Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:231–239
DOI 10.1007/s10643-013-0608-3
Touch Screen Tablets and Emergent Literacy
Michelle M. Neumann • David L. Neumann
Published online: 4 September 2013
 Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013
Abstract The use of touch screen tablets by young
children is increasing in the home and in early childhood
settings. The simple tactile interface and finger-based
operating features of tablets may facilitate preschoolers’
use of tablet application software and support their edu-
cational development in domains such as literacy. This
article reviews current findings on using touch screen
tablets in supporting early literacy development within a
theoretical framework. The evidence suggests that tablets
have the potential to enhance children’s emergent literacy
skills (e.g., alphabet knowledge, print concepts, and
emergent writing). However, the optimal use of tablets for
early literacy learning may be dependent upon the type of
scaffolding used by parent or teacher and the availability
and quality of literacy tablet applications. Practical impli-
cations and suggestions for future research are discussed.
Keywords Emergent literacy
Touch screen tablets

Apps
Preschoolers
Scaffolding
M. M. Neumann
Griffith Institute for Educational Research, Griffith University,
Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
M. M. Neumann (&)
School of Education and Professional Studies, Griffith
University, Gold Coast, QLD 4222, Australia
e-mail: m.neumann@griffith.edu.au
D. L. Neumann
Behavioural Basis of Health Program, Griffith Health Institute,
Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
D. L. Neumann
School of Applied Psychology, Griffith University, Gold Coast,
QLD, Australia
Introduction
Touch screen tablets, such as the Apple iPad and Sam-
sung Galaxy Tab, are becoming increasingly popular in
technology based societies (Goodwin 2012; Murray and
Olcese 2011; Orrin and Olcese 2011; Rideout 2011;
Tahnk 2011). In the first few weeks of its release (April
2010) over 3 million iPads were sold (Orrin and Olcese
2011) and sales continue to rise with the recent release of
next generation iPads and the iPad mini. A recent U.S.
survey by Rideout (2011) found that half (52 %) of
0–8 year olds (N = 1,384) had access to touch screen
devices at home (smart phone, iPod, or iPad/tablet) with
11 % of children spending an average of 43 min per day
using them. The survey also showed that over a third
(38 %) of children have used touch screen devices (10 %
of 0–1 year olds, 39 % 2–4 year olds and 52 % of
5–8 year olds). As such, tablets may play an important
role in the cognitive development of children today and in
the future.
Emergent literacy skills (e.g., letter name and sound
knowledge, early writing, print concepts, and phonological
awareness) are important precursors of future reading and
writing ability (Bowman and Treiman 2004; Cohen and
Cowen 2011; Whitehurst and Lonigan 1998; Snow et al.
1998). Tablets with their print-based interfaces possess
several features that may facilitate the development of
emergent literacy skills. In contrast to traditional comput-
ers, touch screen tablets provide an easier to use and more
intuitive interface for a child (McManis and Gunnewig
2012). Tablets differ from traditional desktop computers
(with mouse and keyboard) in that they are light, mobile,
handheld devices with a user interface based on a touch
screen. Children can lay a tablet on their lap or lie down on
the floor and use it in their bedroom or beside their
123
232
favourite toys. This allows collaboration between children
during play. For example, O’Mara and Laidlaw (2011)
described two Australian children aged 3 and 5 years
playing a virtual tea party game on their iPad whilst
simultaneously playing with their physical toy tea-set.
Moreover, tablets make use of interactive multimedia dis-
plays that stimulate visual, auditory, tactile, and kinaes-
thetic sensory systems and respond to a child’s input with
instant feedback (Cooper 2005; Tahnk 2011). This enables
young children to use tablets relatively quickly to explore,
learn new skills, and gain early literacy knowledge
(McManis and Gunnewig 2012).
The present article focuses specifically on reviewing
touch screen tablets and their potential role in promoting
early literacy skills. The methods by which children
interact with tablets and apps will be discussed followed by
research that has examined the effect of tablets and apps on
emergent literacy. A theoretical framework with which to
conceptualise the use of tablets as a scaffolding tool in
supporting emergent literacy skills in children will be
developed. This will highlight future research directions to
help address how touch screen tablets can best benefit early
literacy learning.
Tablets and Young Children
Touch screen tablets have the physical features to
facilitate early literacy learning as they are book-like in
shape and are in the form of a writing/note pad (con-
sisting of a flat glass screen 7.9–9 inches) that detects
and responds to stimulation by a finger or hand. Touch
screen tablets can also detect more than one simulta-
neous point of contact (Murray and Olcese 2011). For
example, children can interact with the tablet interface
using a range of single and multi-touch gestures (e.g.,
one tap, double tap, long press, scroll, pan, flick, two
finger tap and scroll, pinch, stretch, and spread; Shanis
and Hedge 2003; Westerman and Hedge 2001). An
accelerometer is built into tablets so that acceleration or
movement can be detected automatically and the screen
can rotate its interface. This feature helps children cor-
rectly orient the printed interface during use (Orrin and
Olcese 2011). Yates (2012) also describes tablets as
potential literacy learning tools because of their versa-
tility for writing, drawing, and easily downloadable
Applications or ‘‘apps’’ (e.g., e-books, nursery rhymes,
alphabet/word/matching games).
The recent design and availability of a tactile based
digital interface allows infants, toddlers, and preschoolers
to begin their interaction with the digital world much
earlier in their development than ever before (Orlando
2011; Plowman et al. 2012). Michael Cohen Group and
123
Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:231–239
USDOE (2011)’s study observed young children’s
(N = 60; aged 2–8 years old) interactions with touch
screen tablets. They found that children as young as 2 years
old were able to use tablets to do simple tasks such as
matching and counting. Children in general learned
through exploration (i.e., touch, repeat, trial and error) and
were overall enthusiastic about the device. This study
further identified differences across age groups. Two- to
three-year-olds used big gesture exploration as if the image
were a 3D object, and learnt to target, press, or drag which
gradually led to tap or swipe. They were eager to make
things happen whilst refining their understandings of cause
and effect, preferring characters that were familiar, col-
ourful, and attractive. Four- to five-year-old children used
more directed and advanced motor skills such as initial
press, drag, and swipe. They figured things out, generalized
schemas from other toys/computer games, and winning
levels during game play sustained their interest. Six to
eight year olds quickly determined the skills needed to
operate games and mastered explicit tasks whilst applying
skills learnt from other apps. These observations suggest
that children progress from an immediate, concrete sensory
experience to a more conceptual and abstract understand-
ing, to independent operation of the device through the use
of apps.
Apps and Young Children
Three types of tablet apps have been identified for young
children (Michael Cohen Group and USDOE 2011). The
first type is gaming apps that are interactive, easy to learn,
and compelling to master. Gaming apps typically have a
goal (e.g., to score points) and progressively increase in
difficulty to maintain the child’s interest. The second is
creating apps which are tools for drawing or building.
These creating games appeal to a child’s interest because
they involve construction activities in a no-fail environ-
ment with a range of possible outcomes. The learning by
doing tasks provide children with immediate feedback to
extend their learning. The third type of app consists of
colourful, animated, and interactive electronic books that
may have a built-in narrator to read the story or it can be
read to the child by an adult. Michael Cohen Group and
USDOE (2011) found that preschoolers preferred mostly
games and creating apps. However, although children
were positive towards touch screen tablets, the device
alone does not always result in engagement and learning.
For example, a child may experience frustration and
boredom unless the app is challenging and at the right
level of difficulty. Therefore, child interactions with apps
may be shaped by factors such as prior experience and
alignment between app content and developmental level.
Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:231–239
The Effect of Tablets and Apps on Emergent Literacy
Hisrich and Blanchard (2009) reported that only a few high
quality tablet apps exist that are specifically designed to
promote emergent literacy skills such as letters, sounds,
words, print concepts, reading, and writing. More recently,
Orrin and Olcese (2011) investigated the types of apps
available for young children to use on touch screen tablets.
Out of 315 Apple apps examined by Orrin and Olcese
(2011) only 56 were categorized under the Education
heading. The apps included letter tracing, drawing, and
colouring in activities (e.g., Letter Lab and 123 Color HD).
One quasi-experimental study gave 90 children aged
3–7 years old a touch screen iPod (small screen;
10 cm 9 5 cm) and two apps (Super Why app that consists
of games for learning letter and sound identification,
rhyming words, spelling, word and sentence writing and
Martha Speaks: Dog Party that introduces new vocabulary
with games and a quiz) to play with for 2 weeks (Chiong
and Schuler 2010). The children’s parents completed home
observation logs and children were assessed pre-post-test
on letter sound knowledge, rhyming, sentence completion,
and vocabulary. The literacy apps were found to have a
positive effect on letter sound, rhyming, and vocabulary
with 3 year olds making the most gains. Further empirical
research is needed to establish the benefits of apps on early
literacy learning using the larger touch screen tablet.
E-book apps designed to allow children to read an
electronic version of a printed book may also support
emergent literacy development. Many e-book apps exist
(Tahnk 2011); however, little is known about the effect of
shared reading of these apps using a touch screen tablet.
Substantial evidence over the past decade suggests e-book
software read via non-touch screen desktop computers
(with mouse and keyboard) has positive effects on emer-
gent literacy (e.g., Bus and Neuman 2009; de Jong and Bus
2003; Korat and Shamir 2007; Korat et al. 2011; Roskos
et al. 2009; Salmon 2013; Shamir 2009; Shamir and Korat
2007). Although speculative, it is possible that both e-book
devices (traditional desktop computer and touch screen
tablet) may have comparable effects on children’s reading
experiences and emergent literacy.
E-books have similar features to a paper printed story
book in that it displays print, has a title page and chapter
list. However, e-books differ from paper story books
because they use multimedia features to support or enhance
the text on the screen. E-books allow children to read or
listen to story books independently or have them read by an
adult and are thought to be an effective way to enhance
literacy skills (Bus and Neuman 2009; Cohen and Cowen
2011; Salmon 2013). E-books have been designed to focus
children’s attention on the printed words on the screen such
as text that brightens or changes in colour, shape, or size
233
when the word is spoken. Some e-books have a dictionary
to explain difficult words, ‘‘hot’’ spots in animations,
games, songs, and interactive games embedded on pages.
As a result, e-books present a different but rich reading
experience to traditional books.
E-books are thought to provide similar benefits for the
child to those gained when adults read paper story books
(Bus and Neuman 2009) and may improve children’s
vocabulary (Smith 2001), comprehension (Verhallen et al.
2006), phonological awareness (Chera and Wood 2003),
and motivation to read (Smith 2001). Other studies have
shown that e-books can improve vocabulary (Korat and
Shamir 2007) and word recognition and writing (Shamir
and Korat 2007) due to reading the highlighted text during
the e-book activity. Adult assistance during e-book reading
was also found to enhance phonological awareness and
word writing (Korat et al. 2011). Although evidence exists
supporting the benefits of e-books delivered through
desktop computers further research is needed to determine
the specific effects of using touch screen tablets and e-book
apps on emergent literacy.
Little research exists on the effects of touch screen tablet
apps (e.g., ABC letter tracing, word writing apps) on early
writing development. One observational study (N = 41) has
shown that children aged 3–6 years were quickly able to
operate a tablet using a stylus and successfully drew pictures
with a high level of interest and motivation (Couse and Chen
2010). However, the effect of tablets on early writing was not
investigated. Although not a tablet study, Yost (2003) has
shown how desktop computers can support emergent writ-
ing. Through the collection of data from audiotapes, video
recordings, anecdotal notes and artefacts collected over 2‘
months, kindergarten children (N = 8) were observed to
independently use computers to make signs, send messages,
make lists, sign in, write stories and respond to stories.
Several of Clay’s (1975) concepts about print were evident in
children’s computer writing using a word/drawing software
program. For example, children’s written work on the
computer showed they had knowledge of the following print
concepts (e.g., sign concept, flexibility principle, linear and
directional principal, spaces between words). Due to the
tactile nature of the touch screen interface and tracing apps,
tablets may have the potential to support early letter shaping
and word writing to a greater extent than the traditional non-
touch screen computer interface, but further research is
needed to investigate this.
Features of Early Literacy Apps
From the perspective of supporting emergent literacy
development, it is important for teachers and parents to
select quality literacy apps that can be used by children in
123
234
the preschool and home setting (McMunn Dooley et al.
2011; McManis and Gunnewig 2012).
It is recommended that literacy apps have the following
features in their design:
• be age appropriate and linked to the school’s early
literacy curriculum
• have a high level of interactivity that stimulates all the
senses
• build on previous knowledge
• encourage child creativity, problem solving, and critical
thinking
• connect children with the printed screen symbols so
meaning is constructed
• provide a clear understanding of tasks
• provide opportunities for constructive peer collaboration
• provide regular feedback
• guide the child’s performance rather than concluding
with a success or failure outcome
However, some apps designed for supporting emergent
literacy are reported to lack many of these critical features
and few apps for young children currently exist that are truly
innovative for early literacy teaching and learning (Murray
and Olcese 2011; Orrin and Olcese 2011, Plowman and
Stephen 2003). For example, several apps contain elements
of creation (e.g., tracing letters or numbers or colouring by
recognition of letters or number) but many had features of
drill and practice like traditional flashcards but with the
added benefit of having audio and phonetic representations
of words to be learned (Murray and Olcese 2011). Further-
more, Michael Cohen Group and USDOE (2011) observed
that barriers to learning with a tablet occurred if apps had an
unfriendly or unresponsive user interface, there was a lack of
feedback or rewards, game objectives were unclear, or
contained too many screen distractions.
Fig. 1 A proposed framework of emergent literacy development through the use of touch screen tablets
123
Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:231–239
It is argued that quality educational apps for early lit-
eracy learning need to be underpinned by strong peda-
gogical models. These need to be linked to learning
theories that critically consider all developmental domains
of the learning (social/emotional, physical, and cognitive),
presentation of content, assessment/feedback, and collab-
oration (Orrin and Olcese 2011). Clearly, further empirical
research is needed to ensure that app design and content
aligns with a child’s developmental needs and abilities and
builds on previous learning.
A Theoretical Framework to View Touch Screen
Tablets and Emergent Literacy
The research conducted to date suggests that aspects of
emergent literacy skills may develop via children’s early
use of touch screen tablets and their apps. From a neo-
Piagetian and socio-cultural perspective (Sénéchal et al.
2001) children’s learning may occur via independent
exploration and use of tablets and/or through scaffolding
by a parent or teacher. Figure 1 is a framework proposing
how touch screen tablets could contribute to emergent lit-
eracy development. The framework is based on socio-
cultural theory (Vygotsky 1978), scaffolding (Wood et al.
1976), and Ehri’s (2005) theory of early reading develop-
ment. It is underpinned by emergent literacy theory (Teale
and Sulzby 1986) that asserts knowledge about print
emerges from birth through socio-cultural interactions with
surrounding print such as books, environmental print, and
potentially digital print via touch screen tablets.
From infancy, children are exposed visually to touch
screen digital interfaces (e.g., exploring and playing with
their parent’s iphone) and as their fine motor skills develop
they begin to use their hands and fingers to directly and
Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:231–239
purposefully interact with touch screen interfaces (Chiong
and Schuler 2010; Tahnk 2011). Touch screen interfaces
consist of visually attractive print such as icons, symbols,
letters, words, and numerals. Through early exposure to
these symbols, children develop an understanding that print
communicates meaning even if they cannot read the sym-
bols or words in a conventional way.
Ehri’s (2005) theory of early reading development sup-
ports the notion that children will derive meaning from the
printed symbols and icons on touch screen displays even
before they learn to read conventionally. Ehri’s earliest
phase of reading development is known as the pre-alphabetic
phase. In this phase, logographic reading (Frith 1985) occurs
in which children gain meaning from print through contex-
tual cues (e.g., logos, icons, colours). However, this print can
no longer be read when the contextual cues are removed
(Masonheimer et al. 1984). Similarly, children make mean-
ing from digital print such as app icons, symbols, or salient
letters (McMunn Dooley et al. 2011; Wohlwend 2010). Levy
(2009) observed 12 preschoolers from 3 to 6 years old and
reported that children ‘‘read’’ the ‘Home’ icon as saying
‘‘Back’’ or ‘‘Stop’’. Likewise, the options ‘Play’ or ‘Play
again’ were interpreted as ‘‘Start or go back’’. One child
stated that he knew one icon said ‘‘Games’’ because it had
orange writing on it. When another child encountered two
words (Play and Exit) on the screen he always selected the
correct one despite claiming that he did not know what the
words said. Another child knew that the ‘e’ symbol was
‘Internet Explorer’ even though she did not fully understand
the function of the internet.
Following the pre-alphabetic phase children move into
the partial alphabetic phase where they begin to use some
letter-sound connections to read words (Ehri and Roberts
2006). Through socio-cultural interactions with surround-
ing print and scaffolding by a more knowledgeable other
(e.g., adult or peer) children gradually master all letters
(full alphabetic) and the ability to decode print using letter-
sound skills emerges, which leads to conventional reading.
Children can potentially learn about print through inter-
actions with touch screen tablets (Cohen and Cowen 2011;
Plowman et al. 2012). These digital interactions may occur
through children’s own exploration of tablets or through
scaffolding (Wood et al. 1976) by parents or teachers
whereby children’s learning is extended within their Zone
of Proximal Development (Vygotsky 1978).
Scaffolding
Yelland and Masters (2007) described three types of scaf-
folding (cognitive, affective, technical) that occurs during
digital interactions with computers. Cognitive scaffolding
aids in conceptual and procedural understanding and
235
involves strategies such as modeling and questioning by the
adult (e.g., whilst reading an e-book the parent focuses the
child’s attention on the screen and asks questions about the
meaning of the highlighted words in the text then the child
creates a picture about the story using a drawing app).
Affective scaffolding is where the teacher or parent provides
positive encouragement and feedback to assist the child to
extend their learning to higher levels of thinking and
operating (e.g., the teacher sits with the child and encour-
ages her to say the letter sounds aloud whilst tracing the
alphabet letters on the touch screen interface). Technical
scaffolding refers to how the features of the touch screen
tablet itself scaffolds the child’s learning and facilitates
understanding and problem solving skills (e.g., an alphabet
app that provides feedback and changes the activity level
based on the child’s ability; directional arrows appear in
colours on letters or shapes for finger tracing of letters and
words). When children have mastered particular skills then
scaffolding can be removed and the child can continue with
the task independently, move to the next game level, or
attempt a more challenging activity in which scaffolding
may be needed again to extend the child’s learning and
capabilities (McManis and Gunnewig 2012). Furthermore,
new learning should be linked to existing knowledge in
meaningful ways so assistance can be gradually withdrawn
(Cohen and Cowen 2011; Cooper 2005; Plowman and
Stephen 2003; Wohlwend 2009, 2010).
The following examples illustrate how adult scaffolding
can support children’s operation of tablets and emergent
literacy skills. At home, parents scaffold children’s use of
tablet apps, for example, to shop online, read the news-
paper, write emails, browse the web or check the weather
report. Through these parent–child interactions children
learn how to use the tablet (Plowman et al. 2011, 2012;
Wohlwend 2010; Tahnk 2011). Scaffolding can also help
children master tablet operation skills (e.g., switch on and
off, store, retrieve, select, locate information, download
apps from the internet). Being positive and encouraging
children to solve problems and helping when difficulties
arise reduces the chance of frustration and allows them to
sustain their engagement through challenging tasks
(McManis and Gunnewig 2012). Teachers and parents can
also scaffold children’s development of print knowledge by
pointing out, reading, and explaining the meaning and
function of digital print to their child (e.g., letters, words,
numerals, icons, symbols; O’Mara and Laidlaw 2011;
Plowman et al. 2011). Such scaffolded interactions with
digital print during touch screen tablet interactions may aid
in fostering children’s emergent literacy development (e.g.,
letter knowledge, print concepts) however, further research
is needed to investigate the scaffolding pathway in Fig. 1.
Although little research has examined the educational
effects of using e-books via tablets in preschool settings,
123
236
Roskos et al. (2011) observed children’s engagement with
tablets during a small group, teacher-led shared reading
activity. Children interacted with a touch screen tablet by
finger-tracking print, pointing to words, and page-turning.
It was suggested that this may benefit children’s knowledge
of print concepts. However, some teachers reported that
asking children to manipulate the controls on the touch
screen was disruptive, diverting children’s attention from
the story line. This indicates that further research is needed
to determine how teachers can best manage tablets during
small group activities to scaffold literacy learning. Roskos
et al.’s (2011) findings further suggest that teaching and
learning would be enhanced through better quality
designed e-books and by providing a specific area/space/
nook for e-book reading in the classroom. Finally, more
explicit guidance for child engagement and teacher training
on how to best use instructional procedures during shared
e-book reading is needed.
Future Directions and Research
Current government early childhood education policy
statements across Australia (Australian Government: Early
Years Learning Framework 2009), New Zealand (N.Z.
Ministry of Education: Te Whàriki Early Childhood Cur-
riculum 1996), the U.S.A. (U.S. Department of Education:
Teaching Our Youngest 2002), and the U.K. (U.K. Gov-
ernment: Early Years Foundation Stage 2013) do not
specifically make reference to tablet use. However, these
countries do acknowledge the importance of developing
effective communication skills through technology and
encourage the use of digital technology within their early
childhood curriculum. For example,
• The Early Years Learning Framework (Australian
Government 2009) acknowledge that digital technolo-
gies enable children to connect globally, access infor-
mation, investigate ideas and represent their thinking,
and encourage the use of digital technology to foster
problem solving.
• The Te Whāriki early childhood curriculum (N.Z.
Ministry of Education 1996) states that computers
allow children to gain experience with communication
technologies. Furthermore, the N.Z. Ministry of Edu-
cation and N.Z. Council for Educational Research
(2004) emphasize the possible roles for information and
communication technologies in early childhood educa-
tion. For example, children can use computers to listen
to stories, play games, draw pictures, or locate infor-
mation on the internet: individually, with adults, or
collaborate with peers.
• Teaching Our Youngest (U.S. Department of Education
2002) encourages children to learn about letters through
123
Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:231–239
experiences with computers (e.g., pressing letters on a
keyboard and watching them on the screen). A positive
view towards using digital technology is also expressed
by the U.S. National Association for the Education of
Young Children (NAEYC and Fred Rogers Centre
2012) that encourages children from birth to 8 years of
age to use tablets and age appropriate educational apps
to support early literacy development.
• The Early Years Foundation Stage curriculum (U.K.
Government 2013) emphasizes that children learn to
make sense of their world through experiences with
technology that is used for specific purposes in both
homes and school, and children be provided with
opportunities to use technology around them as a tool to
extend their learning.
The lack of specific reference to tablets in current early
childhood education policies may be due to the relatively
recent release of the tablet and iPad technologies and lim-
ited evidence based research needed to inform educational
policy. To date, there appears to be movement by govern-
ments to investigate the use of digital devices (e.g., com-
puters, interactive whiteboards, e-book readers) to support
early childhood education (e.g., NAEYC and Fred Rogers
Centre 2012). For example, the N.Z. Ministry of Education
and N.Z. Council for Educational Research (2004) has
examined the use of digital technology in early childhood
education and are investigating how computers can be best
integrated into their early childhood education curriculum.
It appears that, across countries, the integration of digital
technology into early childhood education has been a slow
process due to a number of factors such as lack of research
on the impact and potential benefits of using digital tech-
nology. Also resistance to its use by some educators and
researchers may be due to possible negative impacts upon
children’s cognitive, physical, and social and emotional
development. However, this perspective is gradually being
replaced by the view that digital technology used appro-
priately is a useful tool for early learning (N.Z. Ministry of
Education and N.Z. Council for Educational Research
2004). As tablets are a relatively new device and young
children are observed to use them with ease due to the
simple tactile operating features, further empirical research
is needed to determine the educational benefits of tablets for
young children. This approach will help guide decisions
made by policy makers on how best to integrate tablets into
early childhood education in order to foster literacy skills
and prepare children for their digital world.
Many questions remain about the role of tablets in
emergent literacy development. Future research on this
topic will provide a better theoretical understanding of the
impact of tablet technology on emergent literacy and how
tablets can promote emergent literacy in the home and
Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:231–239 237

educational setting. Relevant questions to pursue in this symbols. Through children’s early experiences with these
work that will help inform government policy on the tools, the evidence suggests that the printed interfaces have the
integration of tablets into early childhood curriculum potential to enhance emergent literacy skills such as their
include: knowledge of letters, words, print concepts, and emergent
writing (McManis and Gunnewig 2012).
• How can touch screen tablets be used most effectively
However, the optimal use of tablets for early childhood
in the home and preschool setting to support emergent
learning is dependent upon the availability of quality apps
literacy development and what specific emergent
at home and in the preschool setting and the type of scaf-
literacy skills are enhanced by tablet use?
folding received from teachers and parents. Orrin and
• How can parents and early childhood teachers best
Olcese (2011) stated that current advances in tablet tech-
scaffold these digital interactions using cognitive,
nology are underused and not aligned with developmental
affective, and technology scaffolding?
theories and are of little use to educators. Their study
• What design principles should be followed to develop
concluded that the majority of apps appropriate for young
high quality early literacy apps for home and preschool
children lack collaboration capabilities and do not promote
use? While useability and maintaining a child’s atten-
creation or problem-solving skills. Plowman and Stephen
tion are likely to be important, future development must
(2003) argue that in order to capitalize upon digital tech-
incorporate principles from early learning theories and
nology there needs to be a shift in thinking from resistance
pedagogical models to effectively enhance key emer-
to embracing digital technology in learning and teaching.
gent literacy skills.
Investing in research into the better design of apps and how
• How can apps and their literacy content be integrated
best to utilize this technology in the home and preschool
into preschool curriculum and learning so that educa-
setting to complement traditional literacy activities (e.g.,
tors can capitalise upon the empirically demonstrated
drawing with crayons, making letter shapes from play
advantages of touch screen tablets and their apps?
dough, reading paper printed books, pointing out environ-
• Does the use of touch screen technology to develop a
mental print) would result in productive learning outcomes
child’s emergent literacy skills impact upon other
for young children.
domains of child learning and development? For
It is also important for children to develop emergent lit-
example, the manipulation of print or the tracing of
eracy skills through parent and teacher scaffolded interac-
letters on the touch screen may enhance fine motor and
tions with both traditional and digital tools (Cohen and
hand-eye co-ordination skills. Other interactions with
Cowen 2011; McManis and Gunnewig 2012; Shifflet et al.
literacy-based tablet apps may also impact upon
2012). Tahnk (2011) described how a mother used traditional
attention and other cognitive functions, as well as
and digital tools to support her 3 year old child’s literacy
social and emotional development.
learning. The mother stated ‘‘at bedtime the question isn’t
• Are there any negative implications/consequences of
what books should we read’’, it’s ‘‘Should we read an elec-
touch screen use by very young children? For example,
tronic book [via touch screen tablet] or paper book?’’ (p. 80).
children that use e-books in which an in-built narrator
It is likely that teachers and parents can help support chil-
reads to the child may have limitations through the lack
dren’s emergent literacy learning through such balanced and
of social interaction that naturally occurs when reading
guided use (Cohen and Cowen 2011) of touch screen tablets
a traditional hardcover story book with an adult. In
and non-digital literacy tools so that knowledge of both is
addition, e-book narrated activities may be more fixed
developed and learning experiences are rich. This approach
and limited, whereas reading with an adult will provide
would empower children to grow into effective readers and
a unique and personal experience each story time and
writers allowing them to participate actively and success-
also allows the child to ask questions that clarify or
fully within a technologically advancing society.
extend material in the book.

Conclusion References

Due to the recent release of touch screen tablets, research into
the impact of these on emergent literacy is gaining momen-
tum. From studies conducted to date, it may be concluded that
young children quickly become competent users of tablets
being able to successfully navigate through the interface by
touching and interpreting printed words, letters, icons and
Australian Government Department of Education, Employment, &
Workplace Relations for the Council of Australian Governments.
(2009). Australian education policy: Early years learning frame-
work (EYLF) (ISBN 978-0-642-77873-4). Retrieved July 29,
2013, from http://deewr.gov.au/early-years-learning-framework.
Bowman, M., & Treiman, R. (2004). Stepping stones to reading.
Theory into Practice, 43, 295–303.

123
238
Bus, A. G., & Neuman, S. B. (2009). Multimedia and literacy
development. New York, NY: Routledge.
Chera, P., & Wood, C. (2003). Animated multimedia ‘‘talking books’’
can promote phonological awareness in children beginning to
read. Learning and Instruction, 13, 33–52.
Chiong, C., & Schuler, C. (2010). Learning: Is there an app for that?
Investigations of young children’s usage and learning with
mobile devices and apps. New York, NY: The Joan Ganz
Cooney Centre at Sesame Workshop. http://pbskids.org/read/
files/cooney_learning_apps.pdf.
Clay, M. (1975). Concepts about print. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Cohen, V. L., & Cowen, J. E. (2011). Literacy for children in an
information age: Teaching reading, writing, and thinking.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Cooper, L. Z. (2005). Developmentally appropriate digital environ-
ments for young children. Library Trends, 54, 286–302.
Couse, L. J., & Chen, D. W. (2010). A tablet computer for young
children? Exploring its viability for early childhood education.
Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 43, 75–98.
de Jong, M. T., & Bus, A. G. (2003). How well suited are electronic
books to supporting literacy? Journal of Early Childhood
Literacy, 3, 147–164.
Ehri, L. C. (2005). Learning to read words: Theory, findings and
issues. Scientific Studies of Reading, 9, 167–188.
Ehri, L. C., & Roberts, T. (2006). The roots of learning to read and
write: Acquisition of letters and phonemic awareness. In S.
B. Neuman & D. K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early
literacy research (Vol. 2, pp. 113–130). New York, NY:
Guilford Press.
Frith, U. (1985). Beneath the surface of developmental dyslexia. In K.
Patterson, J. Marshall & M. Coltheart (Eds.), Surface dyslexia:
Neuropsychological and cognitive studies of phonological
reading (pp. 301–330). London, England: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Goodwin, K. (2012). Use of tablet technology in the classroom.
Strathfield, NSW: Curriculum and Learning Innovation Centre,
NSW Department of Education and Communities. http://rde.nsw.
edu.au/files/iPad_Evaluation_Sydney_Region_exec_sum.pdf.
Hisrich, K., & Blanchard, J. (2009). Digital media and emergent
literacy. Computers in the Schools, 26, 240–255.
Korat, O., & Shamir, A. (2007). Electronic books versus adult
readers: Effects on children’s emergent literacy as a function
of social class. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23,
248–259.
Korat, O., Shamir, A., & Arbiv, L. (2011). E-books as support for
emergent writing with and without adult assistance. Education
Information Technology, 16, 301–318.
Levy, R. (2009). ‘You have to understand words…but not read them’:
Young children becoming readers in a digital age. Journal of
Research in Reading, 32, 75–91. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9817.2088.
01382.x.
Masonheimer, P. E., Drum, P. A., & Ehri, L. C. (1984). Does
environmental print identification lead children into word
reading? Journal of Reading Behavior, 16, 257–271.
McManis, L. D., & Gunnewig, S. B. (2012). Finding the education in
educational technology with early learners. Young Children, 67,
14–24.
McMunn Dooley, C., Seely Flint, A., Holbrook, T., May, L., &
Albers, P. (2011). The digital frontier in early education.
Language Arts, 89, 83–85.
Michael Cohen Group & USDOE [US Department of Education].
(2011). Young children, apps and iPad. New York, NY: Michael
Cohen Group. http://mcgrc.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/
ipad-study-cover-page-report-mcg-info_new-online.pdf.
Murray, O. T., & Olcese, N. R. (2011). Teaching and learning with
iPads, ready or not? TechTrends, 55, 42–48.
123
Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:231–239
NAEYC., & Fred Rogers Centre (2012). Technology and interactive
media as tools in early childhood programs serving children
from birth through age 8. Washington, DC: NAEYC [National
Association for the Education of Young Children]; Latrobe, PA:
Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children’s Media,
Saint Vincent College. http://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/PS_
technology_WEB.pdf.
N.Z. Ministry of Education. (1996). Te Whàriki: He Whàriki
Màtauranga mò ngà Mokopuna o Aotearoa Early Childhood
Curriculum. (ISBN 0 478 02980 2, Wellington: Learning
Media). Retrieved July 29, 2013, from http://www.educate.ece.
govt.nz/learning/curriculumAndLearning/TeWhariki.aspx.
N.Z. Ministry of Education, & N.Z. Council for Educational
Research. (2004). The role and potential of ICT in early
childhood education: A review of New Zealand and international
literature. Prepared by R. Bolstad. (2004). Retrieved July 29,
2013, from http://www.nzcer.org.nz/system/files/ictinecefinal.
pdf.
O’Mara, J., & Laidlaw, L. (2011). Living in the iworld: Two literacy
researchers reflect on the changing texts and literacy practices
of childhood. English Teaching: Practice and Critique, 10,
149–159.
Orlando, J. (2011). How young is too young? Mobile technologies
and young children August 21, 2011 Posted by Editor21C in
Directions in Education, Early Childhood Education, Engaging
Learning Environments. University of Western Sydney. http://
learning21c.wordpress.com/2011/08.
Orrin, M. T., & Olcese, N. R. (2011). Teaching and learning with
iPads, ready or not? Techtrends, 55, 42–48.
Plowman, L., & Stephen, C. (2003). A ‘benign addition’? Research on
ICT and pre-school children. Journal of Computer Assisted
Learning, 19, 149–164.
Plowman, L., Stevenson, O., McPake, J., Stephen, C., & Adey, C.
(2011). Parents, pre-schoolers and learning with technology at
home: Some implications for policy. Journal of Computer
Assisted Learning, 27, 361–371.
Plowman, L., Stevenson, O., Stephen, C., & McPake, J. (2012).
Preschool children’s learning with technology at home. Com-
puters & Education, 59, 30–37.
Rideout, V. (2011). Zero to eight: Children’s media use in America.
San Francisco, CA: Common Sense Media. www.commonsense
media.org/sites/default/files/research/zerotoeightfinal2011.pdf.
Roskos, K., Brueck, J., & Widman, S. (2009). Investigating analytic
tools for e-book design in early literacy learning. Journal of
Interactive Online Learning, 8, 218–240.
Roskos, K., Burstein, K., You, B. K., Brueck, J., & O’Brien, C.
(2011). A formative study of an E-book instructional model in
early literacy. Creative Education, 2, 10–17.
Salmon, L. G. (2013). Factors that affect emergent literacy develop-
ment when engaging with electronic books. Early Childhood
Education Journal,. doi:10.1007/s10643-013-0589-2.
Sénéchal, M., Le Fevre, J., Smith-Chant, B. L., & Colton, K. V. (2001).
On refining theoretical models of emergent literacy the role of
empirical evidence. Journal of School Psychology, 39, 439–460.
Shamir, A. (2009). Processes and outcomes of joint activity with
e-books for promoting kindergarteners’ emergent literacy. Edu-
cational Media International, 46, 81–96. doi:10.1080/
09523980902781295.
Shamir, A., & Korat, O. (2007). Developing an educational E-book
for fostering kindergarten children’s emergent literacy. Comput-
ers in the Schools, 24, 125–143.
Shanis, J., & Hedge, A. (2003). Comparison of mouse, touchpad and
multitouch input technologies. In Proceedings of the human
factors and ergonomics society 47th annual meeting, Oct. 13–17,
Denver, CO (pp. 746–750).
Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:231–239
Shifflet, R., Toledo, C., & Mattoon, C. (2012). Touch tablet surprises:
A preschool teacher’s story. Young Children, 67, 36–41.
Smith, C. R. (2001). Click and turn the page: An exploration of
multiple storybook literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 36,
152–182.
Snow, C. E., Burns, S., & Griffin, P. (1998). Preventing reading
difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Acad-
emy Press.
Tahnk, J. (2011). Digital milestones: Raising a tech-savvy kid.
Parenting.com, November (pp. 78–84).
Teale, W. H., & Sulzby, E. (1986). Emergent literacy as a perspective
for examining how young children become readers and writers.
In W. H. Teale & E. Sulzby (Eds.), Emergent literacy: Reading
and writing (pp. 7–25). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing.
U.K. Government. (2013). Early years foundation stage profile
handbook (ISBN: 978-1 4459-5882-8). Retrieved July 29, 2013,
from https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/
attachment_data/file/19417/Early_Years_Foundation_Stage_
Profile_Handbook.pdf.
U.S. Department of Education & U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Earl Childhood-Head Start Task Force. (2002).
Teaching our youngest: A guide for preschool teachers and child
care and family providers. Washington, D.C. Retrieved July 29,
2013, from http://www2.ed.gov/teachers/how/early/teachingour
youngest/teachingouryoungest.pdf.
Verhallen, M. J. A. J., Bus, A. G., & de Jong, M. T. (2006). The
promise of multimedia stories for kindergarten children at risk.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 410–419.
239
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher
mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Westerman, W., Elias J. G., & Hedge, A. (2001). Multi-touch: A new
tactile 2-D gesture interface for human-computer interaction. In
Proceedings of the human factors and ergonomics society 45th
annual meeting, Minneapolis, MN (Vol. 1, pp. 632–636).
Whitehurst, G. J., & Lonigan, C. J. (1998). Child development and
emergent literacy. Child Development, 69, 848–872.
Wohlwend, K. E. (2009). Early adopters: Playing new literacies and
pretending new technologies in print-centric classrooms. Journal
of Early Childhood Literacy, 9, 119–143.
Wohlwend, K. E. (2010). A is for avatar: Young children in literacy
2.0 worlds and literacy 1.0 schools. Language Arts, 88, 144–152.
Wood, D., Bruner, J. C., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in
problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,
17, 89–100.
Yates, D. (2012). Tablet magic. Australian PC User Updated
Techlife, 1, 45–53.
Yelland, N., & Masters, J. (2007). Rethinking scaffolding in the
information age. Computers & Education, 48, 362–382.
Yost, N. (2003). Computers, kids, and crayons: a comparative study
of emergent writing behaviours. In Australian Computer Society,
Inc. IFIP Working Group 3.5 Conference: Young Children and
Learning Technologies. UWS, Parramatta, Australia.
123