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PARASITES
Diagnosis, control and prevention
Texts and review: Sergio Villanueva Saz Asier Basurco Pérez
PARASITES
Diagnosis, control
and prevention
This book has been published originally in Spanish under the title:
Atlas de información al propietario.
Parásitos. Diagnóstico, control y prevención
© 2017 Grupo Asís Biomedia, S.L.
ISBN Spanish edition: 978-84-16818-54-9
Translation:
Owen Howard
Illustrators:
Jacob Gragera Artal
Paula Marco Peinado
ISBN: 978-84-16818-71-6
D.L.: Z 706-2017
Warning:
Veterinary science is constantly evolving, as are pharmacology and the other sciences. Inevitably, it is
therefore the responsibility of the veterinary surgeon to determine and verify the dosage, the method
of administration, the duration of treatment and any possible contraindications to the treatments given
to each individual patient, based on his or her professional experience. Neither the publisher nor the
author can be held liable for any damage or harm caused to people, animals or properties resulting
from the correct or incorrect application of the information contained in this book.
PREFACE
The objective of this informative book is to help veterinary surgeons provide pet owners with
simple explanations about different aspects of the diagnosis, treatment, prevention, and zoono-
tic risk of the main parasites of dogs and cats. Given the growing popularity of exotic pets,
we also felt that it was important to provide veterinary surgeons with the necessary tools to
answer basic questions related to their care. We have placed a particular emphasis on the
parasites that most commonly affect these animals, as well as those that can also potentially
affect humans.
The text in this educational atlas for pet owners is complemented by illustrations. These are de-
signed to facilitate communication between the veterinary surgeon and the pet owner, and to
help explain key concepts and ideas about the world of parasitic diseases and the importance
of parasites in animal health.
We have sought to provide straightforward answers to the issues of greatest interest to pet
owners, such as preventive care of pets and the relationship between the pet itself, parasites,
and humans.
Finally, we wish to note the excellent work done by the illustrators (Jacob Gragera and Paula
Marco) and editors (Leticia Escuin and Marta Borobia) who helped to shape this book.
We hope that the reader will find the content of interest and that this book serves as a useful
support tool for veterinary surgeons in their daily clinical practice.
The authors,
Asier Basurco Pérez
Sergio Villanueva Saz
Table of contents
01 TYPES OF PARASITES
External parasites
1 Fleas ............................................................................................................................................................................. 7
2 Ticks ............................................................................................................................................................................. 8
3 Lice ................................................................................................................................................................................ 9
4 Mites ......................................................................................................................................................................... 10
5 Mosquitoes and sandflies .......................................................................................................................... 11
Internal parasites
6 Roundworms ....................................................................................................................................................... 12
7 Flukes and tapeworms ................................................................................................................................. 13
8 Microscopic agents ....................................................................................................................................... 14
Digestive system
9 Caused by nematodes ................................................................................................................................. 15
10 Caused by cestodes ...................................................................................................................................... 16
11 Caused by trematodes ................................................................................................................................ 17
12 Caused by protozoa ..................................................................................................................................... 18
Cardiorespiratory system
13 Lungworms ........................................................................................................................................................... 19
14 Heartworm (canine dirofilariasis) ........................................................................................................ 20
Blood
15 Tick-borne diseases ........................................................................................................................................ 21
16 Other parasitic diseases of the blood .............................................................................................. 22
Renal system
17 Urinary parasites ............................................................................................................................................. 23
Systemic or multiorgan
18 Leishmaniasis ...................................................................................................................................................... 24
19 Toxoplasmosis .................................................................................................................................................... 25
20 Other diseases .................................................................................................................................................. 26
Cutaneous
21 Flea infestation: flea allergy dermatitis ............................................................................................ 27
22 Tick infestation ................................................................................................................................................... 28
23 Allergic reactions to bites .......................................................................................................................... 29
24 Mange ..................................................................................................................................................................... 30
25 Myiasis .................................................................................................................................................................... 31
Ocular
26 Ocular parasites .............................................................................................................................................. 32
03 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS
IN PARASITOLOGY
04 MAIN ZOONOSES
05 MAIN PARASITES
OF EXOTIC ANIMALS
06 MISCELLANEOUS
EXTERNAL PARASITES
1 Fleas
The adult forms of these small insects (Ctenocephalides spp.) require the blood of animals to com-
plete their life cycle. They pose a risk to the animal: massive infestations and hypersensitivity reac-
tions (flea allergy dermatitis, FAD). They can also transmit other diseases: dipylidiasis, bartonellosis,
haemoplasmosis (mycoplasmosis), filariasis, and rickettsiosis.
Eggs
Pupa
Larva 1
Larva 2
Larva 3
Clinical signs
Dog: Cat:
■ Intense pruritus (scratching, biting, or licking). ■ Pruritus (licking).
■ Lumbosacral alopecia. ■ Symmetrical self-induced alopecia.
■ Seborrhoea and scaling. ■ Eosinophilic granuloma complex lesions.
■ Pyotraumatic dermatitis. ■ Miliary dermatitis.
■ Presence of Dipylidium caninum. ■ Presence of Dipylidium caninum.
■ Chronic cases: hyperpigmentation, lichenification, ■ Chronic cases: alopecia without lesions.
hyperkeratosis. ■ Massive infestations: ingestion of blood by fleas can
■ Massive infestations: ingestion of blood by fleas can cause anaemia.
cause anaemia.
EXTERNAL PARASITES
2 Ticks
These temporary ectoparasites feed on varying amounts of blood and can harm animals or hu-
mans, either by direct action or by transmitting pathogenic agents. Ticks from two different families
can affect dogs and cats: Argasidae (soft ticks) and Ixodidae (hard ticks). The latter is the most
important family.
Larva
Female with eggs
falls to the ground Eggs deposited in the
environment
Feeding on blood
of the host
Feeding on blood
Moulting in the
of the host
environment
Nymph
Feeding on blood
of the host
Male Female Moulting in the
Adults environment
Clinical signs
■ Areas in which ticks are most commonly found: ears, face, neck, belly, axillae and interdigital areas.
■ Otitis externa.
■ Localised cutaneous inflammatory reaction: inflammatory nodules, microabscesses at point of attachment.
■ Massive infestations: anaemia.
■ Tick toxicosis: ascending paralysis, ataxia, etc.
■ Clinical signs associated with transmitted pathogen.
EXTERNAL PARASITES
3 Lice
These insects are capable of causing infestations (pediculosis), mainly in young, aged, or debilitated
animals. They can be divided into two broad classes, depending on feeding habits: chewing or
biting lice (feed on organic debris and detritus) and blood-sucking lice.
Egg
Nymphs
(several stages)
Dog
Trichodectes canis (chewing louse)
Linognathus setosus (blood-sucking
louse)
Cat
Felicola subrostratus
(chewing louse)
Clinical signs
■ Cutaneous: poor haircoat appearance, self-induced excoriations due to pruritus, scaling and
alopecia (dorsal area or generalised).
■ General: anaemia and weakness in the case of massive infestations with blood-sucking lice.
EXTERNAL PARASITES
4 Mites
These are small parasites that can affect dogs (Sarcoptes scabiei), cats (Notoedres cati), or both
(Demodex spp., Otodectes cynotis, Cheyletiella spp., Straelensia cynotis, and Neotrombicula
autumnalis). They generally cause pruritus and skin alterations.
Other mites
Sarcoptes
Adult
Eggs
Nymph
(several phases)
Otodectes
Notoedres
Larva
Demodex
Clinical signs
■ Alopecia.
■ Scaling.
■ Crusts.
■ Erythema.
■ Pruritus of varying intensity depending on the mite responsible. Neotrombicula
■ Thickening of the skin.
■ Papules and pustules.
■ Skin hyperpigmentation.
■ Erosions and ulcerations. Straelensia
■ Otitis with presence of dark-coloured cerumen (mites that affect
the inner ear).
■ Excoriations and lesions caused by scratching.
EXTERNAL PARASITES
Culicid Sandflies
mosquitoes
Terrestrial
Aquatic
Eggs
Anopheles Culex
Aedes
Larva (4 stages)
Pupa
Aerial Aerial
Adult
■ Swelling, pain and pruritus of varying intensity in the area of the bite.
■ Skin lesions: papules, crusting, erythema, lesions caused by scratching.
■ Possible hypersensitivity reactions.
INTERNAL PARASITES
6 Roundworms
Parasites of this group are of variable size and are characterised by a cylindrical and elongated
body. They are commonly referred to as roundworms or nematodes. These parasites cause various
lesions and inflammatory reactions in the anatomical sites in which they are found. Some of these
worms affect either canine or feline species, while others can affect both species.
Ocular Urinary
parasites parasites
■ Thelazia spp. ■ Capillaria spp.
(T. callipaeda and T. californiensis)) (C. plica and C. feliscati)
■ Onchocerca lupi ■ Dioctophyma renale
Cardiorespiratory Blood
parasites parasites
■ Dirofilaria immitis Located in the subcutaneous tissue:
■ Angiostrongylus vasorum ■ Dirofilaria repens
Digestive parasites
Located in the oesophagus: ■ Trichuris vulpis
■ Spirocerca lupi ■ Ancylostoma spp.
Located in the stomach: (A. caninum, A. tubaeforme
■ Physaloptera spp.
and A. braziliense)
■ Uncinaria stenocephala
Located in the intestine:
■ Trichuris vulpis
■ Toxascaris leonina
■ Strongyloides stercoralis
■ Toxocara spp. (T. canis and T. cati)
INTERNAL PARASITES
1 2 3
The degree of
parasitisation of
the affected animal
influences the clinical
picture and its severity.
Flukes Tapeworms
Clinical signs Clinical signs
Affected animals may show no clinical signs or, The owner will usually observe signs of anal pruritus in
conversely, may develop different associated affected animals (rubbing against the floor) and the presence
clinical manifestations (depending on the location of segments of the parasite (proglottids) in the perianal area
of the adult forms/migration of immature forms). or in the stool.
In severe cases the clinical signs are primarily gastrointestinal,
including diarrhoea/constipation, vomiting, abdominal
distension, and intestinal obstruction (highly parasitised animals).
Nonspecific clinical signs such as weight loss, anorexia and
poor haircoat appearance may also be observed.
Echinococcus (3)
Paragonimus (1) Opisthorchis (2) Alaria (3)
1. Pulmonary localisation
2. Hepatic localisation
Taenia (3)
3. Intestinal localisation
INTERNAL PARASITES
8 Microscopic agents
Protozoa are unicellular parasites that cannot be observed with the naked
eye. Depending on their organ tropism, protozoa can have localised
effects (e.g. digestive protozoa, which cause gastrointestinal signs) or can Some of these parasites
spread systemically, damaging multiple organs (nonspecific and often can also affect humans.
variable clinical signs).
Digestive
Infectious form
Animals acquire the parasite by ingesting
infective forms. This is followed by various
stages of development and multiplication in Intestine
the intestine, and the life cycle is completed
with the production of new forms of the
parasite. These forms can be infective at the
moment of excretion or may require time
in the environment before becoming infective.
Systemic
These protozoa spread to various organs, resulting in
systemic infections.
Despite their intestinal multiplication phase, Toxoplasma
gondii and Neospora caninum can be considered
systemic protozoa given the nature of the clinical picture
they cause.
Theileria Hepatozoon
(various blood cells) (various blood cells)
Leishmania (macrophage)
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
9 Caused by nematodes
Gastrointestinal nematodiasis is caused by different kinds of nematodes that affect dogs and/
or cats. These parasites can be found in the oesophagus (Spirocerca lupi: spirocercosis),
stomach (Physaloptera spp.: physalopteriasis) or intestine (Ancylostoma spp./Uncinaria spp.:
ancylostomiasis; Toxascaris leonina: toxocariasis; Toxocara canis: canine toxocariasis; Toxocara
cati: feline toxocariasis; Trichuris vulpis: trichuriasis; Strongyloides stercoralis: strongyloidiasis).
Clinical signs
■ Abdominal swelling.
■ Abnormal faeces (altered consistency, presence
of blood or mucus).
■ Vomiting.
■ Dehydration.
■ Lack of appetite.
■ Lethargy.
■ Cachexia.
■ Poor haircoat condition.
■ Anaemia.
■ Dysphagia.
■ Regurgitation.
■ Stunting.
■ Intestinal obstruction.
■ Lesions associated with larval migration, depending
on location.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
10 Caused by cestodes
Cestodosis is caused by different types of tapeworms that infect dogs and cats. Adult parasites
cause damage while attaching to the intestinal wall of the animal. The most important species are:
Taenia spp. (T. serialis, T. ovis, T. multiceps, T. hydatigena, and T. pisiformis in dogs and T. taeniae-
formis in cats), Dipylidium caninum, Echinococcus spp. (E. granulosus and E. multilocularis in dogs
and E. multilocularis in cats), Mesocestoides spp., Diphyllobothrium latum and Spirometra spp.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
11 Caused by trematodes
Forms of digestive trematodiasis that affect dogs and cats include liver fluke infection (Opisthorchis spp.,
Metorchis spp., Platynosomum fastosum) and intestinal fluke infection (Alaria spp.). In the case of
P. fastosum, only cats are affected.
Alaria spp.
Mature forms
(adults) are
located in the
small intestine.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
12 Caused by protozoa
These diseases are caused by various species of protozoa that can affect dogs, cats, or both. These
include coccidiosis (Cystoisospora spp., Sarcocystis spp., Besnoitia besnoiti, Hammondia spp.),
cryptosporidiosis (Cryptosporidium spp.), giardiasis (Giardia) and trichomoniasis (Tritrichomonas
foetus). Consequences are more severe in young animals than in adults, and clinical signs are more
common in young and immunocompromised animals.
Clinical signs
■ Very mild or inapparent clinical signs.
■ Nonspecific clinical signs: anorexia, fever,
abdominal distension, weight loss, dehydration,
apathy and depression in the most severe cases.
■ Digestive clinical signs: diarrhoea, vomiting,
steatorrhea, presence of blood or mucus in stool.
CARDIORESPIRATORY SYSTEM
13 Lungworms
While these parasitic diseases are rare in companion animals, those that live outdoors are at greatest risk.
The main parasites affecting companion animals are:
■ Dog: Angiostrongylus vasorum (also in pulmonary arteries and heart), Filaroides osleri, Filaroides hirthi,
Crenosoma vulpis and Capillaria aerophila.
■ Cat: Capillaria aerophila, Aelurostrongylus abstrusus and various species of the genus Troglostrongylus.
IH (land snail)
Adults
The L1 stage
penetrates the skin
of the snail Larva 1
Eggs
CARDIORESPIRATORY SYSTEM
14 Heartworm
(canine dirofilariasis)
Disease caused by the nematode Dirofilaria immitis. This is transmitted by mosquitoes (mainly
Culex spp., Aedes spp. and Anopheles spp.). The main locations of adult parasites of dogs are the
large blood vessels (pulmonary artery and vena cava) and heart (right ventricle).
IH
(Aedes, Culex,
and Anopheles,
among others)
BLOOD
15 Tick-borne diseases
These diseases require ticks for transmission. They pose a great challenge to veterinary surgeons
owing to the difficulty associated with diagnosis and control.
Protozoa
Hepatozoonosis* Citauxzoonosis Babesiosis Theileriosis
(Hepatozoon spp.) (Cytauxzoon felis) (Babesia spp.) (Theileria spp.)
Nematodes
Filariasis
(Acanthocheilonema
dracunculoides)
BLOOD
D. repens
RENAL SYSTEM
17 Urinary parasites
Clinical signs
■ Urinary problems (cystitis, dysuria, kidney failure, etc.).
■ D. renale in abdominal cavity: liver damage, peritonitis,
haemoperitoneum.
Consumption of raw or
Capillariasis undercooked fish or frogs’ legs
poses a risk.
SYSTEMIC OR MULTIORGAN
18 Leishmaniasis
Disease caused by Leishmania infantum and transmitted by arthropods of the genera Phlebotomus
(Europe, Asia and Africa) and Lutzomyia (Americas).
Skin
Lymph node
SYSTEMIC OR MULTIORGAN
19 Toxoplasmosis
Toxoplasma gondii affects warm-blooded animals (birds and mammals, including humans). Provided proper
basic hygiene measures are implemented, human-cat contact is not the main route of transmission.
Diagnosis Treatment
■ Serology: detection of anti-T. gondii antibodies (IgM and IgG). ■ Pharmacological: various treatments and
■ Molecular tests (PCR). treatment combinations are available.
■ Stool analysis: flotation methods. ■ Supportive therapy: if associated complications.
■ Final diagnosis: confirm the presence of the parasite in tissues (biopsy)
or body fluids (cytology).
Tissue cysts
Tissue cysts
Sporulated oocysts
(infective)
DH (cat)
Sporulated oocyst
(noninfective)
Sporulated oocysts
(infective)
24 hours – 5 days
SYSTEMIC OR MULTIORGAN
20 Other diseases
Trypanosomiasis
■ Affects dogs and cats.
■ Nonspecific clinical presentation.
■ Transmitting vectors:
■ Triatomine bugs (Trypanosoma cruzi).
Neosporosis
■ Affects dogs (puppies and immunocompromised animals).
■ Neurological and muscular disorders.
Neospora caninum
CUTANEOUS
21 Flea infestation:
flea allergy dermatitis
Flea allergy dermatitis (FAD) is an allergic dermatitis (hypersensitivity reaction) caused by allergens
present in flea saliva.
Distribution patterns
Affected area
CUTANEOUS
22 Tick infestation
Affects both dogs and cats. The following are the main genera of ticks
implicated:
■ Family Ixodidae: Ixodes spp., Rhipicephalus spp., Dermacentor spp.,
Haemaphysalis spp., Amblyomma spp., Hyalomma spp.
■ Family Argasidae: Ornithodoros spp., Otobius spp.
CUTANEOUS
Distribution patterns
CUTANEOUS
24 Mange
These are cutaneous processes caused by infestations of dogs and cats with different mites, such
as Notoedres cati, Cheyletiella spp., Demodex spp., Otodectes cynotis, and Sarcoptes scabiei.
Diagnosis
■ History (clinical picture and lesion distribution). ■ Therapeutic diagnosis: response to acaricide
■ Direct observation and identification of parasites. (if suspected S. scabiei infestation).
■ Specific diagnostic tests: skin scraping, adhesive tape test, ■ Pinnal-pedal reflex (if suspected infestation with
trichogram, examination of ear discharge (otitis), haircoat S. scabiei, O. cynotis).
brushing, serology (S. scabiei). ■ Skin biopsy (exceptional cases).
The risk of
zoonosis
depends on the
type of mange.
Sarcoptic mange
Treatment Prevention
Animal: ■ Treat all cohabitating animals and avoid ■ Good animal health.
■ Application of acaricides (systemic and/ contact with infected animals. ■ Periodical treatment with
or local). Environment: external antiparasitic product.
■ Cleaning and treatment of inner ear in ■ Avoid contact with animals of
■ Cleaning, aspiration, and disinfection of
cases of otitis. bedding and other household items (fomites). unknown health status (street
■ Antiseborrheic shampoo to remove crusts. and wild animals).
■ Application of ectoparasiticides.
■ Antibiotic therapy in cases of secondary
bacterial infection.
■ Decrease pruritus: antipruritic treatment.
CUTANEOUS
25 Myiasis
Infestation characterised by the presence of larvae (maggots) of dipteran flies.
Predisposing factors
■ Poor hygiene measures.
■ Debilitated (elderly, sick) animals.
■ Animals with paresis. Adult fly (attracted to areas of skin)
■ Wet haircoat.
■ Suppurating wounds.
■ Faecal and/or urinary incontinence. Eggs
Larva 1
Crateriform ulcer
Pupa
Larva 3
Clinical signs
■ Ulcers with remains of necrotic tissue.
■ Lesion distribution: around the eyes,
mouth, nose, anus, genitals, untreated
infected wounds.
■ Characteristic odour.
OCULAR
26 Ocular parasites
Thelaziasis and onchocerciasis are two eye diseases caused by parasitic nematodes of the genus
Thelazia (T. callipaeda, T. californiensis) and by Onchocerca lupi, respectively.
Conjunctival granuloma
27 Stool analysis
A set of diagnostic procedures based on the evaluation of faecal material to identify any stages
of internal parasites eliminated in the faeces.
Sampling
■ Can be performed by the owner.
■ Avoid environmental contamination (dirt, leaves, etc.).
■ A small amount of sample is required (5–10 g).
■ It is important to ensure that the sample has been recently taken.
■ It is advisable to conduct serial stool analyses over several days.
■ Features to note during stool analysis: smell, consistency,
presence of mucus or fresh blood, undigested food particles,
presence of parasites.
To establish an accurate
diagnosis, a combination of
several diagnostic techniques
is sometimes necessary.
Diagnostic techniques
■ Direct microscopic examination, with or without staining.
■ Determination of egg/cyst concentration by flotation.
■ Sedimentation techniques.
■ Determination of nematode larvae concentration.
■ Egg counts.
■ Detection of parasite antigens in stool.
■ Molecular diagnostic tests.
■ Culture.
Baermann apparatus
(concentration of nematode larvae)
28 Blood smear
Technique to assess blood cell characteristics. This can be useful for the detection of certain
intra- or extracellular parasites.
Examination of a fixed
blood sample
1. Place a recently acquired drop of blood at one end of the slide.
2. Hold another slide at an angle of 30–60 ° with respect to the
first slide and allow the drop to extend across the first slide.
3
3. Push the second slide forward along the length of the first in a
smooth and steady motion, without lifting and maintaining the
angle. This causes the blood to form a thin layer across the slide.
4. Allow the preparation to dry.
5. Staining: the most commonly used stain is the Diff-Quik stain.
4 and 5
6. Examine the preparation under the microscope using different
objectives.
29 Skin scrapings
Diagnostic technique used to identify ectoparasites living on the surface area of the skin
(Cheyletiella spp., Neotrombicula spp., Otodectes spp., Sarcoptes spp., Notoedres spp.) or
in deeper locations (Demodex spp., Straelensia cynotis). It can also be useful for locating the
larvae of certain helminths.
Superficial scraping
The skin is scraped off in the direction
of hair growth, without applying
excessive pressure on the
scalpel blade (which is held
perpendicular to the skin).
Sarcoptes
Deep scraping
A fold of skin is held
between the fingers and moderate
pressure applied to squeeze
out the entire contents of
the hair follicles.
Scrape several times with
the scalpel blade to induce
light capillary bleeding.
Demodex
30 Trichogram
Technique used to observe and evaluate the structure of the hair (tip, root and shaft) and its
current growth phase. Especially useful when seeking to detect ectoparasites (mites and lice),
both adult forms and immature forms or eggs.
Hair plucking
■ A small number of hairs are plucked by the base using the
fingertips. A rubber-coated haemostat can also be used to
pull the hair away with a twisting motion.
■ Hair shafts should be plucked in the direction of hair growth.
Correct mounting
of the sample
■ The sample is placed on a slide.
■ This is achieved using adhesive tape or mineral oil.
Cheyletiella
Demodex Cheyletiella
Ctenocephalides Felicola
32 Flea comb
This procedure involves brushing the haircoat using a special ultra-fine comb. The purpose is to collect
organic material such as detached hairs, crusts, flakes, and especially to detect ectoparasites and
their eggs. The collected material is placed on damp white paper for evaluation with the naked eye
or using a lens to magnify the image.
Procedure
1. A cotton swab or ear brush can be used.
2. The veterinary surgeon inserts the tip of the swab or brush into the external ear canal and
rotates it against the skin of the ear.
3. The swab or brush is removed from the ear and rotated against the surface of a slide on
which a few drops of mineral oil have been placed, thus allowing extension of the otic
exudate sample.
4. The sample is examined under a microscope at low magnification to identify acarids such
as Otodectes spp. or Demodex spp.
Fleabite
Ocular toxoplasmosis
(eye fundus)
36 Parasites of birds
External parasites
The presence of ectoparasites is usually cause for a visit to a veterinary clinic. Mites, the most im-
portant group of ectoparasites, include those that burrow into the epidermis (Knemidocoptes spp.),
those that live on the surface of the epidermis and feed on blood (Dermanyssus gallinae,
Ornithonyssus spp.), and various forms that live on feathers (Dermation spp., Protolichus spp.,
Dubininia spp.).
Clinical signs
■ Skin: irritation, crusts, hyperkeratosis
of the beak and legs, scaly skin.
■ Feathers: lesions, decreased number
of feathers.
■ Pruritus of varying intensity.
Knemidocoptes ■ Anaemia (blood-sucking mites).
■ General depression, apathy.
Internal parasites
In psittacines, internal parastites are more common in wild or outdoor-dwelling specimens (e.g. in
aviaries). The most common types are protozoa (Trichomonas spp., Eimeria spp., Isospora spp.,
Cryptosporidium spp., and Giardia spp.) and nematodes (Ascaridia spp. and Capillaria spp.).
In passeriform birds, the most important endoparasites are protozoa (Atoxoplasma spp.,
Isospora spp., Cryptosporidium spp., Toxoplasma gondii, Giardia spp., Cochlosoma spp. and
Trichomonas spp.). In some cases certain helminths are also detected, although these are much less
common than in psittacine birds.
Clinical signs
(depending on parasite)
■ General nonspecific signs: depression, anorexia, weight loss, poor appearance,
dehydration.
■ Digestive: melaena, diarrhoea, dysphagia, bloating, vomiting.
■ Respiratory signs: respiratory difficulties, coughing, sneezing, nasal discharge.
■ Nervous: circling behaviour, ataxia, incoordination.
■ Ocular effects: blindness.
Coccidia
External parasites
The external parasites that most frequently affect small rodents are mites (Myocoptes musculinus,
Myobia musculi, Radfordia spp., Ornithonyssus bacoti, Liponyssus bacoti, Chirodiscoides
caviae, Trixacarus caviae, Demodex spp., Notoedres spp., Cheyletiella spp., Sarcoptes
scabiei), lice (Polyplax serrata, Polyplax spinulosa, Gliricola porcelli, Gyropus ovalis), and
fleas. However, within this group of animals, gerbils and chinchillas are less susceptible to this
type of infestation.
Clinical signs Tropical rat mites (O. bacoti), guinea pig mites
(T. caviae), and mites that affect other small rodents
■ Lesions: hypotrichosis, alopecia, scaling, erythema, can also affect humans. Often this is the result of
erosions, papules, and traumatic lesions induced by close contact with affected animals.
scratching (excoriation, crusting, flaking, ulcers).
■ Pruritus of varying intensity that can cause
epileptiform seizures. Fleas are usually transmitted
from dogs and cats in the
immediate environment.
Alopecia and
flaky skin
Trixacarus caviae
Internal parasites
The most important parasites are those found in the digestive
tract, including protozoa (Giardia spp., Spironucleus spp.,
Trichomonas spp., Balantidium spp., Cryptosporidium spp.,
Entamoeba spp., Eimeria spp.), tapeworms (Rodentolepis
Rodentolepis
nana, Hymenolepis diminuta), and nematodes (Syphacia spp.,
Aspiculuris tetraptera, Paraspidodera uncinata, Dentostomella
translucida).). Parasites may be detected in other organs, re-
sulting in diverse clinical pictures that may include urinary
(Klosiella spp., Trichomoides crassicauda)) and neurological
signs (Toxoplasma gondii, Frenkelia spp., Baylisascaris spp.).
Clinical signs
■ Immunocompetent animals may show no obvious clinical signs.
■ Nonspecific: weight loss, hunched posture, poor haircoat
appearance, weakness, dehydration, impaired growth, lack of
appetite.
■ Digestive: anal irritation, rectal prolapse, diarrhoea or constipation,
bloating.
■ Urinary: dysuria, urinary calculi, clinical presentation associated
with kidney damage.
■ Neurologic: depression, incoordination, lethargy, bowed head,
paralysis, lying down, loss of balance.
■ Assess the presence of other diseases, concomitant pathological
processes, and stress (weakness, immunosuppression, malnutrition).
Diarrhoea caused
by Giardia
38 Parasites of rabbits
External parasites
The external parasites that most frequently affect rabbits are ticks and various mites (Psoroptes
cuniculi, Cheyletiella parasitovorax, Listrophorus gibbus, Demodex cuniculi, Notoedres cati,
Sarcoptes scabiei), lice (Haemodipsus ventricosus), fleas (Spilopsyllus cuniculi, Ctenocephalides
felis, Ctenocephalides canis), and fly larvae. In addition, outdoor living and cohabitation with
dogs and cats, without adequate external parasite control measures, can increase the risk of
transmission.
Cheyletiella parasitovorax
Cheyletiellosis is a problem
secondary to other ailments,
especially lack of mobility and/or
grooming.
Internal parasites
The groups of internal parasites that can affect the rabbit are highly varied, and include protozoa
(Eimeria spp., Giardia duodenalis, Encephalitozoon cuniculi, Toxoplasma gondii), trematodes
(Fasciola hepatica, Dicrocoelium lanceolatum), tapeworms (Cittotaenia spp.), tapeworm larvae
(Taenia spp.), and nematodes (Passalurus ambiguus, Trichuris leporis, Graphidium strigosum,
Trichostrongylus spp., Obeliscoides cuniculi).
Encephalitozoonosis
Clinical signs
■ General: weight loss, anorexia,
dehydration, weakness, lethargy.
■ Digestive: diarrhoea.
■ Neurologic: seizures, ataxia, vestibular
syndrome, paralysis.
■ Urinary: signs associated with renal
failure.
■ Ocular effects: uveitis, cataracts,
nystagmus.
■ Hepatic: jaundice, hepatomegaly.
Head tilt
Internal parasites are especially
important in rabbits housed in
semi-natural conditions.
39 Parasites of ferrets
External parasites
The main ectoparasites are mites (Otodectes cynotis, Sarcoptes scabiei), ticks, and fleas. In
sick and weak animals, skin lesions caused by the action of fly larvae may be occasionally
observed. These types of parasites are more common in animals that spend time outdoors and
in cases of cohabitation with dogs and cats.
Clinical signs
■ Irritation, pruritus of varying intensity.
■ Lesions: excoriations, crusts, self-induced
alopecia, head shaking, inflammation,
and presence of exudate in otic canal.
■ Anaemia in massive infestations of fleas
and ticks.
Otodectes cynotis
Internal parasites
Intestinal parasites, especially protozoa (Isospora spp., Giardia spp., Cryptosporidium spp.,
Toxoplasma gondii), and cardiopulmonary parasites (Dirofilaria immitis in areas in which this
parasite is found) are the most important endoparasites of ferrets.
Clinical signs
The incidence of intestinal
■ Intestinal parasites: diarrhoea, dehydration, weight loss. protozoa is higher in young
■ D. immitis: lethargy, cough, dyspnoea, cyanosis, ascites, ferrets housed in groups.
abdominal distension.
D. immitis in heart
40 Parasites of reptiles
External parasites
The main ectoparasites affecting reptiles are ticks, mites (Ophionyssus natricis, Hirstiella trombidifor-
mis, Pterygosoma spp.) and fly larvae. As a result of the action of these parasites, skin lesions may
develop, complicated by secondary bacterial infections in cases of inadequate care/handling.
Internal parasites
Many types of internal parasites can affect different reptile species. These affect the immune response,
predisposing affected animals to other diseases. They account for many visits to veterinary clinics and
are especially prevalent in imported animals.
Steps to follow
for correct removal
of a tick
1. Using forceps, gently grasp the tick near the base
of the head, as close to the skin as possible. Wear
gloves to avoid exposure to disease.
2. Turn gently to loosen the tick (make sure the head
does not remain embedded). Do not squeeze or
crush the tick’s body (as it could burst and cause
secondary infections). Slight bleeding may occur. If
so, apply pressure to the area.
Head
Steps
1. Remove the 3. Cut or break off the top of the
pipette from its pipette.
package.
Considerations
■ Avoid contact between the contents of the pipette and the eyes and mouth of the animal.
■ Prevent ingestion of the product caused by licking the treated area.
■ It is advisable not to apply the pipette 48 hours before or after bathing using soap.
■ Prolonged and repeated exposure to water is not recommended.
■ Owners should avoid handling animals treated with a pipette for about 12 hours after treatment to minimise possible
irritation. Administration in the evening is recommended.
■ Disposable gloves should be used when applying the pipette.
■ Do not dispose in the environment or pour remaining contents into the drain.
43 How to administer
an oral antiparasitic
Tablets
1. Hold the muzzle with one hand to open the mouth: using
the fingers, apply pressure to the lips in the area adjacent
to the upper canines.
2. Fold the lips over the teeth to prevent closure of the mouth
and orient the head upwards.
3. Using the thumb and forefinger of the other hand, place
the tablet as deep as possible into the throat to prevent the
animal from spitting it out.
4. Close the mouth, lower the head, and wait for the animal
to swallow the tablet.
5. To promote the swallowing reflex, it is advisable to
stimulate the throat area: gentle massage, blowing against
the nose, displaying a reward, pouring some liquid into
the mouth.
Recommendations
■ Wash hands after administering the product or wear disposable
gloves.
■ Adjust the dose accordingly based on the weight and age of the
animal.
■ Check whether the antiparasitic should be administered in
conjunction with a specific diet (or while fasting).
■ Consider the general and reproductive status of the animal
(pregnancy, lactation), and any coadministered drugs.
Selecting an antiparasitic
■ Owner: preference or ease of administration. ■ Lifestyle.
■ Environment: geographical region, time of year, and ■ Health status.
epidemiological status of parasites present. ■ Concomitant external and/or internal treatments.
■ Animal characteristics: ■ Product: method of administration, duration, spectrum
■ Breed. of activity, safety, efficacy.
■ Age.
External parasites
Clinical signs ■ Insistent shaking of the head.
■ Otitis externa.
■ Dermatological:
■ Pruritus: lesions caused by
■ Other:
continuous scratching, biting, ■ Anaemia: blood-sucking
or licking. parasites.
■ Poor haircoat appearance. ■ Nervous: tick-bite paralysis.
Internal parasites
Clinical signs
■ General: ■ Abnormal lung sounds.
■ Poor haircoat condition. Clinical leishmaniasis
■ Gastrointestinal:
■ Malnutrition and weight loss. ■ Vomiting.
■ Weakness and growth ■ Continuous or intermittent
retardation. diarrhoea, in some cases
■ Pale mucous membranes. accompanied by mucus
■ Fever. and/or blood. Altered
■ Lethargy. stool consistency (soft).
■ Parasites in vomit or stool.
■ Respiratory signs:
■ Anal pruritus (dragging of
■ Cough.
hindquarters, anal licking).
■ Runny nose.
■ Bloating and abdominal pain.
■ Dyspnoea.
■ Altered appetite.
■ Exercise intolerance.
■ Regurgitation, swallowing
■ Fatigue.
problems.
Faecal-oral
transmission
Wash hands regularly.
Vector bites
■
47 Management recommendations
1. Ensure a good overall health status. 9. If there is more than one pet in the house,
2. Regular application of external and internal administer antiparasitics to all simultaneously,
antiparasitics. and avoid contact between animals in cases of
3. Avoid predation habits. parasitisation.
4. Minimise exposure to parasites. 10. Avoid sharing grooming utensils between animals.
5. Proper collection and removal of faeces. 11. In areas in which a vector-transmitted parasitic
6. Provide a diet based on commercial products or disease is endemic, implement measures to
properly cooked foods, as well as potable drinking minimise contact with the vector.
water. 12. Annual screening for vector-borne parasites in
7. Apply basic hygiene measures. regions in which they are endemic or emerging.
8. Periodically clean the bed of the animal and the 13. Avoid contact with animals of unknown health
home environment. status.
14. Attend regular veterinary checks.
t
2
w e e k s
6 A d u l Internal deparasitation
O n c e p e rm o n t h s O n c e e v e r y
m o n t h 3 m o n t h s is mandatory in some
countries.
O n c e p e r O n c e e v e r y
w e e k 3 m o n t h s
2 1
m o n t h s y e a r
Adult
Pupae
Larvae
Eggs
The proportion of immature forms present An optimal strategy for flea control
in the environment is greater than the combines the use of an adulticide with
proportion of adult fleas found on the animal growth regulators.
(usually one adult per 100 immature forms).
Important considerations
■ Educating the owner about the life cycle of the flea.
■ Comprehensive treatment:
■ Adulticide and insect growth regulators (IGRs).
■ Administration options:
50 Avoid mosquito
and sandfly bites
Avoiding the bites of these insects is essential to prevent the transmission of the pathogens for
which they can act as vectors (see Sheet 5: Mosquitoes and sandflies).
Culicids Sandflies
Decreased activity at low temperatures. organic matter, both at home (pots, vases, drums)
■ Use insecticides with repellent activity. and in the environment (puddles, ponds, riverbanks).
■ Keep animal indoors during periods of increased ■ Sandflies: areas with low light, moist environments