses a risk.

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Detection of eggs in urinary ■ Pharmacological treatment: anthelmintic Animal:
sediment. (Capillaria spp.). ■ Prevent access to the edges of ponds, lakes.
■ Radiology and abdominal ■ Surgery: elimination of parasites present in ■ Do not feed raw or undercooked fish.
ultrasound. the kidney or abdominal cavity (D. renale). ■ Avoid ingestion of intermediate and paratenic hosts.
■ Exploratory laparotomy (free forms ■ Transfer of animal to a place free of ■ Regular internal parasite control.
of D. renale in the abdominal environmental contamination.
Environment:
cavity).
■ Concrete floors in outdoor accommodations.

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24 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

SYSTEMIC OR MULTIORGAN

18 Leishmaniasis
Disease caused by Leishmania infantum and transmitted by arthropods of the genera Phlebotomus
(Europe, Asia and Africa) and Lutzomyia (Americas).

Skin

VH (dog) IH (infected sandfly)


Eye

Lymph node

Infected sandflies can also Kidney


bite humans and transmit
parasites. Immunosuppressed Amastigotes are released
or immunocompromised and multiply in the organism Macrophages
individuals are at greater risk. phagocytose
promastigotes
Joints

Cats can be infected and


in some cases develop the
disease.

VH: vertebrate host


IH: invertebrate host

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Clinical history and physical ■ Depends on the stage of the In dogs:
examination. disease. ■ Early diagnosis and treatment of infected dogs.
■ Haematology, biochemistry, and ■ Main drugs recommended: ■ Topical products with insecticide and repellent activity
serum protein analysis. domperidone, meglumine (pyrethroids).
■ Confirmatory tests: serology antimoniate, allopurinol, ■ Vaccines and immunomodulators.
(determination of levels of anti- miltefosine, meglumine ■ Avoid walks during hours of peak vector activity (from dusk
Leishmania antibodies in blood), antimoniate + allopurinol, to dawn).
cytology, histopathology, and miltefosine + allopurinol.
molecular tests (PCR). ■ Supportive therapy. Environment:
■ Application of vector control measures.

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25
PARASITIC DISEASES BY SYSTEMS

SYSTEMIC OR MULTIORGAN

19 Toxoplasmosis
Toxoplasma gondii affects warm-blooded animals (birds and mammals, including humans). Provided proper
basic hygiene measures are implemented, human-cat contact is not the main route of transmission.

Diagnosis Treatment
■ Serology: detection of anti-T. gondii antibodies (IgM and IgG). ■ Pharmacological: various treatments and
■ Molecular tests (PCR). treatment combinations are available.
■ Stool analysis: flotation methods. ■ Supportive therapy: if associated complications.
■ Final diagnosis: confirm the presence of the parasite in tissues (biopsy)
or body fluids (cytology).

Tissue cysts

Tissue cysts

Sporulated oocysts
(infective)

DH (cat)

Sporulated oocyst
(noninfective)

Sporulated oocysts
(infective)

24 hours – 5 days

DH: definitive host

Prevention ■ Basic personal hygiene measures.


In cats: ■ Prevent children from putting their hands in their mouths without
■ Feed on commercial diet. Meat should be properly first washing hands.
cooked or frozen first if served raw. ■ Cook meat properly (>80 °C, 15 min) and, in the case of
■ Avoid drinking water from uncontrolled areas. undercooked meat, freeze beforehand (−12 °C) for at least 3 days.
■ Prevent hunting behaviours. ■ Wash fruits and vegetables.
■ Stool analysis. ■ Avoid drinking unclean water and unpasteurised milk.
In humans: ■ Proper kitchen hygiene measures.
■ Risk: immunocompromised individuals and seronegative ■ Clean cat tray daily without making direct contact with the sand,
pregnant women. and wash hands after. At-risk individuals should avoid this activity.

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26 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

SYSTEMIC OR MULTIORGAN

20 Other diseases
Trypanosomiasis
■ Affects dogs and cats.
■ Nonspecific clinical presentation.
■ Transmitting vectors:
■ Triatomine bugs (Trypanosoma cruzi).

■ Horseflies and flies of the genus Stomoxys


(Trypanosoma evansi).

Risk of zoonosis in the case of


Chagas disease (T. cruzi).

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Clinical history and physical examination. ■ Specific treatment against ■ External antiparasitic products with repellent
■ Haematology, biochemistry and serum protein Trypanosoma spp. activity.
analysis. ■ Supportive therapy. ■ Avoid eating meat of animals likely to be
■ Diagnostic tests: blood smears, cytology, serology, infected.
PCR, culture. ■ Screening of animals in endemic areas.
■ Additional tests to assess heart function (T. cruzi). ■ Environmental control of vectors.

Neosporosis
■ Affects dogs (puppies and immunocompromised animals).
■ Neurological and muscular disorders.

Neospora caninum

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Clinical history and clinical presentation. ■ Pharmacological treatment: ■ Avoid ingestion of the remains of animals that
■ Diagnostic tests: aspiration cytology, muscle specific antibiotic therapy. act as intermediate hosts.
biopsy, serology, PCR of cerebrospinal fluid. ■ Passive stimulation of muscles. ■ Prevent faecal contamination of food and water
■ Stool analysis. from livestock.
■ Avoid stress and immunosuppressive drugs in
seropositive dogs.
■ Do not use seropositive females for breeding.

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27
PARASITIC DISEASES BY SYSTEMS

CUTANEOUS

21 Flea infestation:
flea allergy dermatitis
Flea allergy dermatitis (FAD) is an allergic dermatitis (hypersensitivity reaction) caused by allergens
present in flea saliva.

A very small number of fleas can


trigger an allergic reaction if the
animal is sensitised.

Distribution patterns

Affected area

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Clinical history. ■ Complete control of flea life cycle: ■ Insecticide treatment of animals in
■ Clinical signs. ■ Elimination of adult forms on the surrounding environment.
■ Presence of fleas and/or flea faeces (brush animal and immature forms in the ■ Regular cleaning of areas that may harbour
haircoat and check for flea faeces with environment. immature forms (carpet, upholstery, etc.).
damp paper towel). ■ Control of pruritus and secondary ■ Washing and insecticide treatment of
■ Response to antiparasitic control of fleas. complications. basket or other items in which animal rests.
■ Identification of Dipylidium caninum. ■ Internal parasite control for Dipylidium
■ Eliminate other causes of pruritus. caninum.

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28 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

CUTANEOUS

22 Tick infestation
Affects both dogs and cats. The following are the main genera of ticks
implicated:
■ Family Ixodidae: Ixodes spp., Rhipicephalus spp., Dermacentor spp.,
Haemaphysalis spp., Amblyomma spp., Hyalomma spp.
■ Family Argasidae: Ornithodoros spp., Otobius spp.

Given their grooming behaviour, it


is quite unusual to find ticks on cats.

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Visualisation and Animal: ■ Regular application of acaricide
identification of ticks. ■ Removal of tick as soon as possible products with repellent activity in all
■ Clinical history: travel or (see Sheet 41. How to remove a tick). animals.
stays in environments in ■ Acaricide treatment. ■ Avoid environments susceptible to
which ticks live. high densities of ticks (farms, wild
Environment:
environments).
■ Treatment with effective chemicals (house, kennels,
■ Regular inspection of animal looking
residences).
for attached ticks.
■ Inspection of places likely to harbour ticks (cracks, etc.).
■ Elimination of favourable habitats for ticks.

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29
PARASITIC DISEASES BY SYSTEMS

CUTANEOUS

23 Allergic reactions to bites


These are reactions to the bites of different types of insects. Their severity depends on the
immune response of each animal.

Distribution patterns

Mosquito bite hypersensitivity

Some repellents designed


for human use can be toxic
to animals.

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Clinical history. ■ Consult a veterinary surgeon as soon as possible. ■ External antiparasitic
■ Clinical presentation. ■ Cleaning and disinfection of the area. repellents during times of
■ Skin biopsy suggestive of compatible histological ■ Control inflammation and pruritus using topical insect activity.
pattern (not diagnostic). and/or systemic glucocorticoids. ■ Avoid contact between
■ Detection of ectoparasites on the animal. ■ Antibiotics for secondary bacterial complications. animal and insects

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30 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

CUTANEOUS

24 Mange
These are cutaneous processes caused by infestations of dogs and cats with different mites, such
as Notoedres cati, Cheyletiella spp., Demodex spp., Otodectes cynotis, and Sarcoptes scabiei.

Diagnosis
■ History (clinical picture and lesion distribution). ■ Therapeutic diagnosis: response to acaricide
■ Direct observation and identification of parasites. (if suspected S. scabiei infestation).
■ Specific diagnostic tests: skin scraping, adhesive tape test, ■ Pinnal-pedal reflex (if suspected infestation with
trichogram, examination of ear discharge (otitis), haircoat S. scabiei, O. cynotis).
brushing, serology (S. scabiei). ■ Skin biopsy (exceptional cases).

The clinical picture depends


on the type of mite involved.

The risk of
zoonosis
depends on the
type of mange.

Sarcoptic mange

Dogs that have experienced


generalised demodicosis should
not be used for breeding given
their hereditary predisposition.

Treatment Prevention
Animal: ■ Treat all cohabitating animals and avoid ■ Good animal health.
■ Application of acaricides (systemic and/ contact with infected animals. ■ Periodical treatment with
or local). Environment: external antiparasitic product.
■ Cleaning and treatment of inner ear in ■ Avoid contact with animals of
■ Cleaning, aspiration, and disinfection of
cases of otitis. bedding and other household items (fomites). unknown health status (street
■ Antiseborrheic shampoo to remove crusts. and wild animals).
■ Application of ectoparasiticides.
■ Antibiotic therapy in cases of secondary
bacterial infection.
■ Decrease pruritus: antipruritic treatment.

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31
PARASITIC DISEASES BY SYSTEMS

CUTANEOUS

25 Myiasis
Infestation characterised by the presence of larvae (maggots) of dipteran flies.

Predisposing factors
■ Poor hygiene measures.
■ Debilitated (elderly, sick) animals.
■ Animals with paresis. Adult fly (attracted to areas of skin)
■ Wet haircoat.
■ Suppurating wounds.
■ Faecal and/or urinary incontinence. Eggs
Larva 1

The use of insecticides can cause


anaphylactic reactions.

Larva 2 (begin to feed on cutaneous tissue)

Crateriform ulcer

Pupa

Larva 3

Clinical signs
■ Ulcers with remains of necrotic tissue.
■ Lesion distribution: around the eyes,
mouth, nose, anus, genitals, untreated
infected wounds.
■ Characteristic odour.

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Direct observation of the larvae ■ Evaluation and control of predisposing factors. ■ Avoid attracting flies (uncured
or batches of eggs on the skin, ■ Clipping, cleaning and disinfection of all affected areas suppurating wounds, skin
haircoat, or in cutaneous lesions. with antiseptic products. soaked with urine, vomit or stool
■ Thorough exploration in long- ■ Manual removal of larvae. remains).
haired animals. ■ Surgical debridement of wounds and subsequent cure. ■ Use of bed nets in debilitated
■ Transfer to a fly-free environment. animals.
■ Antibiotic treatment in cases of wound complications
(bacterial infection).
■ Analgesics.

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32 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

OCULAR

26 Ocular parasites
Thelaziasis and onchocerciasis are two eye diseases caused by parasitic nematodes of the genus
Thelazia (T. callipaeda, T. californiensis) and by Onchocerca lupi, respectively.

Thelazia spp. Onchocerca lupi


IH (diptera fly) IH (blackfly)
(Phortica variegata) (simulids)

Conjunctival granuloma

IH: intermediate host

Some infected animals may not


show clinical signs, while others
Clinical signs develop an ocular presentation.

■ Ocular parasites affect dogs and cats.


■ Ocular presentation: conjunctivitis, conjunctival oedema, lacrimation, photophobia,
ocular discharge and pruritus.
■ Granulomas and possible blindness (O. lupi).
■ Presence of O. lupi in subcutaneous tissue (skin) without apparent clinical signs.

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Morphological and/or ■ Surgery: removal of parasites (Thelazia spp.) ■ Periodic application of internal and
molecular identification. and granulomas (O. lupi). external antiparasitic products with
■ Thelazia spp.: direct observation ■ Specific pharmacological treatment: repellent activity.
of the nematode (adults and/or ■ Thelazia spp.: macrocyclic lactones. ■ Minimise contact between vector and
larvae) in the eye. ■ O. lupi: combination of drugs (macrocyclic lactones, animal.
■ O. lupi: granuloma biopsy. melarsomine dihydrochloride, doxycycline). ■ Reduce access to outdoors during
■ Anti-inflammatory and/or antibiotic treatment in cases periods in which vectors are abundant.
of eye complications. ■ Environmental control of vector
populations.

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33
DIAGNOSTIC TESTS IN PARASITOLOGY

27 Stool analysis
A set of diagnostic procedures based on the evaluation of faecal material to identify any stages
of internal parasites eliminated in the faeces.

Sampling
■ Can be performed by the owner.
■ Avoid environmental contamination (dirt, leaves, etc.).
■ A small amount of sample is required (5–10 g).
■ It is important to ensure that the sample has been recently taken.
■ It is advisable to conduct serial stool analyses over several days.
■ Features to note during stool analysis: smell, consistency,
presence of mucus or fresh blood, undigested food particles,
presence of parasites.

To establish an accurate
diagnosis, a combination of
several diagnostic techniques
is sometimes necessary.

Diagnostic techniques
■ Direct microscopic examination, with or without staining.
■ Determination of egg/cyst concentration by flotation.
■ Sedimentation techniques.
■ Determination of nematode larvae concentration.
■ Egg counts.
■ Detection of parasite antigens in stool.
■ Molecular diagnostic tests.
■ Culture.

Baermann apparatus
(concentration of nematode larvae)

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34 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

28 Blood smear
Technique to assess blood cell characteristics. This can be useful for the detection of certain
intra- or extracellular parasites.

Examination of fresh blood


■ Place a drop of blood on a slide.
■ Place a coverslip over the drop.
1 ■ Examine the preparation under the microscope using different
objectives.

This may allow detection of


2 mobile parasites.

Examination of a fixed
blood sample
1. Place a recently acquired drop of blood at one end of the slide.
2. Hold another slide at an angle of 30–60 ° with respect to the
first slide and allow the drop to extend across the first slide.
3
3. Push the second slide forward along the length of the first in a
smooth and steady motion, without lifting and maintaining the
angle. This causes the blood to form a thin layer across the slide.
4. Allow the preparation to dry.
5. Staining: the most commonly used stain is the Diff-Quik stain.
4 and 5
6. Examine the preparation under the microscope using different
objectives.

Trypanosoma Babesia Hepatozoon

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35
DIAGNOSTIC TESTS IN PARASITOLOGY

29 Skin scrapings
Diagnostic technique used to identify ectoparasites living on the surface area of the skin
(Cheyletiella spp., Neotrombicula spp., Otodectes spp., Sarcoptes spp., Notoedres spp.) or
in deeper locations (Demodex spp., Straelensia cynotis). It can also be useful for locating the
larvae of certain helminths.

It may be necessary to shave the area to be scraped if


the skin is covered by a lot of hair. Next, apply a thin
layer of mineral oil.

Superficial scraping
The skin is scraped off in the direction
of hair growth, without applying
excessive pressure on the
scalpel blade (which is held
perpendicular to the skin).

Sarcoptes

In both cases, the collected sample is mixed with


mineral oil on a microscope slide, and spread to
create thin layer, which is then examined under
the microscope.

Deep scraping
A fold of skin is held
between the fingers and moderate
pressure applied to squeeze
out the entire contents of
the hair follicles.
Scrape several times with
the scalpel blade to induce
light capillary bleeding.

Demodex

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36 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

30 Trichogram
Technique used to observe and evaluate the structure of the hair (tip, root and shaft) and its
current growth phase. Especially useful when seeking to detect ectoparasites (mites and lice),
both adult forms and immature forms or eggs.

Hair plucking
■ A small number of hairs are plucked by the base using the
fingertips. A rubber-coated haemostat can also be used to
pull the hair away with a twisting motion.
■ Hair shafts should be plucked in the direction of hair growth.

It is advisable to examine samples under


a microscope at low magnification.

Correct mounting
of the sample
■ The sample is placed on a slide.
■ This is achieved using adhesive tape or mineral oil.

Microscopic image of Demodex Microscopic image of lice

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37
DIAGNOSTIC TESTS IN PARASITOLOGY

31 Adhesive tape test


This involves the use of adhesive tape for sampling (hair, superficial skin debris, parasites or
their eggs attached to hair). Once the sample has been collected, the tape is placed on a slide
and viewed under a microscope.

Cheyletiella

For correct sampling, the tape


should be applied with some
pressure to the area to be
sampled.
Ectoparasites
With this technique, external parasites are trapped

Endoparasites
on the tape and cannot escape.
■ This technique is useful for detecting Demodex spp., ■ The adhesive surface of the tape is pressed against
Cheyletiella spp., lice and, in some cases, fleas. the perianal area and perineum.
■ This technique is particularly useful for the detection
of parasites such as Dipylidium caninum.

Demodex Cheyletiella

Ctenocephalides Felicola

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38 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

32 Flea comb
This procedure involves brushing the haircoat using a special ultra-fine comb. The purpose is to collect
organic material such as detached hairs, crusts, flakes, and especially to detect ectoparasites and
their eggs. The collected material is placed on damp white paper for evaluation with the naked eye
or using a lens to magnify the image.

In particular, the neck, groin area


and base of the tail should be
combed with special attention.

Damp paper test


■ This technique is extremely useful for detecting fleas and their
faeces, which appear as tiny black comma-shaped particles.
■ Lightly press the faeces against a damp paper towel. Reddish
brown staining of the paper is indicative of flea faeces, due to the
presence of soluble pigments contained in the blood ingested by
the flea.

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39
DIAGNOSTIC TESTS IN PARASITOLOGY

33 Analysis of otic exudate


Technique used to assess any problem in the ear canal.

Procedure
1. A cotton swab or ear brush can be used.
2. The veterinary surgeon inserts the tip of the swab or brush into the external ear canal and
rotates it against the skin of the ear.
3. The swab or brush is removed from the ear and rotated against the surface of a slide on
which a few drops of mineral oil have been placed, thus allowing extension of the otic
exudate sample.
4. The sample is examined under a microscope at low magnification to identify acarids such
as Otodectes spp. or Demodex spp.

Microscope image of Otodectes Microscope image of Demodex

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40 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

34 Zoonoses from dogs


External parasites of dogs
(mode of transmission: by direct contact)
Parasite Animal disease Clinical signs in humans
• Pruritus and skin lesions.
Sarcoptes scabiei var. canis Sarcoptic mange (scabies)
• Papulovesicular presentation.
• Extremely rare infestation.
Otodectes cynotis Otoacariasis
• Pruritus, irritation and skin lesions.
Cheyletiella yasguri Cheyletiellosis Pruritus, irritation and skin lesions.
• Bites in a row.
Pulicosis • Dermal inflammatory reaction.
Ctenocephalides canis
Flea allergy dermatitis • Pruritus.
• Flea allergy dermatitis.

Internal parasites of dogs


Main mode
Parasite Animal disease Clinical signs in humans
of transmission
• Watery diarrhoea.
Cryptosporidium canis Cryptosporidiosis Ingestion of infective oocysts • Risk: immunosuppressed individuals
(HIV, chemotherapeutic treatments).
Giardia Giardiasis Ingestion of infective cysts Diarrhoea.
• Visceral larva migrans.
Ingestion of infective
Toxocara canis Toxocariasis • Ocular larva migrans.
embryonated eggs
• Neurological larva migrans.
Ancylostoma spp. Penetration of skin by • Cutaneous larva migrans.
Ancylostomiasis
Uncinaria stenocephala infective larva • Pruritus.
Penetration of skin by • Abdominal pain.
Strongyloides stercoralis Strongyloidiasis
infective larva • Skin disorders with urticaria.
• E. multilocularis, hepatic involvement with nonspecific
clinical signs (poor general health, epigastric pain,
Echinococcus multilocularis Ingestion of infective
Echinococcosis hepatomegaly, jaundice).
Echinococcus granulosus embryonated eggs
• E. granulosus, clinical signs associated with liver, lung and
brain involvement.

Scabies (papules, vesicles, etc.)

Cutaneous larva migrans

Fleabite

04_Main_zoonoses.indd 40 3/5/17 11:39


41
MAIN ZOONOSES

35 Zoonoses from cats


External parasites of cats
(mode of transmission: by direct contact)
Parasite Animal disease Clinical signs in humans

Notoedres cati Notoedric mange Pruritus, irritation and skin lesions.


• Extremely rare infestation.
Otodectes cynotis Otoacariasis
• Pruritus, irritation and skin lesions.
Cheyletiella blakei Cheyletiellosis Pruritus, irritation and skin lesions.
• Bites in a row.
Pulicosis • Dermal inflammatory reaction.
Ctenocephalides felis
Flea allergy dermatitis • Pruritus.
• Flea allergy dermatitis.

Internal parasites of cats


Main mode
Parasite Animal disease Clinical signs in humans
of transmission
• Watery diarrhoea.
Cryptosporidium felis Cryptosporidiosis Ingestion of infective oocysts • Risk: immunosuppressed individuals
(HIV, chemotherapeutic treatments).
Giardia Giardiasis Ingestion of infective cysts • Diarrhoea.
• Pregnant women: miscarriage, neonatal death,
• Ingestion of infective malformations and neurological sequelae.
oocysts • Immunocompromised individuals: pneumonia, myocarditis,
Toxoplasma gondii Toxoplasmosis
• Ingestion of meat and meningoencephalitis.
containing infective cysts • Immunocompetent individuals: fever, malaise and
lymphadenopathy.
• Visceral larva migrans.
Ingestion of infective
Toxocara cati Toxocariasis • Ocular larva migrans.
embryonated eggs
• Neurological larva migrans.
Penetration of skin by • Cutaneous larva migrans.
Ancylostoma spp. Ancylostomiasis
infective larva • Pruritus.
Penetration of skin by • Abdominal pain.
Strongyloides stercoralis Strongyloidiasis
infective larva • Skin disorders with urticaria.
Ingestion of infective • Hepatic involvement with nonspecific clinical signs (poor
Echinococcus multilocularis Echinococcosis
embryonated eggs general health, epigastric pain, hepatomegaly, jaundice).

Ocular toxoplasmosis
(eye fundus)

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42 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

36 Parasites of birds
External parasites
The presence of ectoparasites is usually cause for a visit to a veterinary clinic. Mites, the most im-
portant group of ectoparasites, include those that burrow into the epidermis (Knemidocoptes spp.),
those that live on the surface of the epidermis and feed on blood (Dermanyssus gallinae,
Ornithonyssus spp.), and various forms that live on feathers (Dermation spp., Protolichus spp.,
Dubininia spp.).

Clinical signs
■ Skin: irritation, crusts, hyperkeratosis
of the beak and legs, scaly skin.
■ Feathers: lesions, decreased number
of feathers.
■ Pruritus of varying intensity.
Knemidocoptes ■ Anaemia (blood-sucking mites).
■ General depression, apathy.

In the case of affected birds, other


associated conditions such as
immunosuppression, concomitant
diseases, or other nutrition-related
problems should be assessed.

Hyperkeratosis of bill and legs

The red poultry mite (D. gallinae) can infect


humans, producing a very intense pruritic
dermatitis, and is very difficult to eradicate.

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Clinical presentation. Animal: ■ Appropriate hygiene measures.
■ Samples collected from ■ Antiparasitic product with activity against ■ Keep new birds temporarily separated from
birds: observation of ectoparasites. others to ensure the absence of parasites.
material obtained. Environment: ■ Proper nutrition.
■ Cleaning and disinfection of cages and other items
(e.g. nests).
■ Application of insecticide products in the
environment.

05_Exotic_animals.indd 42 3/5/17 13:18


43
MAIN PARASITES OF EXOTIC ANIMALS

Internal parasites
In psittacines, internal parastites are more common in wild or outdoor-dwelling specimens (e.g. in
aviaries). The most common types are protozoa (Trichomonas spp., Eimeria spp., Isospora spp.,
Cryptosporidium spp., and Giardia spp.) and nematodes (Ascaridia spp. and Capillaria spp.).
In passeriform birds, the most important endoparasites are protozoa (Atoxoplasma spp.,
Isospora spp., Cryptosporidium spp., Toxoplasma gondii, Giardia spp., Cochlosoma spp. and
Trichomonas spp.). In some cases certain helminths are also detected, although these are much less
common than in psittacine birds.

Clinical signs
(depending on parasite)
■ General nonspecific signs: depression, anorexia, weight loss, poor appearance,
dehydration.
■ Digestive: melaena, diarrhoea, dysphagia, bloating, vomiting.
■ Respiratory signs: respiratory difficulties, coughing, sneezing, nasal discharge.
■ Nervous: circling behaviour, ataxia, incoordination.
■ Ocular effects: blindness.

In cockatiels exhibiting vent pecking


behaviour, a stool analysis should be
performed to rule out Giardia spp.

Giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis


are two diseases with zoonotic
potential.

Coccidia

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Clinical presentation. Animal: ■ Appropriate hygiene measures and maintenance (cleaning of
■ Stool analysis over ■ Antiparasitic product, depending on food bowls, water containers).
several consecutive days. the type of parasite diagnosed. ■ Keep new birds temporarily separated from others (until two stool
■ Serology against specific ■ Supportive therapy. analyses have been performed).
suspected parasites. Environment: ■ Serial stool analysis and deparasitation depending on findings.
■ Post mortem. ■ Cleaning and disinfection.
■ Proper nutrition.
■ Control of water and drinkers.
■ Avoid overcrowding in the same cage (passerines).
■ Avoid contact between birds and cats/cat faeces.

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44 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

37 Parasites of small rodents

External parasites
The external parasites that most frequently affect small rodents are mites (Myocoptes musculinus,
Myobia musculi, Radfordia spp., Ornithonyssus bacoti, Liponyssus bacoti, Chirodiscoides
caviae, Trixacarus caviae, Demodex spp., Notoedres spp., Cheyletiella spp., Sarcoptes
scabiei), lice (Polyplax serrata, Polyplax spinulosa, Gliricola porcelli, Gyropus ovalis), and
fleas. However, within this group of animals, gerbils and chinchillas are less susceptible to this
type of infestation.

Clinical signs Tropical rat mites (O. bacoti), guinea pig mites
(T. caviae), and mites that affect other small rodents
■ Lesions: hypotrichosis, alopecia, scaling, erythema, can also affect humans. Often this is the result of
erosions, papules, and traumatic lesions induced by close contact with affected animals.
scratching (excoriation, crusting, flaking, ulcers).
■ Pruritus of varying intensity that can cause
epileptiform seizures. Fleas are usually transmitted
from dogs and cats in the
immediate environment.
Alopecia and
flaky skin

Trixacarus caviae

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Visual examination of the skin Animal: ■ Antiparasitic treatment of animals in contact with the
and hair. ■ Antiparasitic drug, administered topically, affected animal.
■ Brushing. orally, or parenterally. ■ Adequate sanitary conditions.
■ Skin scraping. ■ Antibiotic treatment in case of secondary ■ Knowledge of the peculiarities of the feeding,
■ Trichogram. bacterial infections of lesions. handling, and care of each species.
■ Adhesive tape test. ■ Correction of the underlying cause and/or ■ Keep new rodents temporarily separated from others
predisposing factors. (for a minimum of two weeks).
Cage: ■ If there is more than one rodent, the other animals
■ Cleaning and disinfection to prevent should be monitored for anomalies.
reinfestation.

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45
MAIN PARASITES OF EXOTIC ANIMALS

Rodents can transmit some parasites to humans,


in particular Giardia spp., Cryptosporidium spp.,
Rodentolepis nana (dwarf tapeworm), and
Hymenolepis diminuta (rat tapeworm).

Internal parasites
The most important parasites are those found in the digestive
tract, including protozoa (Giardia spp., Spironucleus spp.,
Trichomonas spp., Balantidium spp., Cryptosporidium spp.,
Entamoeba spp., Eimeria spp.), tapeworms (Rodentolepis
Rodentolepis
nana, Hymenolepis diminuta), and nematodes (Syphacia spp.,
Aspiculuris tetraptera, Paraspidodera uncinata, Dentostomella
translucida).). Parasites may be detected in other organs, re-
sulting in diverse clinical pictures that may include urinary
(Klosiella  spp., Trichomoides crassicauda)) and neurological
signs (Toxoplasma gondii, Frenkelia spp., Baylisascaris spp.).

Clinical signs
■ Immunocompetent animals may show no obvious clinical signs.
■ Nonspecific: weight loss, hunched posture, poor haircoat
appearance, weakness, dehydration, impaired growth, lack of
appetite.
■ Digestive: anal irritation, rectal prolapse, diarrhoea or constipation,
bloating.
■ Urinary: dysuria, urinary calculi, clinical presentation associated
with kidney damage.
■ Neurologic: depression, incoordination, lethargy, bowed head,
paralysis, lying down, loss of balance.
■ Assess the presence of other diseases, concomitant pathological
processes, and stress (weakness, immunosuppression, malnutrition).

Diarrhoea caused
by Giardia

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Stool analysis. Animal: ■ Keep new rodents physically separated from others
■ Urine analysis. ■ Internal antiparasitic treatment. until negative results are obtained in serial stool
■ Serology. ■ Supportive therapy. analyses.
■ Histopathology. ■ Correction of underlying cause and/ ■ Adequate sanitary conditions.
or predisposing factors. ■ Avoid contact between the affected animal and other
animals.
Cage:
■ If there is more than one rodent, the other animals
■ Cleaning, disinfection, and disposal
should be monitored for anomalies.
of faecal material.

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46 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

38 Parasites of rabbits

External parasites
The external parasites that most frequently affect rabbits are ticks and various mites (Psoroptes
cuniculi, Cheyletiella parasitovorax, Listrophorus gibbus, Demodex cuniculi, Notoedres cati,
Sarcoptes scabiei), lice (Haemodipsus ventricosus), fleas (Spilopsyllus cuniculi, Ctenocephalides
felis, Ctenocephalides canis), and fly larvae. In addition, outdoor living and cohabitation with
dogs and cats, without adequate external parasite control measures, can increase the risk of
transmission.

Ectoparasites Clinical presentation Some external parasites of


lagomorphs can also affect
Ticks Anaemia in massive infestations humans. These include Cheyletiella
Mites Pruritus, swelling, crusting, alopecia, scaling parasitovorax and (very rarely)
Spilopsyllus cuniculi.
Lice Pruritus and lack of appetite

Fleas Pruritus, self-induced lesions, and alopecia

Cheyletiella parasitovorax

Alopecia and scaling in


cheyletiellosis

In pet rabbits, ectoparasites are


more frequent than endoparasites.

Cheyletiellosis is a problem
secondary to other ailments,
especially lack of mobility and/or
grooming.

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Observation of skin and hair. ■ Antiparasitic drug with activity against ■ Minimise transmission in the environment.
■ Direct visualisation of the parasite. ectoparasites. ■ Monitor contact with other animals.
■ Skin scraping. ■ In case of ticks, removal and ■ Antiparasitic treatment of all household animals,
■ Adhesive tape test. identification. regardless of species.
■ Analysis of otic exudate. ■ Hair trimming in longhaired breeds. ■ Adequate external parasite control (fipronil is toxic in
■ Flea comb and damp paper test. ■ Cleaning and disinfection of the rabbits), adapted to the particular situation of each
environment and utensils (combs, animal.
collars, etc.).

05_Exotic_animals.indd 46 3/5/17 13:19


47
MAIN PARASITES OF EXOTIC ANIMALS

Internal parasites
The groups of internal parasites that can affect the rabbit are highly varied, and include protozoa
(Eimeria spp., Giardia duodenalis, Encephalitozoon cuniculi, Toxoplasma gondii), trematodes
(Fasciola hepatica, Dicrocoelium lanceolatum), tapeworms (Cittotaenia spp.), tapeworm larvae
(Taenia spp.), and nematodes (Passalurus ambiguus, Trichuris leporis, Graphidium strigosum,
Trichostrongylus spp., Obeliscoides cuniculi).

Encephalitozoonosis
Clinical signs
■ General: weight loss, anorexia,
dehydration, weakness, lethargy.
■ Digestive: diarrhoea.
■ Neurologic: seizures, ataxia, vestibular
syndrome, paralysis.
■ Urinary: signs associated with renal
failure.
■ Ocular effects: uveitis, cataracts,
nystagmus.
■ Hepatic: jaundice, hepatomegaly.

Head tilt
Internal parasites are especially
important in rabbits housed in
semi-natural conditions.

Protozoa are one of the groups


of parasites with zoonotic potential.
These include E. cuniculi and
G. duodenalis.
Phacoclastic uveitis

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Clinical presentation. Animal: ■ Basic hygiene measures.
■ Stool analysis for several ■ Internal antiparasitic treatment. ■ In rabbits housed outdoors, prevent contact with wild animals,
consecutive days. ■ Supportive therapy. ingestion of plants, and drinking of potentially unsanitary water.
■ Adhesive tape test on ■ In cases of cohabitation of various ■ Stool analysis twice per year.
perianal area. animals, prevent contact. ■ Avoid contact with cat faeces.
■ Serology to detect specific Environment: ■ Keep new rabbits physically separated from others until negative
antibodies against certain results are obtained in serial stool analyses (two weeks).
■ Cleaning and disinfection.
parasites.

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48 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

39 Parasites of ferrets

External parasites
The main ectoparasites are mites (Otodectes cynotis, Sarcoptes scabiei), ticks, and fleas. In
sick and weak animals, skin lesions caused by the action of fly larvae may be occasionally
observed. These types of parasites are more common in animals that spend time outdoors and
in cases of cohabitation with dogs and cats.

Dark-coloured Control of external parasites is very


cerumen important, as these can be transmitted
to humans or other animals.

Clinical signs
■ Irritation, pruritus of varying intensity.
■ Lesions: excoriations, crusts, self-induced
alopecia, head shaking, inflammation,
and presence of exudate in otic canal.
■ Anaemia in massive infestations of fleas
and ticks.

Ferrets naturally produce a


blackish discharge from the ears,
the presence of which is not
necessarily indicative of mites.

Otodectes cynotis

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Dermatological clinical presentation and ■ Appropriate external antiparasitic ■ Insecticide treatment of animals in surrounding
lesions. treatment. environment.
■ Direct observation of the haircoat and ■ In case of ticks, manual removal. ■ Cleaning and disinfection of environment.
hair. ■ In the case of ferrets that spend time outdoors or
■ Analysis of otic exudate. cohabitate with other animals, periodic application
■ Skin scraping. of external parasiticides.
■ Flea comb and damp paper test.

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49
MAIN PARASITES OF EXOTIC ANIMALS

Internal parasites
Intestinal parasites, especially protozoa (Isospora spp., Giardia spp., Cryptosporidium spp.,
Toxoplasma gondii), and cardiopulmonary parasites (Dirofilaria immitis in areas in which this
parasite is found) are the most important endoparasites of ferrets.

Clinical signs
The incidence of intestinal
■ Intestinal parasites: diarrhoea, dehydration, weight loss. protozoa is higher in young
■ D. immitis: lethargy, cough, dyspnoea, cyanosis, ascites, ferrets housed in groups.
abdominal distension.

Some protozoa pose a risk


to humans.

D. immitis in heart

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Stool analysis over several Animal: ■ Daily removal and disposal of faeces.
consecutive days. ■ Suitable antiparasitic. ■ Prevent transmission between animals that live together.
■ D. immitis: diagnostic procedures ■ Supportive therapy. ■ Adequate hygiene measures.
applied in dogs and cats can ■ Periodic internal deparasitation (quarterly in animals that
Environment:
also be used in ferrets. spend time outdoors).
■ Cleaning and disinfection.
■ In areas in which D. immitis is endemic, the use of preventive
treatments (macrocyclic lactones) during periods of
transmission risk is recommended.

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50 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

40 Parasites of reptiles
External parasites
The main ectoparasites affecting reptiles are ticks, mites (Ophionyssus natricis, Hirstiella trombidifor-
mis, Pterygosoma spp.) and fly larvae. As a result of the action of these parasites, skin lesions may
develop, complicated by secondary bacterial infections in cases of inadequate care/handling.

Clinical signs Some antiparasitic products can


■ In some cases no obvious clinical signs may be observed. be toxic to reptiles.
■ Improper shedding (dysecdysis).
■ Anaemia, weakness, and loss of appetite in cases of massive
infestations by blood-sucking parasites.
■ Clinical signs consistent with the pathogen (bacteria, viruses, O. natricis
parasites) transmitted by the ectoparasite upon feeding on the
host’s blood.

Contact with reptiles can


result in the transmission
of parasites such as
snake mites (O. natricis).

Diagnosis of O. natricis is usually


associated with deficient sanitary
conditions and improper handling.

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Direct observation of the Animal: ■ Apply appropriate quarantine measures.
parasite. ■ External antiparasitic treatment. ■ Minimise the risk of transmission by not keeping reptiles of
■ Careful observation ■ Cleaning and disinfection of area to different species in the same environment.
beneath scales using a prevent further bacterial infections. ■ Avoid overcrowding.
magnifying glass. ■ Adequate nutrition and handling. ■ Veterinary examination of newly acquired animals.
Environment: ■ Wear gloves or wash hands before and after handling in
situations of risk.
■ Cleaning and disinfection.
■ Do not introduce objects of unknown origin into the terrarium
■ Application of products with activity
(disinfect and disinfest first).
against external parasites.

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51
MAIN PARASITES OF EXOTIC ANIMALS

Internal parasites
Many types of internal parasites can affect different reptile species. These affect the immune response,
predisposing affected animals to other diseases. They account for many visits to veterinary clinics and
are especially prevalent in imported animals.

Clinical signs Protozoa Nematodes


■ No apparent clinical signs. Oxyurid egg
■ General, nonspecific: lethargy, apathy, weight loss,
dehydration.
■ Digestive: diarrhoea or stool alterations, vomiting,
anorexia, emaciation, malnutrition, prolapsed cloaca.
■ Respiratory signs: mucus production, pneumonia.
■ Pale mucous membranes (blood parasites).
Isospora egg Strongyloides larva

Cryptosporidiosis affects The intestinal flora of some reptiles


lizards and snakes, and (especially herbivores) contains
causes a high rate of certain parasites that are beneficial
mortality. for digestion. These animals should
only undergo deparasitation in
exceptional cases.

Reptiles are potential


transmitters of parasites that
can affect humans.
Ticks
(Hyalomma)

Diarrhoea containing oxyurids

Diagnosis Treatment Prevention


■ Stool analysis. Animal: ■ Wash hands before and after handling.
■ Specific faecal stains. ■ Appropriate pharmacological treatment (antiparasitic ■ Use disposable gloves when handling reptiles.
■ Blood smear. drug or antibiotic with antiparasitic activity). ■ Apply appropriate quarantine measures.
■ Supportive therapy. ■ Periodic stool analysis (newly acquired animals and
■ Elimination of transmitting vectors (ectoparasites). semi-annual examinations).
Environment: ■ Adequate and balanced diet.
■ Periodic renewal of water.
■ Good conditions: sanitary, management, and
housing.
■ Periodic cleaning of terrarium, removal of uneaten
food. ■ Avoid stress.

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52 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

41 How to remove a tick


Improper removal of a tick can lead to skin infections, pain for the animal, and even disease transmission
through the saliva of the tick.

Steps to follow
for correct removal
of a tick
1. Using forceps, gently grasp the tick near the base
of the head, as close to the skin as possible. Wear
gloves to avoid exposure to disease.
2. Turn gently to loosen the tick (make sure the head
does not remain embedded). Do not squeeze or
crush the tick’s body (as it could burst and cause
secondary infections). Slight bleeding may occur. If
so, apply pressure to the area.
Head

Remove the tick within


24 to 48 h of attachment
to reduce the risk Palps
of transmission of
pathogens.

3. The removed tick should be handled with care and


placed into a container containing alcohol to ensure
that it dies.
4. Wash the area with soap and warm water.
Disinfect with iodine or chlorhexidine. Check the
area over the next several days. In case of irritation,
inflammation, or signs of infection, the animal should
be brought to a veterinary clinic.
5. Inspect the rest of the animal to ensure that it is not
carrying any other ticks. Monitor the animal for
clinical signs over the next few days.

06_Miscellaneous.indd 52 3/5/17 13:53


53
MISCELLANEOUS

42 Correct use of a pipette

Steps
1. Remove the 3. Cut or break off the top of the
pipette from its pipette.
package.

2. Hold the pipette


vertically, so
that the contents
remain at the
bottom of the
container.

5. Place the tip of the pipette against healthy skin (with


no apparent lesions) and squeeze the bottom of the
4. Separate the hairs of the animal’s coat to pipette to deposit the contents in various locations
expose the skin. (from the dorsal region to the base of the tail).

Considerations
■ Avoid contact between the contents of the pipette and the eyes and mouth of the animal.
■ Prevent ingestion of the product caused by licking the treated area.
■ It is advisable not to apply the pipette 48 hours before or after bathing using soap.
■ Prolonged and repeated exposure to water is not recommended.
■ Owners should avoid handling animals treated with a pipette for about 12 hours after treatment to minimise possible
irritation. Administration in the evening is recommended.
■ Disposable gloves should be used when applying the pipette.
■ Do not dispose in the environment or pour remaining contents into the drain.

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54 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

43 How to administer
an oral antiparasitic

Tablets
1. Hold the muzzle with one hand to open the mouth: using
the fingers, apply pressure to the lips in the area adjacent
to the upper canines.
2. Fold the lips over the teeth to prevent closure of the mouth
and orient the head upwards.
3. Using the thumb and forefinger of the other hand, place
the tablet as deep as possible into the throat to prevent the
animal from spitting it out.
4. Close the mouth, lower the head, and wait for the animal
to swallow the tablet.
5. To promote the swallowing reflex, it is advisable to
stimulate the throat area: gentle massage, blowing against
the nose, displaying a reward, pouring some liquid into
the mouth.

Reward with food or petting to


ensure the process is interpreted
as a positive experience.

Liquid forms / oral


paste
■ Using a needleless syringe, introduce the liquid/oral paste
via one side of the mouth (labial commissure), behind the
teeth (molars).
■ For oral suspensions, homogenise the contents before use.

In cats that are difficult to handle, the


paste can be spread on the front legs
so that they can lick it off.

Recommendations
■ Wash hands after administering the product or wear disposable
gloves.
■ Adjust the dose accordingly based on the weight and age of the
animal.
■ Check whether the antiparasitic should be administered in
conjunction with a specific diet (or while fasting).
■ Consider the general and reproductive status of the animal
(pregnancy, lactation), and any coadministered drugs.

06_Miscellaneous.indd 54 3/5/17 13:30


55
MISCELLANEOUS

44 How does an antiparasitic work?


Presentations

Antiparasitics consist of one or more molecules with destructi-


ve or preventive activity against internal or external parasites.
An individualised annual parasite control schedule should be
established based on the risk of parasitisation, as well as the
geographical area and the animal’s status/habits.

Change regimen if the


animal’s geographical
area is changed (e.g.
holidays, or working
[hunting, exhibition]
dogs).

Selecting an antiparasitic
■ Owner: preference or ease of administration. ■ Lifestyle.
■ Environment: geographical region, time of year, and ■ Health status.
epidemiological status of parasites present. ■ Concomitant external and/or internal treatments.
■ Animal characteristics: ■ Product: method of administration, duration, spectrum
■ Breed. of activity, safety, efficacy.
■ Age.

External antiparasitics Internal antiparasitics


Route of Spectrum of Route of Spectrum of
Presentation Presentation
administration activity administration activity
Pipette (spot-on) Topical Pipette (spot-on)
• Protozoa
Sprayer • Insects Tablet
Topical • Trematodes -
Collar • Mites Oral Paste
cestodes
Shampoo • Repellent activity Suspension
• Nematodes
Tablet • Insect growth Parenteral Injectable
Oral
Suspension regulators
Parenteral Injectable

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56 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

45 How do I know if my pet


is parasitised?
Clinical signs depend on the type of parasite and
the degree of parasitisation. Clear clinical signs are In general, clinical signs are
nonspecific, and other compatible
observed when the number of parasites is high or in the diseases must be ruled out.
case of high-risk (very young or old, immunosuppressed,
malnourished) individuals.

External parasites
Clinical signs ■ Insistent shaking of the head.
■ Otitis externa.
■ Dermatological:
■ Pruritus: lesions caused by
■ Other:
continuous scratching, biting, ■ Anaemia: blood-sucking

or licking. parasites.
■ Poor haircoat appearance. ■ Nervous: tick-bite paralysis.

■ Cutaneous lesions: swelling, ■ Restlessness.

redness, crusting, scaling,


pustules, nodules, broken
hairs, partial or total alopecia.
■ Otohaematoma. Feline notoedric mange

Internal parasites
Clinical signs
■ General: ■ Abnormal lung sounds.
■ Poor haircoat condition. Clinical leishmaniasis
■ Gastrointestinal:
■ Malnutrition and weight loss. ■ Vomiting.
■ Weakness and growth ■ Continuous or intermittent
retardation. diarrhoea, in some cases
■ Pale mucous membranes. accompanied by mucus
■ Fever. and/or blood. Altered
■ Lethargy. stool consistency (soft).
■ Parasites in vomit or stool.
■ Respiratory signs:
■ Anal pruritus (dragging of
■ Cough.
hindquarters, anal licking).
■ Runny nose.
■ Bloating and abdominal pain.
■ Dyspnoea.
■ Altered appetite.
■ Exercise intolerance.
■ Regurgitation, swallowing
■ Fatigue.
problems.

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57
MISCELLANEOUS

46 Basic hygiene measures


Some simple hygiene measures are essential to prevent
It is important to educate the
the transmission of parasitic diseases, both in animals
whole family on hygiene.
and humans.

Modes of transmission and prevention

Food and water consumption


■ Eat properly cooked meat.
■ Wash and rinse all plant products before consumption.
■ Ensure that drinking water is potable.
■ Ensure that other products of animal origin are properly prepared.

Direct contact (animals, fomites, etc.)


■ Collection and disposal of faeces: use bags, and ■ Avoid contact with animals whose health status is
dispose via garbage collection service. not known.
■ Clean cat litter trays daily. ■ Do not walk barefoot in areas in which there is a risk
■ Do not dispose of animal faeces via the drain. of percutaneous parasite transmission.
■ Prevent children from playing in sandboxes to which ■ In cases of suspected pa-
animals have access. rasitisation of an animal:
■ Do not use animal utensils (e.g. combs) for personal attend veterinary clinic
use. for proper diagnosis and
■ Vacuuming and regular cleaning of the pet’s resting treatment.
places and areas that may harbour immature forms
(e.g. carpet, upholstery).
■ Regular washing of animal.

Faecal-oral
transmission
Wash hands regularly.
Vector bites

■ Educate children: wash


hands and keep hands External antiparasitic
out of mouths. with repellent activity.

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58 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

47 Management recommendations

1. Ensure a good overall health status. 9. If there is more than one pet in the house,
2. Regular application of external and internal administer antiparasitics to all simultaneously,
antiparasitics. and avoid contact between animals in cases of
3. Avoid predation habits. parasitisation.
4. Minimise exposure to parasites. 10. Avoid sharing grooming utensils between animals.
5. Proper collection and removal of faeces. 11. In areas in which a vector-transmitted parasitic
6. Provide a diet based on commercial products or disease is endemic, implement measures to
properly cooked foods, as well as potable drinking minimise contact with the vector.
water. 12. Annual screening for vector-borne parasites in
7. Apply basic hygiene measures. regions in which they are endemic or emerging.
8. Periodically clean the bed of the animal and the 13. Avoid contact with animals of unknown health
home environment. status.
14. Attend regular veterinary checks.

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59
MISCELLANEOUS

48 Parasite control programmes


A proper parasite control programme is necessary to ensure that adequate sanitary conditions are
maintained for dogs and cats. This programme should be based on and adapted to each individual
animal, according to veterinary criteria and coprological findings.

t
2
w e e k s
6 A d u l Internal deparasitation
O n c e p e rm o n t h s O n c e e v e r y
m o n t h 3 m o n t h s is mandatory in some
countries.
O n c e p e r O n c e e v e r y
w e e k 3 m o n t h s
2 1
m o n t h s y e a r

Parasite control programmes should


be adapted in the case of gestating
or lactating females.

Internal parasite control programme


Endoparasites of interest Considerations
• Puppies: anthelmintic treatment from 2 weeks to 2 months (weaning) of age, monthly
until 6 months of age, and every 3 months from 6 months to 1 year of age.
Tapeworms and intestinal nematodes
• Adults: broad-spectrum anthelmintic 4 times per year (every 3 months), and monthly
during periods of risk.
Dirofilaria spp.
Macrocyclic lactones during periods of transmission risk.
(D. immitis, D. repens)

External parasite control programme


Ectoparasites of interest Considerations
Antiparasitic treatment, either continuous or during periods of risk. Insecticides and/or
Ticks and fleas
acaricides. Some of these compounds may contain molecules that inhibit development.
Culicid mosquitoes and sandflies Insecticides with repellent activity during periods of risk (e.g. pyrethroids).

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60 PET OWNER EDUCATIONAL ATLAS PARASITES. DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION

49 How to remove fleas


from the environment
It is necessary to select various measures and implement them in combination to treat the affected
animal, other animals with which they live (dogs and cats), and the environment.

Adult

Pupae

Larvae

Eggs

The proportion of immature forms present An optimal strategy for flea control
in the environment is greater than the combines the use of an adulticide with
proportion of adult fleas found on the animal growth regulators.
(usually one adult per 100 immature forms).

Important considerations
■ Educating the owner about the life cycle of the flea.
■ Comprehensive treatment:
■ Adulticide and insect growth regulators (IGRs).

■ Administration options:

1. Affected animal and other animals.


2. All animals and environmental treatment.
■ Regular vacuuming of immediate environment. Since pupae require noise and movement in order to emerge
from their cocoons, it is advisable to vacuum the environment before applying insecticide.

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61
MISCELLANEOUS

50 Avoid mosquito
and sandfly bites
Avoiding the bites of these insects is essential to prevent the transmission of the pathogens for
which they can act as vectors (see Sheet 5: Mosquitoes and sandflies).

Culicids Sandflies

Guidelines to avoid bites


■ Knowledge of habits and activity period: ■ Eliminate environments that favour the development and
■ Active at dusk/night. shelter of immature forms:
■ Active at mild temperatures (from spring to autumn). ■ Culicid mosquitoes: accumulated water containing

Decreased activity at low temperatures. organic matter, both at home (pots, vases, drums)
■ Use insecticides with repellent activity. and in the environment (puddles, ponds, riverbanks).
■ Keep animal indoors during periods of increased ■ Sandflies: areas with low light, moist environments

activity of these insects. rich in organic matter.


■ Avoid the outdoors at times of peak diptera activity,
and areas with a high density of mosquitoes, including
moist environments with vegetation.

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A follow-up to the previous volume on the physiology, life cycle, and
clinical signs caused by parasites, this new volume focuses on the
diagnosis, treatment and prevention of parasitic diseases, with a
particular emphasis on the role that the pet owner can play.
In addition to classifying parasitic diseases by organ systems, this new
atlas also contains a section dedicated to parasites of exotic animals,
and describes the most important zoonotic parasites transmitted by
dogs and cats.
Conceived as a continuation of the first volume, the objective of this atlas
is to provide the reader with knowledge of the main parasitic diseases of
dogs and cats. A digital version of the atlas is also included.

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